1.

SOLUTIONS
QUICK REVISION POINTS:
It is a homogenous mixture of solute and solvent. (Solute + Solvent=Solution)
Types of solutions: -

EXPRESSING CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS

Some basic formulae: -
Mass percentage. Mole fraction Molarity (M) =
w/w% For solvent XA=n A/n A+nB no. of moles of
For solute XB=nB/n A+nB solute/volume of solution (L)
XA+ XB = 1 Unit=mole/litre [mol/L]
ppm (parts per million)=
Molality (m) =
For liquid solutions % no. of moles of solute/mass
v/v= of solvent(kg)
mass of solute
(WB)x106/total mass of Unit=mole/Kilogram
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒(𝑉𝐵) [mol/kg]
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑉𝐴 + 𝑉𝐴) solution (WA+WB)

NOTE:, mole fraction, mass percentage, ppm and molality are independent of
temperature, whereas molarity depends on temperature. This is because volume
depends on temperature.
SOLUBILITY (maximum amount of solute present in a specific amount of solvent at a
specified temperature) of gas depends on:

Nature of Pressure Temperature and Solubility of gas

gas
Easily Increases with increases with decrease in temperature,
liquefiable, increase in aquatic species are more comfortable in cold water
Easy to pressure rather than in warm water and prefer to stay at
dissolve (HENRY’S LAW) lower level away from the upper layer of water in
summers.
Henry’s law: -

1|P age
 To avoid BENDS, the tanks used by scuba divers are filled with air diluted with helium
(less soluble than N2)
ANOXIA problem at higher altitudes due to low pressure low concentration of O 2 in Blood
cells.

apour pressure: -The pressure exerted by the vapours in the equilibrium with liquid at a
given temperature

For two volatile liquids For one non-volatile and one volatile
liquid
PA = P0AΧA PB = P0BΧB PA = P0AΧA PB =0
Dalton’s partial pressure Dalton’s partial pressure
PTotal= P0AΧA+ PB0ΧB PTotal= P0A(1-XB)+ PB0ΧB PTotal= P0AΧA+0 PTotal= P0AΧA

Composition of vapour phase in equilibrium with the solution: PA = PtotalYA PB =

PtotalYB
Raoult’s law: - The partial vapour pressure of each component in the solution is directly
proportional to its mole fraction. [ PA  X A and PB  X B ]
Ideal solutions Non-Ideal solutions
Obeys Raoult’s law over the entire range of Don’t Obey Raoult’s law
concentration
e.g. Solution of n-hexane and n-heptane
A-A , B-B = A-B interactions A-A , B-B ≠ A-B interactions
PTotal= PA+ PB PTotal= P AΧA+ PB ΧB
0 0 PTotal≠ PA+ PB PTotal≠ P0AΧA+ PB0ΧB
Δmix H= 0 Δmix V = 0 Δmix H≠ 0, Δmix V ≠ 0
Can be separated by fractional distillation Cannot be separated by fractional
distillation

Non-Ideal solutions
Positive deviation Negative deviation
PTotal > PA+ PB ΔVmix=+ve ΔHmix=+ve PTotal< PA+ PB ΔVmix=-ve ΔHmix=-
ve
A – B interaction is weaker than A – A and B – B A – B interaction is stronger than
interactions. A – A and B – B interaction
Minimum boiling Azeotrope* Maximum boiling Azeotrope
e.g. water + alcohol e.g. water+ HNO3

Azeotrope* (Greek: boiling without change) Mixtures having same composition in liquid and
vapour phase, boil ata constant temperature and cannot be separated by fractional
distillation.

2|P age
 Colligative properties: - The properties of solutions which depend only on the number
of particles of the solute (molecules or ions) dissolved in a definite amount of the solvent
and do not depend on the nature of solute.

Relative lowering Elevation in boiling Depression in Osmosis

in point freezing point
vapour pressure
poA-ps/poA=XB ΔTb =Tb-𝑻𝒐 ΔTf =Tf-𝑻𝑶 π=CRT
𝒃 𝒇

ΔTb=Kb m ΔTf = Kf m π=n/V×RT

The net spontaneous

flow of the solvent
molecules from the

Kb = molal elevation Kf = molal solvent to the solution or

or EBULLIOSCOPIC depression or from a less concentrated

constant. It is the CRYOSCOPIC solution to a more

elevation in boiling constant. It is the concentrated solution

[for a very dilute point of 1 molal depression in through a
solution solution. freezing point of 1 semipermeable
nB << nA ] Kb = molal solution. membrane is called
𝑀𝑅𝑇2⁄ Kf =
𝑏 1000𝑋 H OSMOSIS.
𝑝𝑜 − 𝑝 𝑛 𝑤2/𝑀 𝑀𝑅𝑇2
1 1
= 2
= 2 𝑣𝑎𝑝 𝑓⁄1000𝑋 H The excess pressure on
𝑝𝑜1 𝑛1 𝑤1/𝑀1 𝑓𝑢𝑠
solution side which just
prevents the flow of
solvent molecules is
called OSMOTIC
PRESSURE.

