CLAY AND ITS PRODUCTS

• Clay is the most important raw material used for making

bricks.
• It is an earthen mineral mass or fragmentary rock capable of
mixing with water and forming a plastic viscous mass which
has a property of retaining its shape when moulded and
dried.
• When such masses are heated to redness, they acquire
hardness and strength.
• This is a result of micro-structural changes in clay and as
such is a chemical property.
• Purest clays consist mainly of kaolinite (2SiO2.Al2O3.2H2O)
with small quantities of minerals such as quartz, mica,
felspar, calcite, magnesite, etc. By their origin, clays are
subdivided as residual and transported clays.
CLASSIFICATION OF CLAY (ON THE BASIS OF SOURCE)
• Residual clays, known as Kaolin or China
clay, are formed from the decay of Classification
underlying rocks and are used for of Clay
making pottery.
• The transported or sedimentary clays RESIDUAL TRANSPORTED
result from the action of weathering CLAY CLAY
agencies. These are more disperse,
contain impurities, and free from large
particles of mother rocks
 CLASSIFICATION OF CLAY (ON THE BASIS OF RESISTANCE TO
HIGH TEMPERATURES)
• REFRACTORY CLAY
• The refractory clays are highly disperse and very plastic.
• These have high content of alumina and low content of
impurities, such as Fe2O3, tending to lower the refractoriness.
Clay
• HIGH MELTING CLAYS REFRACTORY HIGH LOW
• High melting clays have high refractoriness (1350–1580°C)
CLAY MELTING MELTING
and contain small amount of impurities such as quartz,
felspar, mica, calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate.
> 𝟏𝟓𝟖𝟎℃ 𝟏𝟑𝟓𝟎 < 𝟏𝟑𝟓𝟎℃
• These are used for manufacturing facing bricks, floor tiles, − 𝟏𝟓𝟖𝟎℃
sewer pipes, etc.

• LOW MELTING CLAYS

• Low melting clays have refractoriness less than 1350°C and
have varying compositions.
• These are used to manufacture bricks, blocks, tiles, etc.
PROPERTIES OF CLAY
Physical properties which are the most
important in determining the value of clay
Plasticity are:
• tensile strength
• Texture
• shrinkage
• Porosity
• fusibility
• colour after burning
BRICK
BRICK
Brick
• A small rectangular block typically
made of fired or sun-dried clay,
used in construction
Brick
• A brick is rectangular in shape and of size
that can be conveniently handled with
one hand.
• Brick may be made of burnt clay or
mixture of sand and lime or of Portland
cement concrete.
• Clay bricks are commonly used since
these are economical and easily
available.
Size of Brick
1. Standard Size

2. Nominal Size or Size of Brick

along with mortar

Length of brick = 2 × width of brick + thickness of mortar

Height of brick = width of brick
Size of Brick
3. Conventional Size of Brick

4. Country Bricks or Field Bricks

9”
4.5”

Country Brick
3” 9” x 4.5” x 3”
Classification of Bricks
First Class Bricks

Second Class
On Field Bricks
Practice Third Class
Bricks
Fourth Class
Bricks
On the basis of Class 3.5-35
Strength MPa
Brick

Common Brick

On the basis of
Facing Brick
Use
Engineering
Brick

Solid

Perforated
On the basis of
Types
Hollow

Cellular
Civil Engineering by Sandeep Jyani Sir
Classification of Bricks (FIELD PRACTICE)
1. First Class Bricks
• These are thoroughly burnt and are of deep red, cherry or copper
colour
• First class bricks are recommended for pointing, exposed face work in
masonry structures, flooring and reinforced brick work.
• The crushing strength of the brick should not be less than 10 N/mm2

2. Second Class Bricks

• Small cracks and distortions are permitted.
• The crushing strength should not be less than 7.0 N/mm2
• Second class bricks are recommended for all important or
unimportant hidden masonry works and centering of
reinforced brick and reinforced cement concrete (RCC)
structures
Classification of Bricks (FIELD PRACTICE)
3. Third Class Bricks
• These are underburnt.
• They are soft and light-coloured producing a dull
sound when struck against each other.
• It is used for building temporary structures.

