THE EFFECT OF POLLUTION ON MARINE LIFE

ABSTRACT
The effects of marine pollution on marine life are extensive, impacting on the flora,

fauna and entire ecology of the marine environment. In most cases, apart from direct

impact on the living resources, marine pollutants tends to adversely alter or degrade

the environment to extreme conditions that are beyond the tolerance or adaptation

limits of the living resources therein. The marine environment, the organisms, and

the types of marine pollution and how these pollutions affect the marine life are

discussed. A review of some of the control measures, methods and techniques put in

place in recent years to solve these problems are also discussed. There are

emphasizes on how awareness and public/private participation can lead to a

sustainable marine environment. It can pave way, mitigating global warming,

preserving and protecting precious marine resources.

LIST OF PLATES

Plate 1. The Gulf of Mexico oil spill-----------------------------------------------------11

Plate 2. Industrial waste disposed directly into the marine environment------------17

Plate 3. A bird covered in oil from an oil spill------------------------------------------27

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Types of marine pollution, causes and effects--------------------------------20

1
CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction ---------------------------------------------------------------------------1

1.1 What is pollution----------------------------------------------------------------------2

1.2 What are pollutants-------------------------------------------------------------------3

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Marine pollution----------------------------------------------------------------------5

2.0.1 Marine pollutants----------------------------------------------------------------------8

2.1 Types of marine pollution-----------------------------------------------------------8

2.1.1 Oil pollution---------------------------------------------------------------------------9

2.1.2 Chemical pollution------------------------------------------------------------------12

2.1.3 Eutrophication-----------------------------------------------------------------------13

2.1.4 Acidification-------------------------------------------------------------------------14

2.1.5 Industrial contaminants-------------------------------------------------------------15

2.1.6 underwater Noise pollution--------------------------------------------------------18

2.2 Effects of pollution on the marine ecosystem -----------------------------------23

2.2.1 Effects on marine producers-------------------------------------------------------24

2.2.2 Effects on the health and survival of marine animals--------------------------24

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Adaptation of marine life to marine pollution-----------------------------------28

3.1 Prevention of marine pollution----------------------------------------------------29

2
3.2 Control measures--------------------------------------------------------------------30

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 Summary----------------------------------------------------------------------------32

4.1 Conclusion--------------------------------------------------------------------------32

4.2 Recommendations-----------------------------------------------------------------33

References--------------------------------------------------------------------------34

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The importance of water for sustenance of life cannot be overemphasized. Be it for

microorganisms, plants, plankton, aquatic animals, benthos and the entire marine life

or for man, it’s importance remain immeasurable. It is therefore, important to note

that depletion of this natural resource either through contamination, or careless use

results in serious consequence.

Man’s activities sometimes, bring about undesirable changes in the physical,

biological and chemical characteristics of the natural environment. This is termed

pollution. It may be harmful to human or non-human life. This may affect the soil,

rivers, the atmosphere, or the seas (causing harm to marine life).

Marine life is a vast resource, providing food, medicine, and raw materials, in

addition to helping to support recreation and tourism all over the world. At a

3
fundamental level, marine life helps determine the very nature of our planet. Many

species are economically important to humans including both finfish and shellfish.

Large areas beneath the ocean surface still remain unexplored (Nybakken and

Bertness, 2005).

The marine environment supplies many kinds of habitats that support marine life.

Marine life depends in some way on the saltwater that is in the sea (Dickinson, 1963).

It is an ecosystem which includes a host of organisms ranging from tiny planktons

to large whales. Marine habitats can be divided into pelagic (found near the surface

or in the open water column, away from the bottom of the ocean) and demersal (near

or on the bottom of the ocean) habitats. (Nybakken and Bertness, 2005).

Some marine organisms, like corals, kelp, mangroves and sea grasses are ecosystem

engineers which reshape the marine environment to the point where they create

further habitat for other organisms. Specific habitats include coral reefs, kelp forests,

sea grass meadows, muddy, sandy, and rocky bottoms, and the open ocean (pelagic)

zone (Kritzer and Sale, 2006).

