UNIVERSITY OF BURAO
PRINCIPLES OFMedical genetics
CHAPTER 3
The Cell Cycle, Mitosis
and meiosis
1
Lecturer: Ahmed [Link]
EUKARYOTIC CELLS
Somatic cells
Cells that make your organs and tissues
Sex cells
The ONLY cells that are not somatic – sperm and egg
(gametes)
CELL DIVISION
In eukaryotes, cell division occurs in two major
stages.
The first stage, division of the cell nucleus, is called
mitosis.
The second stage, division of the cell cytoplasm, is
called cytokinesis.
CELL CYCLE
The cell cycle is the series of events that cells go
through as they grow and divide.
Interphase is the period of growth that occurs
between cell divisions.
Cell spends most of its life in this phase.
CONT……..
During the cell cycle:
Cell grows.
Prepares for division.
Divides to form two daughter cells, each of
which begins the cycle again.
CONT……….
The cell cycle consists of four phases:
1. G1 (First Gap Phase)
2. S Phase
3. G2 (Second Gap Phase)
4. M Phase
EVENTS OF THE CELL CYCLE
During G1, the cell
increases in size (cell grows)
Synthesizes new proteins and organelles (cell
develops).
CONT……..
During the S phase, (DNAreplication)
Chromosomes are replicated
DNA synthesis takes place
Once a cell enters the S phase, it usually completes
the rest of the cell cycle.
CONT………
The G2 Phase (Second Gap Phase)
Organelles and molecules required for cell division
are produced.
Once G2 is complete, the cell is ready to start
the M phase—Mitosis.
CELL CYCLE
WHY DOES INTERPHASE HAPPEN?
Cell must grow in order for extra organelles and DNA
have room in cell.
DNA
Chromatin – long, thin strands made up of DNA and
protein.
The protein helps the DNA to stay together when
chromosomes form.
Chromosomes -
Genetic information is passed from one generation
to the next on chromosomes.
Before cell division, each chromosome is
duplicated, or copied.
CHROMOSOMES – CONDENSED CHROMATIN
CHROMOSOMES
CHROMOSOMES
Each chromosome Sister chromatids
consists of two identical
“sister” chromatids.
Each pair of chromatids is
attached at an area called
the centromere.
MITOSIS – CELL DIVISION
Occurs in body cells – somatic cells.
Forms two identical daughter cells – exactly like the
original.
Biologists divide the events of mitosis into four
phases: (PMAT)
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
PROPHASE: Spindle
forming
Prophase is the first
and longest phase of
mitosis.
The centrioles separate
and take up positions on
opposite sides of the
nucleus.
CONT………
The centrioles lie in a region called the centrosome.
The centrosome helps to organize the spindle that helps
separate the chromosomes.
SUMMARY OF PROPHASE:
First phase of MITOSIS Longest Phase.
Chromosomes become visible.
Centrioles separate and move to opposite poles (ends)
Spindle fibers appear.
Nucleolus and nuclear membrane (envelope)
disappear.
METAPHASE:
The second phase of mitosis
is metaphase.
The chromosomes line up
across the center of the cell.
Microtubules connect the
centromere of each
chromosome to the poles of
the spindle.
SUMMARY OF METAPHASE
Shortest Phase.
Chromosomes attach to spindle fibers in center of
the cell.
ANAPHASE:
The third phase of mitosis.
The sister chromatids
separate into individual
chromosomes.
The chromosomes continue
to move until they have
separated into two groups.
SUMMARY OF ANAPHASE
Centromeres split apart and chromatids separate
from one another.
Each chromatid moves to opposite poles.
TELOPHASE:
The fourth and final phase
of mitosis.
Chromosomes gather at
opposite ends of the cell and
lose their distinct shape.
A new nuclear envelope
forms around each cluster of
chromosomes.
SUMMARY OF TELOPHASE
Chromosomes reach opposite poles of cell.
Chromatids unwind back into chromatin.
Nuclear envelope and nucleolus reappear reforming
the nucleus.
Spindle fibers disappear.
New double membrane (cell membrane ) gain to form
between 2 nuclei (cell pinches)
Animal cell – cleavage
CYTOKINESIS – CYTOPLASM DIVISION
During cytokinesis, the cytoplasm pinches in half.
Each daughter cell has an identical set of duplicate
chromosomes.
MEIOSIS
The process which gametes are produced.
Organisms that reproduce sexually are made up of two
different types of cells.
1. Somatic Cells are “body” cells and contain the normal
number of chromosomes ….called the “Diploid”
number (the symbol is 2n).
2. Gametes are the “sex” cells and contain only ½ the
normal number of chromosomes…. called the
“Haploid” number (the symbol is n)….. Sperm cells
and ova are gametes.
GAMETES:
The Male Gamete is the Sperm and is produced in the
male gonad the Testes.
The Female Gamete is the Ovum (ova = pl.) and is
produced in the female gonad the Ovaries.
o During Ovulation the ovum is released from the ovary
and transported to an area where fertilization, the
joining of the sperm and ovum, can occur……
o Fertilization, in Humans, occurs in the Fallopian tube.
o Fertilization results in the formation of the Zygote.