3|P age
 Condition: pressure higher than the osmotic
pressure is applied on the solution
The solvent will flow from the solution into the
pure solvent through the semi-permeable
membrane(cellulose acetate)
Used in desalination of sea water,

Osmosis in plants and animal cells:

Two solutions having same osmotic pressure at a given temperature are called isotonic
solutions.
When such solutions are separated by semipermeable membrane no osmosis occurs
between them.

4|P age
 Two solutions having different osmotic pressure at a given temperature, the one with
lower osmotic pressure is called hypotonic solution and another one with higher
osmotic pressure is called
hypertonic solution

IMPORTANT POINTS:
Antifreeze agent: ethylene glycol used in car radiators at hill stations (Depression in
freezing point)
De-icing agents: common salt (NaCl) or calcium chloride (CaCl2) is scattered on the
roads to melt ice in cold countries (Depression in freezing point)
Biological and Industrial importance of osmosis:
 In animals, circulation of water to all parts of body takes place due to osmosis.
 Plant roots absorb water from soil due to osmosis. Concentration of cell sap inside
the root hair cells is higher than that of water present in the soil. Water enters the
root cells due to endosmosis.
 Water absorbed by plant roots is circulated in the entire plant body and reaches to the
top of a tall tree due to osmosis.
 Osmosis helps in plant growth and germination of seeds.
 Red blood cells burst when placed in water; it is due to endosmosis.
 Various functions of plants are controlled by osmosis, e.g., stretching of leaves and
flowers, opening and closing of flowers.
 Use of salt and sugar in pickles and jams acts as preservatives. It prevents growth
of bacteria and fungi by osmosis.
 Dead bodies swell under water due to endosmosis.
 When dried fruits and vegetables are placed in water, they slowly swell and return
to the original form. It is again due to the endosmosis of water into the fruits and
vegetables.
 Edema: Due to excess intake of salt by a person, the tissues become puffy, it is
called edema. It is due to retention of water in the tissue owing to osmosis.
 The preservation of meat by salting and of fruits by adding sugar protects against
bacterial action. Through the process of osmosis, a bacterium on salted meat or candid
fruit loses water, shrivels and dies.
The osmotic pressure method has got advantages over other colligative properties:
The measurement of osmotic pressure is around the room temperature, gives large
measurable values for molar masses and molarity of the solution is used instead of
molality.
Conditions for normal molar mass (Accurate value)
Solute must be non-volatile, Solution must be dilute and solute should not undergo any
association or dissociation in the solution (non-electrolyte solution).
Abnormal molar mass: ELECTROLYTIC SOLUTIONS: - When the molar mass of a
substance (solute) become higher or lower after its association or dissociation in the
solution it is called abnormal molar mass.

5|P age
6|P age
Van’t Hoff factor: i = normal molar mass/abnormal(observed)molar mass
Colligative property after abnormal PROPERTY ASSOCIATION DISSOCIATIO
molar masses: - N
Lowering of vapour pressure: - No. of Less more
molecules
XB = i poA-ps/poA
Colligative Lowers Increases
Elevation in boiling point: - property
Molar mass Greater than lesser
ΔTb=i Kb m
theoretical
Depression in freezing point: - value
i=1 i Less than 1 i More than 1
ΔTf = i Kf m (extent) 𝑖−1 𝑖−1
=degree of 1
Osmotic pressure: - π=iCRT −1 𝑛 − 1
dissociation / 𝑛 [n = no. of
association [n = no. of dissociated
particles particles.]
associated]

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (1 MARK)

1 KH value for Ar(g), CO2(g), HCHO (g) and CH4(g) are 40.39, 1.67, 1.83 × 10-5 and
0.413 respectively. Arrange these gases in the order of their increasing solubility.
a) HCHO < CH4 < CO2 < Ar b) HCHO < CO2 < CH4 < Ar
c) Ar < CO2 < CH4 < HCHO d) Ar < CH4 < CO2 < HCHO
2 When a non-volatile solid is added to pure water it will:
a) boil above 100oC and freeze above 0oC b) boil below 100oC and freeze
above 0 Co

c) boil above 100oC and freeze below 0oC d) boil below 100oC and freeze
below 0 Co

