BY INSIGHT SSB
6 CHEMISTRY
THERE ARE FIVE STATES OF MATTER
SOLID STATE They have definite shape and volume. Also, they are rigid.”.
LIQUID STATE They don’t have any fixed shape but they do have fixed volume.
They are not rigid but fluid.
GASEOUS STATE They have high kinetic energy and particles are widely spaced.
PLASMA The state consists of super energetic and super excited
particles. These particles are in the form of ionised gases.
BOSE EINSTEIN The BEC is formed by cooling a gas of extremely low density,
about one-hundred-thousandth the density of normal air, to
CONDENSATE
super low temperatures.
CONVERSIONS OF DIFFERENT STATES
EVAPORATION
It is a process of change of liquid into vapors at any temperature below its boiling point is
called evaporation. It absorbs energy from the surrounding thus keeping the
surroundings cool.
FACTORS AFFECTING EVAPORATION
SURFACE AREA If surface area is increased, the rate of evaporation is
increased.
If temperature is increased, more particles get kinetic
TEMPERATURE
energy to convert into vapor state.
If amount of water vapor is already high in atmosphere
HUMIDITY
evaporation decreases.
More wind speed, more particles will evaporate with
WIND SPEED the wind.
After a hot sunny day people sprinkle water on the roof because large latent heat of
vaporization of water helps to cool the hot surface.
In summers we wear cotton clothes because cotton is a good absorber of water helps in
absorbing the sweat and exposing it to atmosphere for easy evaporation.
MIXTURE
Mixtures are constituted by more than one kind of pure form of matter.
HOMOGENEOUS MIXTURE HETEROGENOUS MIXTURE
Mixtures that have uniform composition Mixtures that don’t have uniform
throughout are called as homogeneous composition are called heterogenous
mixture. E.g. salt dissolved in water. mixture. E.g. mixtures of sodium chloride
and iron filings, slat and Sulphur
ALLOYS Alloys are mixtures of two or more metals or a metal and a non-metal and
cannot be separated into their components by physical methods. E.g. brass
is a mixture of approximately 30% zinc and 70% copper
SOLUTION A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. Lemonade,
soda water etc. are all examples of solutions. A solution has a solvent and a
solute as its components.
The component of the solution that dissolves the other component in it
(usually the component present in larger amount) is called the solvent. The
component of the solution that is dissolved in the solvent (usually present in
lesser quantity) is called the solute.
TINCTURE OF IODINE – It is solution of iodine in
alcohol.
Aerated drinks like soda water etc., are gas in liquid
solutions. These contain carbon dioxide (gas) as
solute and water (liquid) as solvent.
The two main constituents of gases in atmosphere
are: oxygen (21%) and nitrogen (78%).
WAYS OF FINDING CONCENTRATION OF
SOLUTION
1. MASS BY MASS PERCENTAGE OF A SOLUTION
2. MASS BY VOLUME PERCENTAGE OF A SOLUTION
3. VOLUME BY VOLUME PERCENTAGE OF A SOLUTION
SUSPENSION COLLOIDS
A suspension is a heterogeneous A colloidal solution is a heterogenous
mixture in which the solute particles mixture. But the particles are not visible
do not dissolve but remain suspended by naked eyes. E.g. Milk. They cannot be
throughout the bulk of the medium. separated through filtration but can be
Particles of a suspension are visible to separated through centrifugation.
the naked eye.
COMMON EXAMPLES OF COLLOIDS
SEPARATION TECHNIQUES
EVAPORATION CENTRIFUGATION
This is used to extract coloured Used to separate dairy products like
component from blue or black ink. separation of cream from milk. Used in
diagnostic labs for blood and urine tests.
Used in washing machines to squeeze out
water from wet clothes.
SEPARATING FUNNEL SUBLIMATION
Used to separate kerosene oil from To separate such mixtures that contain a
water. In extraction of iron from its ore. sublimable volatile component from a non-
sublimable impurity, the sublimation
process is used. Some examples of solids
which sublime are ammonium chloride,
naphthalene and anthracene
CHROMATOGRAPHY DISTILLATION
Chromatography is the technique used It is used for the separation of
for separation of those solutes that components of a mixture containing two
dissolve in the same solvent. Used to miscible liquids that boil without
separate colours in a dye, pigments from decomposition and have sufficient
natural colours and drugs from blood difference in their boiling points. E.g. to
separate acetone and water.
FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION
To separate a mixture of two or more miscible liquids for which the difference in boiling
points is less than 25 K, fractional distillation process is used, for example, for the
separation of different gases from air, different factions from petroleum products etc.
CRYSTALLISATION
Crystallisation is a process that separates a pure solid in the form of its crystals from a
solution. E.g. purification of salt that we get from sea, separation of crystals of alum
from impure samples.
Burning is a chemical change.
Burning of candle, both physical and chemical change takes place.