1.1 WHAT IS POLLUTION

Pollution is the process of making land, water, air or other parts of the environment

dirty and unsafe or unsuitable to use. This can be done through the introduction of a

contaminant into a natural environment, but the contaminant doesn’t need to be

4
tangible. Things as simple as light, sound and temperature can be considered

pollutants when introduced artificially into an environment (Alina, 2015).

Pollution could be in different forms, including

• Air pollution which is the release of chemicals and particulates into the

atmosphere.

• Light pollution: the impact that man- originated light has on the visibility of

the night sky.

• Noise pollution: This encompasses aircraft noise, roadway noise, industrial

noise as well as high-intensity sonar (used to locate objects underwater).

• Thermal pollution: is a temperature change in natural water bodies caused

by human influence (such as use of water as coolant in power plant).

• Plastic pollution: involves the accumulation of plastic products in the

environment.

• Visual pollution: this could refer to the presence of overhead power lines,

motorway billboards, open storage of trash or space debris.

• Water pollution: discharge of wastewater, untreated domestic sewage, and

other contaminants (intentionally or through spills) into water bodies.

1.2 WHAT ARE POLLUTANTS

5
Pollutants are simply defined as the substances which cause pollution. A pollutant is

any substance or energy produced and released into the environment as a result of

human activities that has damaging effects on living organisms. Pollutants may

cause long- or short- term damage by changing the growth rate of plant or animal

species.

Some pollutants are biodegradable (e.g. sewage) that is, can be rendered harmless

by natural processes, and therefore will not persist in the environment in the long

term if adequately dispersed or treated. Others are non-degradable (e.g. heavy metals

such as lead), which means that they eventually accumulate in the environment and

may be concentrated in food chains, having long term effects (Tietenberg, 2006).

Notable pollutants include the following groups;

• Heavy metals like lead

• Persistent organic pollutants (POP)

• Environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants (EPPP)

• Volatile organic compounds

• Environmental xenobiotics. (Tietenberg, 2006)

6
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 MARINE POLLUTION

The introduction by man, directly or indirectly, of substances or energy into the

marine environment (including estuaries) resulting in such deleterious effects such

as: hazards to human health, hindrance to marine activities including fishing,

impairment of the quality of seawater for various uses and reduction of amenities.

(GESAMP, 1983) is what is referred to as marine pollution.

Marine pollution occurs when harmful, or potentially harmful, effects result from

the entry into the ocean of chemicals, particles, industrial, agricultural and residential

waste, noise or the spread of invasive organisms. Eighty percent of marine pollution

comes from land. Air pollution is also a contributing factor by carrying off pesticides

or dirt into the ocean. Land and air pollution have proven to be harmful to marine

life and it’s habitats (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2015).

7
The pollution often comes from land-based sources, oil spills, untreated sewage,

heavy siltation, eutrophication (nutrient enrichment), invasive species, persistent

organic pollutants (POP’s), heavy metals from mine tailings and other sources,

acidification, radioactive substances, marine litters, overfishing and destruction of

coastal and marine habitats (McCook, 1999).

Pollution is not a new phenomenon. In fact pollution has been a problem since the

appearance of our earliest ancestors (Markham, 1994).

By the 1800s, people began to understand that unsanitary living conditions and water

contamination contributed to disease epidemics. This new awareness prompted

major cities to take measures to control waste and garbage. In the mid 1850’s,

Chicago built the first major sewage system in the United States to treat wastewaters.

Soon, many other U.S cities followed Chicago’s lead (Markham, 1994).

Water and air pollution in the U.S urban areas continued to increase well into the

20th century. The Cuyahoga River in Cleveland, Ohio, which flows into Lake Eric,

became so polluted that the water erupted into flames! The first fire occurred in 1936,

when a spark from a blowtorch ignited floating debris and oils. Over the next

30years, the river caught fire several more times (National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration, 2008).