4. Fourth Class Bricks

• These are overburnt and badly distorted in shape and
size and are brittle in nature.
• The ballast of such bricks is used for foundation and
floors in lime concrete and road metal
1. Composition of Brick
Silica •50-60%
Alumina •20-30%
Lime •4-5%
Oxide of iron •5-6%
Magnesia •1%
I. Composition of Brick
1. Silica (50-60%)
✓ Silica prevents the cracking, shrinkage and warping of
the bricks, thereby imparts uniform Shape to it.
✓It decreases shrinkage in burning and increases
refractoriness
✓If it is in excess, it destroys cohesion between the
particles, hence bricks become too brittle.
2. Alumina (20-30%)
✓Alumina impacts plasticity to the brick earth so that it
can be easily moulded in any designed shape.
✓If it is in excess, it causes shrinkage and warping during
the drying of the bricks and makes the bricks too hard
during the working process.
I. Composition of Brick
3. Lime (4-5%)
✓Lime also prevents the shrinking of the
bricks
✓It helps silica in clay to melt and helps in
binding BUT If it is in excess, it causes the
brick to melt during the burning thereby it
results in loss of the shape of bricks
Note: During the burning of the bricks, calcium carbonate
(limestone) is converted into quick lime that undergoes slaking
process which in turn, results in the cracking & disintegration of
the bricks due to increase in volume.
I. Composition of Brick
4. Oxides of Iron (5-6%)
✓Oxides of iron(ferrous) helps silica and lime to
fuse with each other, hence leads to the
development of strength in the bricks
✓Excess of iron(ferric) makes bricks dark blue
✓It also imparts reddish brown colour in bricks.
✓Improves impermeability
I. Composition of Brick
5. Magnesia (1%)
✓Magnesia also prevents the shrinkage in
bricks and imparts yellowish tint in bricks.
II. Harmful Ingredients in Brick
1. Lime slaking:
• Slaking→ volume increase→ cracking & disintegration
• Changes the colour of brick from Red to Yellow

2. Iron Pyrites
• Presence of the Iron Pyrites leads to crystallization and disintegration
of bricks during burning due to the oxidation of these pyrites during
burning process
• The brick may split into pieces

3. Alkalies
• Alkali act as a flux during the burning of bricks but if it is in excess it
causes the bricks to fuse with each other thereby resulting in its
twisting and warping
• Presence of Alkalies also leads to efflorescence and staining in bricks.
II. Harmful Ingredients in Brick
4. Pebbles or Stones
• Presence of stones and pebbles brick earth
leads to the formation of weak and porous
bricks, load carrying capacity of which is
comparatively reduced.
5. Organic and vegetative matter
• Presence of organic & vegetative matter helps
in the burning of bricks but if they are left
unburnt, it results in the formation of gases
during the decomposition, which when escapes
through the body of the bricks leads to the
development of numerous voids, which results
in decreasing of load carrying capacity of bricks
III. Manufacturing of Bricks

1. 3.
2. 4.
Preparation
Moulding Drying Burning
of Clay
III. Manufacturing of Bricks
1. Preparation of Clay
A. Unsoiling: top 200 mm of soil is thrown and is not
as it consists of majority of impurities in it
B. Digging: soil is dug out and spread over the level
filed to prepare it for next operation of cleaning
C. Cleaning: Impurities like stones, pebbles, organic
matter, vegetation matter is removed from the
brick earth
D. Weathering: after cleaning the clay it is imposed to
the atmosphere for few weeks to few months for
its softening, ripening and weathering
III. Manufacturing of Bricks
1. Preparation of Clay
E. Blending: It is process in which different
ingredients of bricks earth is spread over
the weathered clay in definite
proportion and mixed.
F. Tempering: Tempering is the process in
which requested degree of hardness is
induced in the brick earth to make it
suitable for the next operation of
moulding.
- Tempering of the brick is done in “pug
mill”
III. Manufacturing of Bricks
2. Moulding of Clay
The process of giving desired shape and size to the bricks is
termed as moulding.
• Steel or wood moulds are used, size of which is
approximately kept to be 8-12% greater than the size of the
bricks in order to account for its shrinkage.
• During moulding a mark of depth 10-20 mm is placed over
the surface of the brick that is termed as frog mark, which
serves following two purpose:

i) Trade name of the manufacturer.

ii) If acts a key for mortar when the layer of bricks is placed
over it.
III. Manufacturing of Bricks
2. Moulding of Clay
Moulding of the bricks can be done with the help of hand or with
the help of machines.
• Hand moulded bricks are further of two types:
a) Ground moulded bricks
b) Table moulded bricks
✓Qualities of table moulded bricks in comparatively better than
the quality of ground moulded bricks and its rate of moulding
is also comparatively better than ground moulded bricks.