Robert Boyle was the first to use the term “element.
Two elements are liquid at room temperature mercury and bromine.
Elements, gallium and cesium become liquid at a temperature slightly above room
temperature (303 K).
Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) is a colourless gas with rotten egg like smell.
Examples of metalloids are boron, silicon, germanium etc.
Mercury is only metal that is liquid at room temperature.
Iodine is non-metal but lustrous.
ATOMS AND MOLECULE
“John Dalton” was the first one to talk about atom.
DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY
1. All matter is made up of tiny particles called atom.
2. Atoms are indivisible particles that cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical
reaction.
3. Atoms of different elements have different masses and chemical properties.
4. Atoms combine in the ratio of small whole numbers.
SYMBOLS OF ELEMENTS PROPOSED BY DALTON
MOLECULE
A molecule is in general a group
of two or more atoms that are
chemically bonded together,
that is, tightly held together by
attractive forces.
ATOMICITY
The number of atoms constituting a molecule is known as its atomicity. E.g. Ozone have
O3 so atomicity is 3.
ATOMICITY OF SOME ELEMENTS
NUMERICALS
MOLECULAR MASS
The molecular mass of a substance is the sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms in a
molecule of the substance.
E.G. CALCULATE THE MOLECULAR MASS OF WATER (H2O)
Atomic mass of hydrogen = 1u
Atomic mass of oxygen = 16u
Total (H20) = 2X1+16=18u
NUMBER OF MOLES
Number of moles = given mass / molar mass
e.g. calculate number of moles in 52g of He
number of moles = 52/4 = 13
NUMBER OF MOLES
Number of moles = given number of particles/ Avogadro number (Avogadro number =
6.022 x 10 ^23)
e.g. calculate number of moles in 12.044 x 10^23
number of moles = 12.044 x 10^23/ 6.022 x 10^23 = 2
VARIOUS MODELS OF ATOM
THOMSON’S MODEL OF ATOM (PLUM PUDDING MODEL)
The electrons are distributed in positive sphere like dry fruits in pudding.
An atom consists of a positively charged sphere and the electrons are embedded in it.
The negative and positive charges are equal in magnitude. So, the atom as a whole is
electrically neutral.
RUTHERFORD’S MODEL OF ATOM
In his experiment, fast moving alpha (α)-particles were made to fall on a thin gold foil.
According to his experiment he said there is a positively charged centre in an atom
called the nucleus. Nearly all the mass of an atom resides in the nucleus.
The electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular paths.
The size of the nucleus is very small as compared to the size of the atom.
BOHR’S MODEL OF ATOM
According to him, only certain special orbits known as discrete orbits of electrons, are
allowed inside the atom.
While revolving in discrete orbits the electrons do not radiate energy.
The energy shells were K, L, M, N which were filled with electrons according to
formula of 2n^2.
ISOTOPES
Elements which have same atomic number but different mass numbers. E.g. Hydrogen atom
has three atomic species namely protium (1 1 H), deuterium (2 1 H or D) and tritium (3 1H or
T).
Another example is Average atomic mass of Chlorine
(i) Carbon (C12 and C14) is 35.5 u.
(ii) Chlorine (Cl35 and Cl37)
APPLICATION OF ISOTOPES
An isotope of uranium is used as a fuel in nuclear reactors.
An isotope of cobalt is used in the treatment of cancer.
An isotope of iodine is used in the treatment of goitre.
ISOBARS
Atoms of different elements with different atomic numbers, which have the same mass
number, are known as isobars. E.G. Calcium (atomic number – 20) and Argon (atomic
number – 18) both have same mass number that is 40.
Electron was discovered by J.J Thomson.
Proton was discovered by E. Goldstein.
Neutron was discovered by Chadwick.
Nucleus was discovered by Rutherford.
Isoelectronic species have same number of electrons but different
nuclear charge. E.g. Mg2+ and Na+.
Isotones have same number of neutrons. E.g. C14 and N15.
ATOM BOMB is result of uncontrolled “nuclear fission”.
HYDROGEN BOMB is result of “nuclear fusion”.
Radiocarbon dating is done using C14.
Heavy water (D2O) and graphite are used as moderator in nuclear
plants.
CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS
FORMULA AND STRUCTURE OF
SATURATED COMPOUNDS CATENATION – Carbon has a
unique ability to form bonds
with other atoms of carbon,
giving rise to large molecules.
This property is called
catenation.
Carbon has a valency of four
therefore it is called
tetravalent.
Saturated hydrocarbons are
those with single bond and
unsaturated hydrocarbons are
those with double or triple
bonds.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON COMPOUNDS
COMBUSTION
Saturated hydrocarbons will generally give clean blue flame while burning whereas
unsaturated hydrocarbons will give a yellow flame with lots of black smoke.
Coal is remains of trees, ferns and other plants under the land.