8
The world’s first major oil spill happened in March, 1967 when the tanker Torrey

Canyon, went aground off the islets of Scilly and spilled around 119,000 tonnes of

oil (International Maritime Organisation, 2002).

Other notable recent major oil spills around the U.K were in January 1993 when the

Braer went aground off Shetland spilling 85,000 tonnes of oil, and in February 1996

when the sea Empress went aground off Milford Haven and spilt around 72,000

tonnes. Such spills make up less than 10% of the total amount of oil that enters our

seas (Marine Conservation Society, 2002).

According to Nwilo and Badejo, (2001), rampant discharge of hot effluents,

untreated sewage, oil spills, plastics and other forms of debris into coastal aquatic

environment is quite common in Lagos and major industrialized cities of the Niger

delta regions of Nigeria such as Warri and Port Harcourt.

Oil spills are a common event in Nigeria. Half of all spills occur due to pipeline and

tanker accidents (50%), other causes include sabotage (28%) and oil production

operations (21%), with 1% of the spills being accounted for by inadequate or non-

functional production equipment (Nwilo and Badejo, 2001).

The deepwater horizon oil spill which began on the 20th April, 2010 in the Gulf of

Mexico is considered the largest accidental marine oil spill in the history of the

petroleum industry (Robertson and krauss, 2010).

9
High-pressure methane gas from the well expanded into the drilling riser and rose

into the drilling rig, where it ignited and exploded, engulfing the platform (Schwartz

and Weber, 2010). According to the satellite images, the spill directly impacted

68,000 square miles (180,000 km2) of ocean (Norse and Amos, 2010). The U.S

government estimated the total discharge at 4.9 million barrels (Robertson and

Krauss, 2010).

2.0.1 MARINE POLLUTANTS

While marine pollution can be obvious, it is often the pollutants that cannot be seen

that cause most harm (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2015). At

one point, people thought that the vastness of the ocean could dilute pollutants

enough to eliminate their impact. It is now known, however, that some pollutants

can significantly alter marine ecosystem and cause harm-sometimes deadly- to

species from the top to the bottom of the food web (National Academy of Science,

2007).

Marine pollutants often originate far inland and are transported to the ocean via

rivers or through the air. Pollutants of particular concern include, petroleum, excess

nutrients from fertilizers, debris and industrial contaminants. Even noise, from such

activities as shipping, seismic exploration, and sonar, can affect marine life (National

Academy of Science, 2007).

10
2.1 TYPES OF MARINE POLLUTION

There are several types of pollution that affect the marine waterbodies, some of these

include;

• Oil pollution

• Chemical pollution

• Eutrophication

• Acidification

• Industrial contaminants

• Noise pollution

2.2.1 OIL POLLUTION

Oil naturally get into the sea through natural seeps and erosion of seabed sediments.

These seeps are natural springs that ooze oil and gas instead of water (Global Marine

Oil Pollution Information Gateway, 2003a).

Land-based sources include discharges of untreated sewage, storm water (urban run-

off), etc. (Global Marine Oil Pollution Information Gateway, 2003a).

It is estimated that over 6 million tonnes of oil enter the sea each year due to sea-

based activities (GESAMP, 2000). There are many sources of oil in the sea, the most

visible being large sticks from damaged tankers. This source accounts for only 2.6%

11
of the total oil in the sea (Clarke, 1997). The largest sea-based source of oil is from

atmospheric emissions associated with transportation like through evaporation of

cargo oil in tankers, or during loading and delivery (International Maritime

Organisation, 2002).

Oil is lighter than water, so if it is spilled in the sea it forms a thin slick on the surface.

The thickness of the slick and the speed at which it spreads is dependent on the sea

temperature and the nature of the oil (Clarke, 1997).

The composition of oil starts changing as soon as it is spilled. The light fractions

evaporate, water soluble fractions dissolve and small drops of oil can be suspended

in the water column (emulsification).

