Unit III: Ecology and Ecosystems

Lesson 1: Introduction to Ecology

“Look deep into nature, and then you will understand everything better.”
— Albert Einstein

What Ecology is?

- A scientific study of the relationships between living organisms and their environment.
- The branch of biology that deals with the relations of organisms to one another and to their
physical surroundings.
- Atudy of how organisms interact with each other and with their physical environment,
including the abundance and distribution of organisms.
- A discipline that is concerned with the relationships between organisms and their past,
current, and future environments.

An Overview of Ecology
When studying a species in nature, scientists often begin by asking, what environmental
factors limit where it is found? How do variations in an organism’s food supply or interactions with
other species, such as predators, affect the size of their populations?

Questions like these are the subject of ecology, the scientific study of the interactions
between organisms and the environment. (Note that here and throughout this text, the term
environment refers to other organisms as well as the physical aspects of an organism’s
surroundings.) The interactions studied by ecologists can be organized into a hierarchy that ranges
in scale from single organisms to the planet.

Scope of Ecology
Ecologists work at different levels of the biological hierarchy, from individual organisms to
the planet.

1. Organismal Ecology
Organismal ecology, which includes the subdisciplines of physiological, evolutionary, and
behavioral ecology, is concerned with how an organism’s structure, physiology, and behavior
meet the challenges posed by its environment.
2. Population Ecology
A population is a group of individuals of the same species living in an area. Population
ecology analyzes factors that affect population size and how and why it changes through
time.
3. Community Ecology
A community is a group of populations of different species in an area. Community ecology
examines how interactions between species, such as predation and competition, affect
community structure and organization.
4. Ecosystem Ecology
An ecosystem is the community of organisms in an area and the physical factors with
which those organisms interact. Ecosystem ecology emphasizes energy flow and chemical
cycling between organisms and the environment.
5. Landscape Ecology
A landscape (or seascape) is a mosaic of connected ecosystems. Research in landscape
ecology focuses on the factors controlling exchanges of energy, materials, and organisms
across multiple ecosystems.

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 6. Global Ecology
The biosphere is the global ecosystem—the sum of all the planet’s ecosystems and
landscapes. Global ecology examines how the regional exchange of energy and materials
influences the functioning and distribution of organisms across the biosphere.

How Earth’s climate and other factors determine the location of major life zones on land and in
the oceans.
A. Global Climate Patterns
Global climate patterns are determined largely by the input of solar energy and Earth’s
movement in space. The sun warms the atmosphere, land, and water. This warming
establishes the temperature variations, movements of air and water, and evaporation of
water that cause dramatic latitudinal variations in climate.

1. Latitudinal Variation in Sunlight

Intensity: Earth’s curved shape
causes latitudinal variation in the
intensity of sunlight. Because sunlight
strikes the tropics (those regions that
lie between 23.5° north latitude and
23.5° south latitude) most directly,
more heat and light per unit of
surface area are delivered there. At
higher latitudes, sunlight strikes
Earth at an oblique angle, and thus
the light energy is more diffuse on
Earth’s surface.

2. Global Air Circulation and

Precipitation Patterns: Intense solar
radiation near the equator initiates a
global pattern of air circulation and
precipitation. High temperatures in the
tropics evaporate water from Earth’s
surface and cause warm, wet air masses
to rise (blue arrows) and flow toward
the poles. As the rising air masses
expand and cool, they release much of
their water content, creating abundant
precipitation in tropical regions. The
high-altitude air masses, now dry,
descend (tan arrows) toward Earth
around 30° north and south, absorbing
moisture from the land and creating an arid climate conducive to the development of the
deserts that are common at those latitudes. Some of the descending air then flows toward
the poles. At latitudes around 60° north and south, the air masses again rise and release
abundant precipitation (though less than in the tropics). Some of the cold, dry rising air then
flows to the poles, where it descends and flows back toward the equator, absorbing
moisture and creating the comparatively rainless and bitterly cold climates of the polar
regions.

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 Air flowing close to Earth’s
surface creates predictable global
wind patterns. As Earth rotates on
its axis, land near the equator
moves faster than that at the poles,
deflecting the winds from the
vertical paths shown above and
creating the more easterly and
westerly flows shown at right.
Cooling trade winds blow from east
to west in the tropics; prevailing
westerlies blow from west to east in
the temperate zones, defined as
the regions between the Tropic of
Cancer and the Arctic Circle and
between the Tropic of Capricorn
and the Antarctic Circle.