3 Water- HCl mixture

I. shows positive deviations II. forms minimum boiling azeotrope
III. shows negative deviations IV. forms maximum boiling azeotrope
a) I and II b) II and III
c) I and IV d) III and IV
4 An azeotropic solution of two liquids has boiling point lower than either of them
when solute solvent interactions are:
a) Equal to solute solute and solvent solvent interactions
b) Stronger than solute solute and solvent solvent interactions
c) Weaker than solute solute and solvent solvent interactions
d) None of the above
5 Molarity of a solution at 60oC is ---------- than molarity at 30oC
a) More b) less c) same d) no effect of temperature
6 For isotonic solutions which of the following is not equal
a) concentration b) temperature c) osmotic pressure d) vapour
pressure
7 For non-electrolyte solute value of Van’t Hoff factor is
a) 0 b) 1 c) >1 d) <1
8 In reverse osmosis:
a) a pressure greater than osmotic pressure is applied on pure water side
b) a pressure lesser than osmotic pressure is applied on pure water side

7|P age
 c) a pressure greater than osmotic pressure is applied on salt water side
d) a pressure lesser than osmotic pressure is applied on salt water side

8|P age
 9 Which of the following salt will have same value of Van’t Hoff’s factor (i) as that of
K4[Fe (CN)6]
(a) Al2(SO4)3 (b) NaCl (c) Al(NO3)3 (d) Na2SO4
10 Pure benzene has vapour pressure three times that of pure toluene. They form
nearly ideal solution. What would be the ratio of their mole fractions in the vapour
phase of a solution having equal mole fractions of benzene and toluene.
a) 1 b) 2/3 c) 3 d) 1/3
ANSWERS
1 (a), 2 (a), 3 (d), 4 (c), 5 (b), 6 (d), 7 (b), 8 (c), 9 (a) , 10 (c)
ASSERTION REASON TYPE QUESTIONS (1 MARK)
Note: In the following questions (1-5) a statement of assertion followed by a
statement of reason is given. Choose the correct answer out of the following
choices.
(a) Assertion and reason both are correct statements and reason is the correct
explanation for assertion.
(b) Assertion and reason both are correct statements but the reason is not a
correct explanation for assertion.
(c) Assertion is a correct statement but the reason is the wrong statement.
(d) Assertion is a wrong statement but the reason is a correct statement.
1 Assertion: When methyl alcohol is added to water, the boiling point
of water decreases.
Reason: When a volatile solute is added to a volatile solvent elevation in boiling
point is observed.
2 Assertion: Cooking time in pressure cooker is reduced
Reason: Boiling point inside the pressure cooker is raised
3 Assertion: Vapour pressure of a liquid is constant at a constant temperature
Reason: At equilibrium rate of evaporation becomes equal to the rate of
condensation.
4 Assertion: The components of azeotropic mixture can be separated by distillation
Reason: At a particular composition azeotropic mixture boil at the same
temperature.
5 Assertion: The shrinking of cells is called hemolysis.
Reason: Hemolysis occurs when cell comes in contact with solution of lower
osmotic pressure than that of cell
ANSWERS
1 (c), 2 (a) , 3 (a) , 4 (d) , 5 (d)
VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1 mark Type:
Q1 Give an example of a solid solution in which solute is a liquid
Ans Amalgam of mercury with sodium
Q 2 Suggest the most important type of intermolecular attractive interaction between
methanol and acetone
Ans Both methanol and acetone are polar. So, the intermolecular interactions between
them are dipole – dipole interactions
Q 3 X and Y liquids on mixing produces cold solution. What type of deviation is shown
by them?
Ans Positive deviation
Q 4 Aquatic species are more comfortable in cold waters rather than in warm waters.
Give reason.
Ans Solubility of gases increases with decrease in temperature as it is an exothermic
process.