Plate 1 shows the Gulf of Mexico oil spill in April, 2010.

Oil inputs from human activities are categorized as those that originate from:

• Petroleum extraction, exploration, and production activities

• Petroleum transportation including tanker spills and

• Petroleum use, including run-off from highways and discharges from

recreational vehicles. (National Academy of Science, 2007).

12
13
Plate 1. The Gulf of Mexico oil spill. Source: [Link].

14
2.1.2 CHEMICAL POLLUTION

Many chemicals are toxic to marine life. Some chemicals are termed acutely toxic

and kill organisms after a very short amount of time (Lincoln et al., 1998). Long

term exposure to chronically toxic chemicals can interfere with the reproductive,

developmental and immune systems of an organism (Brina and pollard, 1999).

Chemicals are used when drilling for oil and gas. They are needed to lubricate drills,

prevent pipelines and machinery from corrosion, to stop unwanted growth of marine

organisms and separate oil from water (United Kingdom Offshore Operators

Association, 1998). Current farming practices use lots of chemicals to prevent crop

and livestock damage by pests and weeds. Runoff of pesticides and herbicides into

surrounding rivers and streams will eventually lead to the marine environment.

Discharges from factories and chemical production industries also add to chemical

pollution (United Kingdom Offshore Operators Association, 1998).

A variety of chemicals do not break down easily in seawater and persist in the marine

environment, or marine organisms. The risk of exposure to these chemicals is

therefore increased (Brina and pollard, 1999). Synthetic chemicals that are fat-

soluble, e.g. some pesticides such as DDT, organochlorides and polychlorinated

biphenyls (PCBs), can build up fatty tissues of marine species and concentrate up

the food web.

15
2.1.3 EUTROPHICATION

Eutrophication is an increase in chemical nutrients, typically compounds containing

nitrogen or phosphorous, in an ecosystem (Gerlach, 1975).

All living things require nutrients containing nitrogen, phosphorus, and trace

elements to sustain life. But if too much nitrogen and phosphorus find their way into

the ocean, these nutrients fertilize the explosive growth of algae. When these algae

sink and die, their decomposition consumes most of the oxygen in the bottom water.

Algal blooms not only affect fish, but can contribute to the loss of sea grass bed and

coral habitats and to the deterioration of water quality (National Academy of

Science, 2007).

For centuries, the seas have been viewed as a bottomless pit for human derived

waste. It was common for raw sewage to be discharged directly into the marine

environment (Yorkshire water, 2002). A more source of nitrification of the inshore

waters is agricultural run-off, especially from application of fertilizers (Gerlach,

1975).

2.1.4 ACIDIFICATION

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The oceans are normally a natural carbon sink, absorbing carbon dioxide from the

atmosphere. Because the levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide are increasing, the

oceans are becoming more acidic (Key et al., 2004).

The potential consequences of ocean acidification are not fully understood, but there

are concerns that structures calcium carbonate may be vulnerable to dissolution,

affecting corals and the ability of shellfish to form shells (Raven., 2005).

Oceans and coastal ecosystems play an important role in the global carbon cycle and

have removed about 25% of the carbon dioxide emitted by human activities between

2000 and 2007 and about half the anthropogenic carbon dioxide released since the

start of the industrial revolution. Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification

means that the capacity of the ocean carbon sink will gradually get weaker (United

Nations Environment Programme, 2009).

A report from National oceanic and atmospheric administration (NOAA) scientists

published in the journal science in May 2008 found that large amount of relatively

acidified water are up welling to within four miles of the pacific continental shelf

area of North America. This area is a critical zone where most local marine life lives

or is born. While the paper dealt only with areas from Vancouver to Northern

California, other continental shelf areas maybe experiencing similar effects (Feely

et al., 2008).