• Machine moulded bricks are also of two types:

a) Plastic clay moulded bricks
b) Dry clay moulded bricks
✓Quality of dry clay moulded bricks is also comparatively better
than plastic clay moulded bricks.
III. Manufacturing of Bricks
3. Drying
Moulded bricks , if are directly burnt without drying are to liable to get crack due
to excessive shrinkage, hence its drying is carried out before the burning of
pressure in which moisture content of the brick is reduced up to 2%

• Drying of the bricks is carried out either naturally or

artificially
• During drying, bricks are always placed along their
edge and never placed along there face, in order to
speed up the process of drying.
III. Manufacturing of Bricks
4. Burning of Bricks
Burning impacts strength and hardness to the bricks, it makes them
dense and durable
• Burning should be done properly
• Overburnt- Brittle/easily broken
• Underburnt- Soft/unable to carry designed load
• Burning of the bricks is carried out at 11000C at
which silica and lime fuse with each other
thereby imparting strength to the bricks
a) Clamps
Burning
b) Kilns
III. Manufacturing of Bricks
4. Burning of Bricks
Burning occurs in 3 stages:
a) Dehydration/Water smoking stage (𝟒𝟎𝟎 −
𝟔𝟓𝟎℃)
• Water from pores is driven off
• Some of carbonaceous matter is burnt
b) Oxidation Period(𝟔𝟓𝟎 − 𝟗𝟎𝟎℃)
• Remaining carbon is burnt
• Ferrous Iron is converted into Ferric Iron
• Sand is added to allow escaping of gases
c) Vitrification(𝟗𝟎𝟎 − 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎℃)
• To convert the mass into glass like substance
III. Manufacturing of Bricks
4. Burning of Bricks
a) Burning of Bricks in Clamps
• Trapezoidal section of ground is
taken and longer side is raised
with 150
• A brick wall in mud is constructed
along the shorter side and the fuel
layer having thickness of 700 to
800 mm spread over the level
ground.
• Fuel used for burning of the bricks
in clamps constitutes grass, rice
husk ash, wood, cow dung, coal
dust etc
III. Manufacturing of Bricks
4. Burning of Bricks
a) Burning of Bricks in Clamps
• Burning of the brick in clamp is carried
out for 2-3 months that is further
following by its cooling for same
duration.

• No supervision is required in clamps,

moreover since locally available fuel is
used, the entire process is comparatively
economical.

• There is no control over the fire in

clamps, hence the bricks obtained are
not of uniform quality.
III. Manufacturing of Bricks
4. Burning of Bricks
b) Burning of Bricks in Kilns
a. Up Draught
i) Intermittent Kilns
Kilns are large sized oven
Kilns b. Down draught
that are used for the Kilns

Kilns
burning of bricks.
a. Bull Trench Kilns
Supply of the bricks from these
kilns may either be continuous ii) Continuous
or intermittent accordingly. They b. Hoffmann Kiln
Kilns
are classified as-
c. Tunnel Kiln
III. Manufacturing of Bricks
4. Burning of Bricks
b) Burning of Bricks in Kilns
i) Intermittent Kilns
• All the operations of loading, burning, cooling and
unloading is done sequentially and , hence the supply of
the bricks is not continuous from these kilns
• Consists of two sets of main doors that are used for loading
and unloading the bricks.
• Bricks are placed in these kilns in the rows of
approximately 4-5 brick thick and height of approximately
6-8 brick thick
• An open space between the two rows of approx 2-3 bricks
thick is left which is used for placing the fuel.
III. Manufacturing of Bricks
4. Burning of Bricks
b) Burning of Bricks in Kilns
i) Intermittent Kilns
1. Up Draught kilns : If the movement of the gases is allowed to
take place in vertically upward direction, it is termed as Up
Draught kilns
2. Down draught kilns: If the movement of gases is allowed to
take place in vertically downward direction, it is termed as
Down draught kilns
• In down draught kilns permanent roof is provided along with the
central chimney that permits the movement of the gases in
downward direction.

✓Qualities of the brick obtained from Down draught kilns is

comparatively better than that of bricks obtained from up
draught kilns.
III. Manufacturing of Bricks
4. Burning of Bricks
b) Burning of Bricks in Kilns
ii) Continuous Kilns
In continuous kilns, the supply of the bricks is
maintained to be continuous as all the
operations of loading, burning, cooling and
unloading is done simultaneously
ii) Continuous Kilns
In continuous kilns, the supply of the bricks is
maintained to be continuous as all the
operations of loading, burning, cooling and
unloading is done simultaneously
A. Bull Trench Kiln
• It includes two sets of movable chimneys that are
always placed ahead of the section in which
burning is to be carried out. Such an arrangement
allows the pre heating of the bricks in the chamber
over which chimney is placed.
• This kiln consists of number of sections in which all
the operations of loading, burning, cooling and
unloading is done simultaneously.
• These kilns are generally oval, circular &
rectangular in plan
ii) Continuous Kilns
B. Hoffmann Kiln
• This kiln is circular in plan and
consists of fixed central chimney
unlikely Bull trench kiln that
consists of moveable chimneys
• This kiln consists of number of
sections in which all the
operations of loading, burning,
cooling and unloading is done
simultaneously
ii) Continuous Kilns
C. Tunnel Kiln
• This kiln is in the form of tunnel
which may either be rectangular,
circular or oval in plan.