Oil and petroleum are remains of plants and animals that lived in the sea.
Carbon burns in presence of oxygen to give heat and light.
OXIDATION
Some substances are capable of adding oxygen to others. These substances are known
as oxidising agents. Alkaline potassium permanganate or acidified potassium dichromate
are oxidising alcohols to acids, that is, adding oxygen to the starting material. Hence,
they are known as oxidising agents.
ADDITION REACTION
Unsaturated hydrocarbons add hydrogen in the presence of catalysts such as palladium
or nickel to give saturated hydrocarbons.
This reaction is commonly used in the hydrogenation of vegetable oils using a nickel
catalyst.
Vegetable oils generally have long unsaturated carbon chains while animal fats have
saturated carbon chains.
SUBSTITUTION REACTION
Saturated hydrocarbons are fairly unreactive and are inert in the presence of most
reagents. However, in the presence of sunlight, chlorine is added to hydrocarbons in a
very fast reaction.
Chlorine can replace the hydrogen atoms one by one. It is called a substitution reaction
because one type of atom or a group of atoms takes the place of another.
SOME IMPORTANT CARBON COMPOUNDS
1. ETHANOL
- Ethanol is commonly called alcohol and is active ingredient of all alcoholic drinks.
- As it is a good solvent it is used for medicinal purposes like tincture of iodine, cough syrups
and many tonics.
- Methanol is another type which is harmful when consumed as it gets oxidized into
methanal in the liver. It also affects the optic nerve leading to blindness.
- To avoid misuse of ethanol in industrial purpose it is made unfit for drinking by adding
poisonous substances like methanol to it. Dyes are also added to color the alcohol blue so
that it can be identified easily. This is called “denatured alcohol”.
REACTIONS OF ETHANOL
1. REACTION WITH SODIUM
Alcohol reacts with sodium leading to evolution to hydrogen. With ethanol,
the other product is sodium ethoxide
2. REACTION TO GIVE UNSATURATED HYDROCARBON
Heating ethanol at 443K with excess concentrated sulphuric acid results in
dehydration of ethanol to give ethene
“SUGARCANE MOLASSES” can be
used to give alcohol.
2. ETHANOIC ACID
- Commonly called as acetic acid.
- 5-8% solution of acetic acid in water is called vinegar and is used widely as preservatives in
pickle.
- The melting point of pure ethanoic acid is 290K and hence it often freezes during winter in
cold climates. Due to which it is called as “glacial acetic acid’.
REACTIONS
1. ESTERIFICATION REACTION
Esters are formed by reaction of an acid and an alcohol.
Esters are sweet smelling substances. These are used in making
perfumes and as flavoring agents.
Esters react in the presence of an acid or a base to give back the alcohol
and carboxylic acid. The reaction is called as saponification reaction
because it is used in preparation of soap.
POLYMERS
Polymers are large molecules composed of repeating subunits called ‘monomers’, forming
substances like plastics, rubber and natural materials like DNA and protein.
EXAMPLES OF POLYMERS ALONG WITH THEIR MONOMERS
NAME OF POLYMER MONOMER
1. POLYETHYLENE ETHYLENE/ ETHENE
2. POLYVINYL CHLORIDE (PVC) VINYL CHLORIDE
3. STARCH GLUCOSE
4. NATURAL RUBBER ISOPRENE
5. NYLON AMIDE MONOMER
6. POLYSTYRENE STYRENE
7. CELLULOSE ACETATE ACETYL -b- GLUCOSE
8. TEFLON TETRAFLUOROETHYLENE
9. MELAMINE MELAMINE AND FORMALDEHYDE
10. BAKELITE PHENOL AND FORMALDEHYDE
11. TERYLENE ETHYLENE GLYCOL AND TEREPHTHALIC ACID
USES
NAME OF POLYMER USES
1. TEFLON NON- STICK KITCHEN WARE
2. POLYTHENE PACKAGING, MATERIAL, CARRY BAGS
3. MELAMINE CROCKERY
4. PVC PIPES INSULATION
5. LEXAN BULLET PROOF GLASS
6. BAKELITE ELECTRICAL INSULATION BUTTONS
7. NYLON FIBRES, ROPES
8. POLYSTYRENE FOAM THERMOCOLE
1. Which polymer is used in non-stick ware?
2. 5-8% acetic acid in what is called as ‘vinegar’?
3. Which catalyst is used in hydrogenation of vegetable oils?
4. Hydrogen bomb is due to?
5. Which element is tetra-atomic in nature?
6. Which gas is colorless and have rotten egg like smell?
7. Who was the first to use term element?
8. Which technique is used to separate colours in a dye?
9. Tincture of iodine have iodine in what?
10. Give one example of metalloid?
[Link], [Link], germanium, boron
[Link], [Link], [Link] and Palladium, [Link] fusion, [Link], 6.H2S, [Link] Boyle, [Link],
answer;
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