17
2.1.5 INDUSTRIAL CONTAMINANTS

Industries that are located in or upstream of urban ports discharge wastes directly

into waterways (as seen in plate 2). Contaminants can reach the ocean through

atmospheric deposition. For example, mercury is released into the air when large

quantities of coal and other fuels containing trace amounts of the element burned,

from the incineration of mercury-containing medical wastes, and from other human-

induced sources (National Academy of Science, 2007).

Ultimately, that mercury rains down into lakes, rivers, and oceans. Once deposited

in sediments, mercury may be converted by aquatic organisms into methylmercury,

a more toxic form of the element. Many contaminants stay in the environment for a

long time and become more concentrated through the food chain. Among the most

troubling contaminants are heavy metals, such as mercury and cadmium, and

“persistent organic pollutants”, such as PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls), dioxin,

and DDT, which remain in the marine sediment for a long time. Marine life takes up

such contaminants from polluted sediments. Because these contaminants are much

more soluble in fat than water, they are excreted slowly and build up in tissues of

fish and shellfish. They also accumulate in the tissues of people who eat

contaminated fish (National Academy of Science, 2007).

18
19
Plate 2. Industrial waste disposed directly into the marine environment source: The

20
National Academies, ocean science series 2007.

2.1.6 UNDERWATER NOISE POLLUTION

It is generally agreed that hearing plays a large part in the lives of whales and

dolphins. The majority of marine mammals rely on sound as they hunt for food,

avoid predators and find a mate. Sound of the same frequency used by whales and

dolphins (cetaceans) may have a detrimental effect on them (National Resources

Defence Council, 1999). For species of marine mammals, as well as for some other

aquatic animals, sound is the primary means of sensing the environment and is used

for communicating, navigating, and foraging. The ocean environment has always

included an abundance of natural noises, such as the sounds generated by rain,

waves, earthquakes and other animals. However a growing numbers of ships, oil

exploration activities, and military and civilian use of sonar, are adding noise to the

ambient sounds in the oceanic environment (National Academy of Science, 2007).

Marine life can be susceptible to noise or the sound pollution from sources such as

passing ships, oil exploration, seismic surveys, and naval low-frequency active

sonar. Sound travels more rapidly and over larger distances in the sea than in the

atmosphere. Marine animals, such as cetaceans often have weak eyesight, and live

in a world largely defined by acoustic information. This applies also to many deeper

sea fish, who live in a world of darkness (noise pollution, 2009).

21
Marine pollutions and it’s effects on various marine inhabitants are numerous. Table

1 gives a summary of some of the causes and effects of marine pollution.

22
 Primary Causes Effect
Type

Nutrients Runoff approximately 50% sewage, Feed algal blooms in coastal waters. Decomposing

50% from forestry, farming, and algae depletes water of oxygen, killing other

other land use. Also airborne marine life. Can spur algal blooms (red tides),

nitrogen oxides from power plants, releasing toxins that can kill fish and poison people.

cars etc.

Sediments

Erosion from mining, forestry, Cloud water; impede photosynthesis below surface

farming, and other land-use; coastal waters. Clog gills of fish. Smother and bury coastal

dredging and mining ecosystems. Carry toxins and excess nutrients.

Pathogens

Sewage, livestock. Contaminate coastal swimming areas and seafood,

spreading cholera, typhoid and other diseases.

Alien Species

23
 Several thousand per day transported Outcompete native species and reduce biological

in ballast water; also spread through diversity. Introduce new marine diseases.

canals linking bodies of water and Associated with increased incidence of red tides

fishery enhancement projects. and other algal blooms. Problem in major ports.

Persistent

Toxins
Industrial discharge; wastewater poison or cause disease in coastal marine life,

(PCBs, Heavy discharge from cities; pesticides especially near major cities or industry.

metals, DDT from farms, forests, home use etc.; Contaminate seafood. Fat-soluble toxins that bio-

etc.) seepage from landfills. accumulate in predators can cause disease and

reproductive failure.