9|P age
 Q 5 If is α the degree of dissociation of Na 2SO4, calculate Van't Hoff factor to determine
the molecular mass.
Ans 1+2α
Q 6 Give an example of a substance that can be used as a SPM.
Ans Pig’s bladder or parchment or cellophane.
Q 7. What happens when blood cells are placed in a solution containing more than 0.9%
(mass/volume) sodium chloride?
Ans Water will flow out of the cells and they would shrink
Q 8 People taking lot of salt experience puffiness or swelling of the body. Why ?
Ans People taking lot of salt experience puffiness or swelling of the body due to water
retention in tissue cells and intercellular spaces because of osmosis.
Q 9 What are hypotonic solutions?
Ans A solution which has lower osmotic pressure than the other solution separated by a
semipermeable membrane is called hypotonic solution
Q 10 How can the direction of osmosis be reversed?
Ans The direction of osmosis can be reversed if a pressure larger than the osmotic
pressure is applied to the solution side.
VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (2 MARKS)
1 a) Common salt and Calcium chloride are used to clear snow on the roads, both
are of almost same cost but sodium chloride is preferred. Why?
b) How the freezing point changes when mercuric iodide is added to the aqueous
solution of potassium iodide?
Ans a) NaCl is needed in lesser quantity.
b) Freezing point is raised as no. of particles decreases which results in decrease
in colligative property.
2 a) Write the expression for degree of dissociation of a weak electrolyte AxBy in
terms of Van’t Hoff factor.
b) Name a substance that can be used in radiators of vehicles in places where the
temperature is less than zero.
Ans a)  = i-1/(x+y-1) b) Ethylene glycol
3 a) How the osmotic pressure of 5 % aqueous solution of glucose (𝜋1) is related to
that of 5 % aqueous solution of urea (𝜋2)?
b) Why do salt water fish die when they are suddenly transferred to a fresh water
aquarium?
Ans a) 𝜋1< 𝜋2
b) Water from aquarium enters in cell causing them to expand and get ruptured.
4 a) Two 500 ml beakers were taken. One filled with 400ml water marked ‘X’ and
another with 400ml of 2M NaCl solution marked ‘Y’. At the same temperature
both were placed in closed containers of same material and same capacity, in
which container the vapour pressure is less.
b) Out of 1M sucrose and 1M urea solution which has more osmotic pressure?
Ans a) Y
b) Both have osmotic pressure.
5 a) Sia’s father is suffering from high blood pressure but he is advised to consume
less quantity of common salt. Why?
b) Two solutions A and B are separated by semi-permeable membrane. If the
liquid flows from A to B then which solution is more concentrated?
Ans a) More salt use will increase ions in the body fluid which increases blood
pressure
b) B
6 a) Why the colligative property of an electrolyte solution is always greater than
that of a non-electrolyte solution?

10 | P a g e
 b) Mohit wants to put an egg with outer shell removed in a bottle but he is unable
to do so as mouth of bottle is slightly smaller. Suggest one method to help him
putting the peeled egg in the bottle
Ans a) Due to dissociation of electrolyte the number of ions increases
b) Peeled egg shrinks in saturated brine solution.
7 a) Out of 1M and 2M sugar solutions which one has a lower boiling point?
b) While performing practical it is directed that the bottle of liquid ammonia is to
be cooled before opening the seal but Suman forgot to cool it before opening.
What consequence she faced?
a) 1M (higher the concentration of solute added higher is the colligative property)
Ans b) It is cooled to lower down the pressure of ammonia else the gas will bump out
of the bottle.
8 a) What is the effect of temperature on the process when shrunk and dried
vegetables are placed in water?
b) The boiling point of 0.2 mol kg–1 solution of X in water is greater than
equimolal solution of Y in water. Which one is undergoing dissociation in
water?
Ans a) Process will be accelerated with increase in temperature as osmosis becomes
faster with increase in temperature.
b) X
9 a) What is the unit of Ebullioscopic constant?
b) Which type of deviation is shown by Carbon tetrachloride and chloroform
mixture?
Ans a) K kg mol-1 or K (molality)-1
b) positive deviation
10 a) What is the significance of Henry’s Law constant KH?
b) How the colligative properties change if the solute undergo dissociation in
solution?
Ans a) Henry’s Law constant (K H) helps in comparing the relative solubilities of different
gases in the same solvent (e.g. water). In general, the lesser the value of KH, the
more the solubility of a gas.
b) increases due to increase in number of particles on dissociation.
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (3 MARKS)
1 a) If the elevation in boiling point of a solution for which i = 1 in a solvent (K f =x K
kg mol-1 and Kb=y K kg mol-1) is z K,then calculate the depression in freezing point
of the same concentration.
b) Give two examples of materials used for making semi permeable membrane for
carrying out reverse osmosis.
Ans a) z x/y
b) Cellulose acetate, potassium ferrocyanide
2 a) What is the degree of dissociation for 0.1M Ba (NO3)2 if i(Van’t Hoff factor) is 2.74
b) Arrange the following solutions in increasing order of Van’t Hoff factor.
0.1M CaCl2, 0.1M KCl, 0.1M C12H22O11, 0.1 M Al2(SO4)3
Ans a)  = 𝑖−1
𝑛−1
 = 87%
b) 0.1M C12H22O11 < 0.1M KCl < 0.1M CaCl2 < 0.1 M Al2(SO4)3
3 a) Molal elevation constant for benzene is 2.52 K/m. A solution of some organic
substance in benzene boils at 0.126oC higher than benzene. What is the molality of
the solution?
b) What are the values of Van’t Hoff factor for NaCl and K2SO4, respectively?
Ans a) ΔTb= Kb m, molality=0.05m
b) 2 and 3