(fertilized egg)
fertilization
• Sperm + Ovum (egg) Zygote
Fertilization:
The fusion of a sperm and egg to form a zygote.
A zygote is a fertilized egg.
n=23
egg sperm
n=23 2n=46
zygote
CHROMOSOMES:
If an organism has the Diploid number (2n) it has two
matching homologues per set. One of the homologues
comes from the mother (and has the mother’s DNA).…
the other homologue comes from the father (and has
the father’s DNA).
Most organisms are diploid.
Humans have 23 sets of chromosomes… therefore
humans have 46 total chromosomes….. The diploid
number for humans is 46 (46 chromosomes per cell).
HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES:
Pair of chromosomes (maternal and paternal) that are
similar in shape and size.
Homologous pairs (tetrads) carry genes controlling the
same inherited traits.
Each locus (position of a gene) is in the same position
on homologues.
Humans have 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes.
22 pairs of autosomes
1 pair of sex chromosomes
Homologous chromosomes
Because a homologous pair consists of 4 chromatids it is
called a “tetrad”
eye color eye color
locus locus
hair color hair color
locus locus
Paternal Maternal
Humans have 23 sets of homologous chromosomes
each homologous set is made up of 2 homologues.
Homologue
Homologue
AUTOSOMES
The autosomes code for
most of the offspring’s
traits.
In humans the
“Autosomes” are sets
1 – 22.
SEX CHROMOSOMES
The Sex Chromosomes code for the sex of the offspring.
** If the offspring has two “X” chromosomes it will be a
female.
** If the offspring has one “X” chromosome and one “Y”
chromosome it will be a male.
In Humans the “Sex
Chromosomes” are the
23rd set
XX chromosome - female XY chromosome - male
SEX CHROMOSOMES
“Sex Chromosomes”
…….the 23rd set
This person has 2
“X” chromosomes…
and is a female.
MEIOSIS:
Is the process by which ”gametes” (sex cells),with
half the number of chromosomes, are produced.
During Meiosis diploid cells are reduced to haploid
cells Diploid (2n) Haploid (n)
If Meiosis did not occur the chromosome number in
each new generation would double…. The offspring
would die.
CONT……….
Meiosis is Two cell divisions called meiosis I and
meiosis II with only one duplication of chromosomes.
Meiosis in males is called spermatogenesis and
produces sperm.
Meiosis in females is called oogenesis and produces
ova.
4 sperm cells are produced from
each primary spermatocyte.
SPERMATOGENESIS
Secondary Spermatocyte
n=23
human
sex cell
sperm
Primary Spermatocyte n=23
n=23
2n=46 Secondary Spermatocyte
haploid (n)
n=23
diploid (2n) n=23
n=23
meiosis I meiosis II
OOGENESIS
The polar bodies die…
Only one ovum (egg) is produced from each primary oocyte.
INTERPHASE I:
Similar to mitosis interphase.
Chromosomes replicate (S phase).
Each duplicated chromosome consist of two identical
sister chromatids attached at their centromeres.
Centriole pairs also replicate.
MEIOSIS I
Cell division that reduces the chromosome number
by one-half.
Four phases:
A. Prophase I
B. Metaphase I
C. Anaphase I
D. Telophase I
PROPHASE I:
Longest and most complex phase.
90% of the meiotic process is spent in Prophase I.
Chromosomes condense.
Synapsis occurs: homologous chromosomes come
together to form a tetrad.
Tetrad is two chromosomes or four chromatids (sister
and nonsister chromatids).
PROPHASE I - SYNAPSIS
Homologous chromosomes
sister chromatids
Tetrad sister chromatids
DURING PROPHASE I “CROSSING OVER” OCCURS.
Crossing Over is one of the Two major occurrences
of Meiosis (The other is Non-disjunction)
During Crossing over a segments of nonsister
chromatids break and reattach to the other chromatid.
The Chiasmata (chiasma) are the sites of crossing
over.
Crossing Over
Creates variation (diversity) in the offspring’s traits.
nonsister chromatids Tetrad
chiasmata: site
of crossing over variation
PROPHASE I
spindle fiber
centrioles
aster
fibers
METAPHASE I:
Shortest phase.
Tetrads align on the metaphase plate.
Independent assortment occurs:
Orientation of homologous pair to poles is random.
Variation.
CONT…….
OR
metaphase plate metaphase plate
ANAPHASE I:
Homologous chromosomes separate and move towards
the poles.
Sister chromatids remain attached at their centromeres.
CONT……..
TELOPHASE I:
Each pole now has haploid set of chromosomes.
Cytokinesis occurs and two haploid daughter cells are
formed.
CONT……..
MEIOSIS II
No interphase II
(or very short - no more DNA replication)
Remember: Meiosis II is similar to mitosis.
PROPHASE II:
same as prophase in mitosis.
METAPHASE II:
Same as metaphase in mitosis.
metaphase plate metaphase plate
ANAPHASE II:
Same as anaphase in mitosis
Sister chromatids separate.
TELOPHASE II:
Same as telophase in mitosis.
Nuclei form.
Cytokinesis occurs.
Remember: four haploid daughter cells are produced.
Gametes = sperm or egg
CONT…….
ANY QUESTIONS?