Oil

46% from cars, heavy machinery, Low level contamination can kill larvae and cause

industry, other land-based sources; disease in marine life. Oil slicks kill marine life,

32% from oil tanker operations and especially in coastal habitats. Tar balls from

other shipping; 13% from accidents coagulated oil litter beaches and coastal habitat. Oil

at sea; also offshore oil drilling and pollution is down 60% from 1981.

natural seepage.

Plastics

24
 Fishing nets; cargo and cruise ships; Discard fishing gear continues to catch fish. Other

beach litter; wastes from plastics plastic debris entangles marine life or is mistaken

industry and landfills. for food. Plastics litter beaches and coasts and may

persist for 200 to 400 years.

Radioactive

substances
Discarded nuclear submarine and Hot spots of radio activity. Can enter food chain

military waste; atmospheric fallout; and cause disease in marine life. Concentrate in top

also industrial wastes. predators and shellfish, which are eaten by people.

Thermal

Cooling water from power plants and Kill off corals and other temperature sensitive

industrial sites sedentary species. Displace other marine life.

Noise

Supertankers, other large vessels and Can be heard thousands of kilometers away under

machinery water. May stress and disrupt marine life.

Table 1: types of marine pollution, causes and effects source; complied by world watch

institute (2013) [Link] htm.

25
2.2 EFFECTS OF POLLUTION ON THE MARINE ECOSYSTEM

Toxic metals can be introduced into marine food webs. These can cause a change to

tissue matter, biochemistry, behaviour, reproduction and suppress growth in marine

life. Also, many animals feeds have a high fish meal or fish hydrolysate content. In

this way, marine toxins can be transferred to land animals, and appear later in meat

and dairy products (Washington State Department of Ecology, 2008).

When pesticides are incorporated into the marine ecosystem, they quickly become

absorbed into marine food webs. Once in the food webs, these pesticides can cause

mutations, as well as diseases, which can be harmful to humans as well as the entire

food web (Washington State Department of Ecology, 2008).

Plankton, larval fish, seaweed, oysters and bottom dwelling organisms are strongly

affected by oil spills because sunlight cannot penetrate through the oil slick to the

bottom of the ocean and therefore affects producers. When microscopic plants

cannot photosynthesize and manufacture their food, they cannot release oxygen for

the bottom dwelling aquatic organisms which leads to their death. When these

organisms die, fishes cannot feed on them so they die as well. This destabilizes the

entire marine ecosystem.

The impact of pollution also includes loss of biodiversity in breeding grounds United

Nations Environmental Programme, 2006).

26
2.2.1 EFFECTS OF POLLUTION ON MARINE PRODUCERS

Phytoplankton, seaweeds, and plants make up the primary producers of the marine

environment. The different kinds of pollution affect them in several ways that do not

allow them carry out their photosynthetic activities appropriately to produce food

for other marine life.

Plants can be smothered by heavy fractions of oil that sink to the seabed, or coat

seashores (Brina and pollard, 1999).

Many potentially toxic chemicals adhere to tiny particles which are then taken up by

plankton and benthos animals, most of which are either deposit or filter feeders. In

this way, the toxins are concentrated upward within ocean food chains. Many

particles combine chemically in a manner highly depletive of oxygen, causing

estuaries to become anoxic (Washington State Department of Ecology, 2008).

Eutrophication can result in an increase in the ecosystem’s primary productivity

(excessive plant growth and decay) (Gerlach, 1975).

2.2.2 EFFECTS OF POLLUTION ON THE HEALTH AND SURVIVAL OF

MARINE ANIMALS

The breakdown of sewage by bacteria reduces the concentration of oxygen in the

water measured as Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) (Clarke, 1997). A high BOD

can lead plants and animals being starved of oxygen. Reduced oxygenation

27
(hypoxia) can lead to a change in the in-faunal benthic community, and in severe

cases, the death of many benthic invertebrate species (Cole et al., 1999).

CETACEANS: whales, dolphins and porpoises are at the top of the food chain and

are susceptible to pollution through food that has been contaminated with chemicals.