• It consists of different stationary

zones in which all the process of
loading, burning, cooling and
unloading is done simultaneously.

• Bricks are placed either on trolley

or on conveyer belts and is passed
through different stationary zones
in the tunnel
IV. Quality/Testing of Bricks
For testing of bricks, 50 bricks are taken at random for a lot of maximum 50,000 bricks
1. The bricks should be at least table
moulded, well burnt and free from cracks
2. Dimension Test:
20 pieces out of the selected pieces are taken
and laid flat and checked for tolerance limit
The bricks should be of uniform shape & size
✓Conventional size of bricks= 23 cm x 11.4 x 7.6
cm
✓Standard size of brick= 19cmx 9cm x 9cm
✓With mortar = 20cm x 10 cm x 10 cm
✓Wt of 1m3 bricks = 1800 kg
✓Wt of 1 brick= 3.5- 3.6 kg
IV. Quality/Testing of Bricks

3. Sound Test- The bricks should produce clear

metallic ringing sound when struck with each other.

4. Structure test- the bricks should have uniform

homogenous structure across all the section i.e. it
should be free from any voids.
IV. Quality/Testing of Bricks
5. Absorption Test: The bricks
when immersed in water for 24
hours should not absorb water by
more than- Types of Bricks Compressive % water
• 20% in case of 1st class bricks Strength (N/mm2) absorption limit
after 24 hours
• 22% in case of 2nd class brick
First Class Bricks 10.5 20 %
• 25% in case of 3rd class bricks
Second Class Bricks 7 22 %
6. Compressive Strength Test: Third Class Bricks 5 23 %
The bricks should process Common Building 3.5 25 %
minimum compressive strength of: Bricks

1st class- 10 N/mm2

2nd class- 7.5 N/mm2
3rd class- 5 N/mm2
IV. Quality/Testing of Bricks
7. Toughness test: The brick should not
break into pieces when dropped on
levelled ground from the height of 1m.
8. Hardness/ Abrasion: the brick should
possess sufficient hardness and does
not show any sign of impression when
scratched with finger nails.
9. Efflorescence Test: the Bricks when
immersed in water for 24 hours should
not show any sign of efflorescence and
staining.
IV. Quality/Testing of Bricks
9. Efflorescence Test: The ends of the brick are kept in a 150 mm diameter porcelain
or glass dish containing 25 mm depth of water at room temperature (20°–
30°C) till the entire water is absorbed or evaporated. The water is again filled to
25 mm depth in the dish and allowed to be absorbed by the brick or evaporated.
Presence of efflorescence is classified as below
1. Nil — When the deposit of efflorescence is imperceptible.
2. Slight — When the deposit of efflorescence does not cover more than 10 per cent of the exposed area of the
brick.
3. Moderate — When the deposit of efflorescence is more than 10 per cent but less than 50% of the exposed
area of the brick.
4. Heavy — When the deposit of efflorescence is more than 50 per cent but the deposits do not powder or flake
away the brick surface.
5. Serious — When the deposits are heavy and powder or flake away the brick surface.