11 | P a g e
12 | P a g e
 4 a) State Henry’s law.
b) Which cold drink you prefer one chilled or other one at room temperature and
why?
c) At the same temperature hydrogen is more soluble in water than Helium. Which
of them will have higher value of KH and why?
Ans a) Mole fraction of gas in the solution is directly proportional to partial pressure of
gas in the vapour phase
b) Chilled as solubility of CO2 is more at low temp.
c) Helium as greater the KH value lower the solubility
5 a) Account for the reason, marine life like fish prefers to stay at lower level and stay
away from the upper layer of water.
b) Why freezing/melting point of a substance used as a criterion for testing the
purity of a substance?
c) Account for the reason for preservation of fruits against bacterial action by adding
sugar.
Ans a) Temperature is higher in upper layer so solubility of oxygen is less
b) M.P./F.P. changes due to impurities.
c) Bacterium in canned fruit loses water through the process of osmosis, shrivels
and dies.
LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (5 MARKS)
1 a) If boiling point of an aqueous solution containing a non-volatile solute is
100.15oC. What is its freezing point? Given latent heat of fusion and vapourisation
of water are 80cal/g and 540 cal/g respectively.
b) Electrolyte A gives 4 ions and B is a non-electrolyte. If 0.1 molar solution of solute B
produces an osmotic pressure ‘p’, then 0.02 molar solution of A will produce how much
osmotic pressure?
Ans 𝑅×𝑀1×𝑇2 𝑅×𝑀1×𝑇2𝑏
a) ΔTb =Kb m, ΔT f=Kf m 𝐾𝑓 = 𝑓
𝐾𝑏 =
1000×∆𝑓𝑢𝑠𝐻 1000×∆𝑣𝑎𝑝𝐻

𝑇2 𝑋 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

Kf/Kb= 𝑓
= ΔTf/ ΔTb
𝑇𝑏2𝑋 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

ΔTf= 0.542 Tf=0-0.542=-0.542oC

b) 0.8p
2 a) 0.6 mL of acetic acid 𝐶𝐻3𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻, having density 1.06 g/mL, is dissolved in 1 litre
of water. The depression in freezing point observed for this strength of acid was
0.0205°C. Calculate the van’t Hoff factor and the dissociation constant of acid. 𝐾𝑓=
1.86 K kg /mol.
b) How does Raoult’s law become a special case of Henry’s law?
Ans a) First find out number of moles of acetic acid, mass of acetic acid =volume
x density
mass of acetic acid=0.6 X 1.06= 0.636 g and molar mass of acetic acid = 60 g/
mol
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 0.636
𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 = = 0.0106
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 60
0.0106
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
= = 0.0106 𝑚 (As density of water = 1 g/𝑐𝑚3) ∴ 1 𝐿 =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 1

1𝑘𝑔)
0.0205
∆𝑇𝑓 = 𝑖 𝐾𝑓 𝑚 𝑖= 1.86×0.0106
= 1.04
𝑖−1 1.04−1
𝛼= = = 0.04 As n=2, 𝐶𝐻 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 ⇋ 𝐶𝐻 𝐶𝑂𝑂− + 𝐻+
𝑛−1 2−1 3 3

13 | P a g e
 [𝐶𝐻 3𝐶𝑂𝑂 [𝐻
−] ]+ 𝑐𝛼 × 𝑐𝛼 𝑐𝛼 2 0.0106 ×0.04×0.04
Dissociation constant 𝐾 = = = = = 1.76 × 10−5
𝑎 [𝐶𝐻3𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻] 𝑐(1−𝛼) 1−𝛼 1−0.04

14 | P a g e
15 | P a g e