B. Regional and Local Effects on Climate

Climate varies seasonally and can be modified by other factors, such as large bodies of
water and mountain ranges.

1. Seasonality:
In middle to high latitudes, Earth’s tilted axis of rotation and its annual passage around
the sun cause strong seasonal cycles in day length, solar radiation, and temperature (Figure
1).

Figure 1.
Seasonal variation in sunlight intensity
Because Earth is tilted on its axis relative to its plane of orbit around the sun, the intensity
of solar radiation varies seasonally. This variation is smallest in the tropics and increases toward
the poles.

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 The changing angle of the sun over the course of the year also affects local
environments. For example, the belts of wet and dry air on either side of the equator move
slightly northward and southward as the sun’s angle changes; this produces marked wet and
dry seasons around 20° north and 20° south latitude, where many tropical deciduous forests
grow. In addition, seasonal changes in wind patterns alter ocean currents, sometimes
causing the upwelling of cold water from deep ocean layers. This nutrient-rich water
stimulates the growth of surface-dwelling phytoplankton and the organisms that feed on
them. Though these upwelling zones make up only a few percent of the ocean’s area, they
are the source of more than 25% of all fish caught globally.

2. Bodies of Water:
Ocean currents influence climate along the coasts of continents by heating or cooling
overlying air masses that pass across the land. Coastal regions are also generally wetter than
inland areas at the same latitude. The cool, misty climate produced by the cold California
Current that flows southward along western North America supports a coniferous rain forest
ecosystem along much of the continent’s Pacific coast and large redwood groves farther
south. Conversely, the west coast of northern Europe has a mild climate because the Gulf
Stream carries warm water from the equator to the North Atlantic (Figure 2). As a result,
northwestern Europe is warmer during winter than southeastern Canada, which is farther
south but is cooled by the Labrador Current flowing south from the coast of Greenland.

Figure 2.
Global circulation of surface water in the oceans
Water is warmed at the equator and flows north and south toward the poles, where it cools.
Note the similarities between the direction of water circulation in the gyres and the direction of
the trade winds.

Because of the high specific heat of water, oceans and large lakes tend to moderate the
climate of nearby land. During a hot day, when land is warmer than the water, air over the
land heats up and rises, drawing a cool breeze from the water across the land (Figure 3). In
contrast, because temperatures drop more quickly over land than over water at night, air
over the now warmer water rises, drawing cooler air from the land back out over the water
and replacing it with warmer air from offshore. This local moderation of climate can be
limited to the coast itself, however. In southern California and southwestern Australia, cool,
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 dry ocean breezes in summer are warmed when they contact the land, absorbing moisture
and creating a hot, arid climate just a few kilometers inland. This climate pattern also
occurs around the Mediterranean Sea, which gives it the name Mediterranean climate.

Figure 3.
How large bodies of water and mountains affect climate
This figure illustrates what can happen on a hot summer day.

3. Bodies of Water:
Ocean currents influence climate along the coasts of continents by heating or cooling
overlying air masses that pass across the land. Coastal regions are also generally wetter than
inland areas at the same latitude. The cool, misty climate produced by the cold California
Current that flows southward along western North America supports a coniferous rain forest
ecosystem along much of the continent’s Pacific coast and large redwood groves farther
south. Conversely, the west coast of northern Europe has a mild climate because the Gulf
Stream carries warm water from the equator to the North Atlantic (Figure 2). As a result,
northwestern Europe is warmer during winter than southeastern Canada, which is farther
south but is cooled by the Labrador Current flowing south from the coast of Greenland.
4. Effects of Vegetation on Climate:
Climate affects where terrestrial organisms can live, but organisms can also affect
climate. This is especially true of forests, which can alter the climate at local and even
regional scales. When viewed from above, a forest is darker in color than a desert or
grassland. As a result, a forest absorbs more (and reflects less) solar energy than does a
desert or grassland, thereby contributing to a warming of Earth’s surface in forested areas.
This warming effect, however, is more than offset by transpiration, the evaporative loss of
water from a plant that cools the plant’s surface—similar to how your body is cooled when
you sweat. The evaporative loss of water is much greater in forests than in other
ecosystems, causing forests to affect climate in two key ways: Forests reduce Earth’s
surface temperature and they increase precipitation rates (Figure 51.7). As documented in
regions around the world, the climate becomes hotter and drier in areas where humans have
cut down large forests and becomes cooler and wetter where humans have restored large
forests.
Ecological Succession
Changes in the composition of terrestrial communities are most apparent after a severe
disturbance, such as a volcanic eruption or a glacier, strips away all the existing vegetation. The
disturbed area may be colonized by a variety of species, which are gradually replaced by other
species, which are in turn replaced by still other species—a process called ecological succession.
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 Figure 4.
How cutting down a forest affects regional climate