The animals can become more liable to infection and their reproduction may be

impaired (Worldwide Fund-UK, 2004).

Cetaceans may be able to avoid oil slicks but they may suffer from a decrease in

available prey (Brina and pollard, 1999). They may inhale toxic oil vapour when

they surface to breathe, damaging the airway and lungs. A dolphin’s eyesight may

also be affected by oil (Global Marine Oil Pollution Information Gateway, 2003b).

Studies have suggested that noise may be a factor in major stranding incidents.

Fourteen beaked whales where found stranded in the Canary Islands just 4 hours

after an exercise using underwater military equipment was started. Bubbles were

found in the tissues and blood and it is thought that the whales were suffering from

decompression illness known by divers as “the bends”. It is unclear whether the

sound waves caused the bubbles to be formed in the tissues or if a faster than normal

ascent (to get away from the noise) was responsible (Jepson et al., 2003).

There may be indirect effects of noise on cetaceans. Seismic surveying has been

shown to affect fish distribution (Engas et al., 1996) and abundance. This in turn

28
will affect the feeding of cetaceans (Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society,

2003).

FISHES: Fish eggs may not hatch and young fish may die if they are exposed to oil.

Adult fish can swim away from areas that are contaminated. However, if the oil is

dispersed in the water column, it may be taken up through their gills or eaten

resulting in an accumulation in the stomach, gall bladder and liver (Environment

Canada, 2003). In commercial species, this may lead to the flesh having a tainted

flavour making it inedible (Clarke, 1997).

BIRDS: when a seabird encounters an oil slick, it’s feathers become covered in oil

and it’s natural waterproofing is lost (plate 3). The bird becomes waterlogged and

uses vast amounts of energy to keep afloat. The feathers that provide insulation also

become damaged so the bird gets very cold. The oiled bird becomes very ill through

attempts to clean it’s plumage and ingesting the poisonous oil. Finally, because the

bird is so busy trying to stay afloat, keep warm and clean oil off itself, it has no time

to feed. So if it does not drown, freeze, or get poisoned, it will probably starve (Royal

Society for the Protection of Birds, 2003).

29
Plate 3. A bird covered in oil from an oil spill Source: [Link]

30
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 ADAPTATION OF MARINE LIFE TO MARINE POLLUTION

A number of plants and animals threatened by souring seas, including some mussels,

abalone, rock oysters, plankton and even a few fishes, appear likely-at least at first-

to adjust or evolve. But a few seem to come through the next several decades

unscratched (University of California Santa Barbra, 2013).

According to University of California Santa Barbra, (2013), evolution can happen,

and it can happen quickly. But concerns about extinctions are very real and very

valid. Biology can bend, but eventually it will break.

Increasing carbon dioxide not only makes oceans more corrosive, it reduces

carbonate ions, which everything from scallops to crabs, coral and sea urchins need

to build shells or skeletons. Overall, their body size really matters in how well they

swim and how much food they get. Some larvae however, do not change. Marine

reserve (that include no take areas) can have great benefits for mobile species

(Graham et al., 2011), benthic communities, biodiversity conservation (McCook et

al., 2009), and protection of genetic diversity for future adaptation (Sanford and

Kelly, 2011).

31
3.1 PREVENTION OF MARINE POLLUTION

There are two ways the overall level of anthropogenic pollution (that is man-

originated pollution) can be mitigated; either the human is reduced, or a way is found

to reduce the ecological footprint left behind by the average human. If the second is

not adopted, then the first way may be imposed as world ecosystems falter

(Kullenberg, 1999).

The second way is for humans, individually, to pollute less. That requires social and

political will, together with a shift in awareness so more people respect the

environment and are less disposed to abuse it (Kullenberg, 1999).

At an operational level, regulations, and international government participation is

needed (Matthews, 1973). It is often very difficult to regulate marine pollution

because pollution spreads over international barriers, thus making regulations hard

to create as well as enforce (Warner, 2009).