The specifications limit the efflorescence to be not more than moderate (10–50%) up to class
12.5 and not more than slight (< 10 per cent) for higher classes.
IV. Quality/Testing of Bricks
15
10. Warpage Test: Warpage of the brick is measured
15
with the help of a flat steel or glass surface and
measuring ruler graduated in 0.5 mm divisions or
wedge of steel 60 × 15 × 15 mm. For warpage test,
the sample consists of 10 bricks from a lot.
60
Defects of Bricks
1. Over Burning of Bricks
• If overburnt, a soft molten mass is produced
and the bricks loose their shape
• Not suitable for construction purpose
2. Under Burnt Bricks
• It causes higher degree of water absorption
and less compressive strength
3. Black Core
• When Brick Clay contains bituminous matter
or carbon, and if it is under burnt, It causes
black core
Defects of Bricks
3. Chuffs:
• The deformation of the shape of bricks caused by the
rain water falling on hot bricks is known as chuffs.
4. Checks or Cracks:
• This defect may be because of lumps of lime or excess
of water. In case of the former, when bricks come in
contact with water, the absorbed water reacts with
lime nodules causing expansion and a consequent
disintegration of bricks, whereas shrinkage and
burning cracks result when excess of water is added
during brick manufacturing
5. Spots:
• Iron sulphide, if present in the brick clay, results in
dark surface spots on the brick surfaces. Such bricks
though not harmful are unsuitable for exposed
masonry work
Defects of Bricks
6. Blisters:
• Broken blisters are generally
caused on the surface of sewer
pipes and drain tiles due to air
imprisoned during their moulding
7. Lamination:
• These are caused by the entrapped
air in the voids of clay. Laminations
produce thin lamina on the brick
faces which weather out on
exposure. Such bricks are weak in
structure
Defects of Bricks
8. Spalling:
• Irregular portion of the brick
break away of fall off.
• Heating of water inside brick is
the cause of spalling
V. Brick Masonry
1. Stretcher: Longer side
face of the brick

2. Header: The shorter side

face of the brick
• Used for Hearting of walls
V. Brick Masonry
1. Stretcher: Longer side
face of the brick

2. Header: The shorter side

face of the brick
• Used for Hearting of walls
Different forms of Brick

𝑹𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝑩𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒌 𝑩𝒖𝒍𝒍𝒏𝒐𝒔𝒆 𝑩𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒌

Used to construct open drains Used to construct open drains

Cant Bricks are used For

door and window jambs

𝐶𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑘

Different forms of Brick

𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑘

𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝑩𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒌
(Tapered along length)
Different forms of Brick

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑘
𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑘
Perforated Bricks: Small holes may exceed 25 per
Hollow Bricks: The total of holes, which need not be small,
cent of the total volume of the brick, but should may exceed 25 per cent of the volume of the brick. These
not exceed 30 to 45% area of face. These are not have about l/3rd the weight of normal bricks and are sound
sound bricks and heat proof, but are not suitable where concentrated
loads are expected
Different forms of Brick

𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑠
Used on Parapet walls
V. Brick Masonry
3. Closures: The portion of brick cut along its length

900

Squint Brick
V. Brick Masonry
4. Bats: The portion of brick cut along its width

5. Quoin: It is the exterior angle at the face of the

wall that is greater than equal to 900.
V. Bonding in Brick Masonry
V. Bonding in Brick Masonry

H H H
H H H QC H
QC
ss s
H QC H H H H H H
H H H H H H QC H
sQC
s s
H QC H H H H QCH HH
H H H H H H
sQC
s s
H QC H H H H H H
V. Bonding in Brick Masonry
1. English Bond
• Alternate layer of header and
stretcher placed over each other.
• To break the alignment of vertical
joints to be in straight line Queen
closure is placed next to Quoin
header.
• Queen closure is never placed either
at the starting or at the end of the
coarse. As it is liable to get
displaced.
V. Bonding in Brick Masonry
1. English Bond
• For the walls having thickness in odd
multiples of half brick thick, each
course shows header on one face and
stretcher on other face.
• Minimum lap available for stretcher
in each course is ¼ th the length of
brick.
V. Bonding in Brick Masonry
V. Bonding in Brick Masonry
2. Flemish Bond
• It is the arrangement of bonding in which
each course consists of alternate header
and stretcher placed next to each other.

• In order to break the alignment of

vertical joints to be in straight line,
Queen closures is placed next to quoin
header in each alternate course.
• For walls having thickness in odd
multiples of half brick thick. English bond
is found to have higher strength than
Flemish bond.
V. Bonding in Brick Masonry
2. Flemish Bond
• Flemish bond is aesthetically more
pleasing than English bond but it requires
skilled masonary work.
• English Bond has more strength than
Flemish Bond
• Flemish bond is found to be more
economical than English bond as no of
half bats is used in this case due to which
wastage of brick is comparatively less
V. Bonding in Brick Masonry

s s s s s
s s s s s s
s s s s s
s s s s s s
s s s s s
s s s s s s
V. Bonding in Brick Masonry
3. Stretcher Bond
• To break alignment in stretcher
bond, half bats are used.

• It is arrangement of bonding in
which all the bricks are laid
along the stretcher.

• In order to break the

alignment of vertical joints to
be in straight line, half bats are
used in each alternate course.
V. Bonding in Brick Masonry
V. Bonding in Brick Masonry
4. Header Bond
• It is the arrangement of bonding
in which all the bricks are laid
along the header in each course.

• In order to break the alignment

of vertical joints, to be in straight
line there quarter bat is used in
each alternate course.