A. Primary Succession: This occurs in areas that are initially devoid of life and soil. Think of
newly formed volcanic lava flows (like those in Mount Pinatubo's aftermath, though not
directly in Ilocos, it's a Philippine example), newly exposed rock after glacial retreat (less
common in the Philippines), or newly formed sand dunes.

Stages:
Pioneer Stage: The first organisms to colonize these barren areas are called pioneer species.
These are typically hardy organisms like lichens and mosses that can survive with little or no
soil. They help to break down the rock and begin the process of soil formation.
Early Successional Stage: As soil develops, simple plants like grasses and small shrubs can
start to grow. These further contribute to soil enrichment.
Intermediate Successional Stage: Over time, larger shrubs and fast-growing trees may
appear, creating more shade and altering the environment.
Climax Community: Eventually, a more stable and mature community develops, known as
the climax community. This community is often dominated by long-lived tree species and is
relatively stable unless a major disturbance occurs. The type of climax community depends
on the climate and other environmental factors of the region. In the Ilocos Region, a
potential climax community might be a type of tropical dry forest.

B. Secondary Succession: This happens in areas where an existing ecosystem has been
disturbed or removed, but the soil remains intact. Examples include areas after a wildfire
(common during dry seasons in some parts of the Philippines), abandoned agricultural fields
(potentially seen in areas undergoing land-use change in Ilocos), or forests cleared by
logging.
Stages: Secondary succession generally proceeds faster than primary succession because soil is
already present.

Early Successional Stage: Typically involves the rapid growth of pioneer plants like grasses
and weeds that quickly colonize the disturbed area.
Intermediate Successional Stage: Shrubs and fast-growing trees begin to dominate,
outcompeting the early colonizers.
Climax Community: Similar to primary succession, a climax community will eventually
develop, depending on the regional climate and conditions.

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 Habitat and Ecological Niche
Habitat:
A habitat is simply the physical place where an organism lives. It's the organism's "address."
It's defined by the environmental conditions present, such as:
Climate: Temperature, rainfall, sunlight, humidity. The tropical climate of the
Philippines dictates the types of habitats found here.
Food Availability: The presence and abundance of resources that the organism
consumes. For example, a rice paddy is the habitat for rice plants and the various
insects that feed on them.
Shelter: Places where an organism can find protection from predators or harsh
weather conditions (e.g., burrows, nests, tree canopies). The caves in some parts of
the Philippines provide habitat for bats and other cave-dwelling organisms.
Water Availability: Crucial for most life forms, the type and availability of water
(freshwater, saltwater, brackish water) define aquatic habitats like rivers, lakes, and
coral reefs. The coastline near Rosario provides a marine habitat.
Soil Type: Important for terrestrial organisms, influencing plant growth and the types
of animals that can live in the soil.
Ecological Niche:
An ecological niche, on the other hand, is an organism's role or job within its environment.
It's not just where it lives, but what it does there, how it interacts with other organisms, and
how it utilizes resources. It encompasses:
How it obtains food: Is it a producer, herbivore, carnivore, omnivore, detritivore, or
decomposer? A Philippine Cobra's niche includes being a venomous carnivore that
preys on rodents and other small animals.
Its interactions with other species: Does it compete with others for resources? Is it a
predator or prey? Does it engage in symbiotic relationships? The relationship between
clownfish and sea anemones in Philippine coral reefs is an example of mutualism, a
part of their respective niches.
Its adaptations to its surroundings: How is its body structure, physiology, and
behavior suited to its environment? The ability of mangroves found along Philippine
coastlines to tolerate saltwater and anaerobic soil is a key aspect of their niche.
The range of conditions it can tolerate: Temperature, humidity, salinity, etc.