Chemical dispersants are used to speed up the natural process of emulsification of

oil in water. Dispersants are not effective on heavy or weathered oils. Originally,

highly toxic dispersants were employed but a reluctance to use them resulted in low-

toxicity dispersants being developed (Clarke, 1997). Floating booms that extend

both above and below the water can be used to stop or divert the movement of spilled

oil (Clarke, 1997). Slick-lickers, (a continuous belt of absorbent material), are passed

32
through the oil slick and then through rollers that extract the oil. Slick-lickers can

only deal with small amounts of oil (Clarke, 1997).

The Niger River is an important ecosystem that needs to be protected, for it is home

to 36 families and nearly 250 species of fish, of which 20 are endemic, meaning they

are found nowhere else on Earth (World Wildlife Fund, 2006). Fishing needs to be

limited along the Niger River and aquacultures should be created to provide for the

growing demand on the fishing industry (Amaize, 2012).

Pesticides from agricultural fields could be reduced if a natural pesticide was used,

or the fields were moved farther away from the local waterways (World Wildlife

Fund, 2006).

By limiting the devastation caused by disturbances to the marine environment, the

productivity and biodiversity of the marine ecosystems would increase.

3.2 CONTROL MEASURE

Different boards or commissions were constituted to look into the “problems” of the

Niger-Delta oil producing areas in Nigeria, most of which turned out to be failed

projects as it lacked maintenance (United Nations Development Programme, 2006).

Some of the control measures that have been put in place to mitigate marine pollution

over the years include;

33
➢ Niger-delta development board (NDDB); an Act enacted in 1961 and lasted

to 1972 (United Nations Development Programme, 2006).

➢ Niger-delta river basin development authority (NDBDA):- was established to

replace the defunct NDDB. It lasted from 1972 to1983 (Alamieyeseigha,

2004).

➢ Niger-delta development commission (NDDC) - also an attempt by the then

Nigerian government to control pollution in the area.(2000-2008).

➢ National Oil Spill Detection and Response Agency (NOSDRA).

➢ Sustainable production and the use of chemicals- a U.K strategy for hazardous

substances, DETR,1999

➢ Environmental protection Act 1990 includes a provision for the control of

noise as a nuisance. The wildlife and countryside Act 1981 has reference to

‘disturbance’. This could be interpreted to protect wildlife from noise

pollution (Brina and Pollard, 1999).

➢ The international convention for the prevention of pollution from ships

(MARPOL 73/78) Annex1 prohibits deliberates discharges from ships of

waste oils. The discharge of oil within special areas is also prohibited and

requires the provision of oil reception facilities at all ports (Brina and Pollard,

1999).

34
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 SUMMARY

The importance of the marine environments and it’s inhabitants is immeasurable.

The effects of marine pollution on marine life are extensive, having harmful effects

on the living resources and entire ecology of the marine environment. Many species

already face threats of extinction and measures have been adopted to ensure that

doesn’t happen. But more still needs to be done and prevention still remains the best

way to ensure that doesn’t happen.

4.1 CONCLUSION

It is a fact that marine pollution tremendously impacts adversely on marine life

in more ways than we can readily comprehend. Whereas marine pollution is

something that we cannot avoid in a world with a rapidly growing population and

technological concerns that generate hazardous pollutants, it’s effects can be

minimized if carefully managed.

Factors that is responsible for marine pollution has been discussed and has

highlighted the effects as regards to marine life.

35
4.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

The following measures are recommended to the government and relevant

agencies both locally and internationally;

• Sustained enlightenment campaign and advocacy on safer attitudes

towards reducing pollution of our marine environment.

• Economic empowerment of residents of coastal communities to provide

alternative sources of income inn places where their existing vocations

are perceived to contribute to marine pollution.

• Development of relevant legislations and it’s implementation and

enforcement.

• Active collaboration with international agencies in solving localized

marine pollution problems such as Abandoned Lost or Other Fishing

Gears (ALDFG’S) challenges for example, in the affected areas.

36
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