Pg 205-208

Question Detailed Answer

An ecosystem is a functional unit of nature where living organisms interact

1. What is an with each other and their surrounding physical environment. It can be
ecosystem, and how categorized into terrestrial ecosystems (e.g., forest, grassland, desert) and
is it categorized? aquatic ecosystems (e.g., ponds, lakes, rivers, estuaries). Man-made
ecosystems, like crop fields or aquariums, are also considered ecosystems.

The components of an ecosystem are abiotic (non-living) and biotic (living).

2. What are the
Abiotic factors include water, temperature, soil, and nutrients, while biotic
components of an
factors consist of plants, animals, and decomposers. The interaction
ecosystem, and how do
between these components results in the formation of physical structure,
they interact?
species composition, and energy flow within the system.

Stratification refers to the vertical distribution of different species in an

3. Explain the
ecosystem. For example, in a forest, trees occupy the top strata, shrubs the
concept of
middle layer, and herbs and grasses occupy the lower layers. This stratification
stratification in an
is a result of different species occupying various levels of the ecosystem based
ecosystem.
on their requirements for sunlight, water, and other factors.

The four main aspects of ecosystem functions are:

(i) Productivity – the rate at which biomass is produced
by autotrophs through photosynthesis.
4. Define and explain the four main (ii) Decomposition – the breakdown of dead organic
aspects that describe ecosystem matter into inorganic substances.
functions. (iii) Energy flow – the transfer of energy from one trophic
level to another in a food chain/web.
(iv) Nutrient cycling – the recycling of nutrients like
carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus through the ecosystem.

In an ecosystem, energy flows from producers (autotrophs) to consumers

5. How does energy
(heterotrophs) and decomposers in a unidirectional manner. Energy is lost as
flow in an ecosystem,
heat at each trophic level due to metabolism and other processes.
and what is its
Ultimately, most of the energy is lost to the environment as heat, and only a
ultimate fate?
small fraction is transferred to higher trophic levels.

Primary productivity is the amount of biomass or organic matter produced by

6. What is primary plants during photosynthesis in a given area over a specific period. It can be
productivity, and measured in grams per square meter (g m–2) or kilocalories per square
how is it measured? meter (kcal m–2). Primary productivity is divided into gross primary
productivity (GPP) and net primary productivity (NPP).

Gross Primary Productivity (GPP) is the total rate at which energy is

7. Differentiate
captured by plants through photosynthesis. Net Primary Productivity (NPP)
between gross primary
is the energy remaining after plants have used some of the GPP for
productivity (GPP) and
respiration. It represents the energy available to consumers (herbivores,
net primary
decomposers). The relationship is given by: NPP=GPP−Respiration (R)\
productivity (NPP).
text{NPP} = \text{GPP} - \text{Respiration (R)}NPP=GPP−Respiration (R).
 The low productivity of oceans, despite covering about 70% of the Earth's
8. What are the main
surface, is primarily due to nutrient limitations (especially nitrogen and
reasons for the low
phosphorus) and lack of sunlight in deep waters. Ocean ecosystems often
productivity of
have less access to nutrients that are needed for high productivity, especially
oceans?
in the open ocean, compared to terrestrial ecosystems.

Decomposition is the breakdown of organic matter into simpler inorganic

9. Explain the process of substances such as carbon dioxide, water, and nutrients. The main steps
decomposition and its in decomposition include fragmentation, leaching, catabolism,
importance in an humification, and mineralisation. It is vital for recycling nutrients back
ecosystem. into the ecosystem, making them available for plant growth and
maintaining soil fertility.

The rate of decomposition is influenced by factors such as temperature,

moisture, and the chemical composition of the detritus. Warm and moist
10. How do climatic
conditions favor microbial activity, accelerating decomposition, while cold
factors influence the
and dry conditions slow it down. Detritus rich in lignin and chitin
rate of decomposition?
decomposes slowly, while detritus rich in nitrogen and soluble sugars
decomposes more rapidly.

Detritivores, such as earthworms, play a crucial role in breaking down

11. What is the role of dead organic matter into smaller particles in a process called
detritivores in the fragmentation. This prepares the material for further decomposition by
process of microbes and fungi. Detritivores help speed up nutrient recycling by
decomposition? physically breaking down detritus, making it more accessible to
decomposers.

Humification is the process during decomposition that leads to the

12. How does
formation of humus, a dark, amorphous, and resistant organic matter in the
humification
soil. Humus is colloidal in nature and acts as a reservoir of nutrients, slowly
contribute to the soil's
releasing them for plant use. It is highly resistant to further microbial
nutrient reservoir?
degradation and helps improve soil structure and fertility.

Decomposition is largely an oxygen-requiring process. In aerobic

conditions, where oxygen is present, decomposition is faster because
13. Discuss the impact of
microorganisms break down organic matter efficiently. In anaerobic
the oxygen requirement
conditions, such as in waterlogged soils, decomposition slows down,
on decomposition rates.
leading to the accumulation of organic material and the formation of
substances like methane and hydrogen sulfide.

Pg 209- 214

Question Answer

1. What is the primary source of energy for The primary source of energy for all ecosystems on
ecosystems? Earth is the Sun.

2. What is photosynthetically Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) refers to the portion of

active radiation (PAR)? sunlight that plants can use for photosynthesis, typically accounting
 for less than 50% of the incident solar radiation.

Producers, such as plants and photosynthetic bacteria, capture solar energy

3. How do
through photosynthesis, converting it into chemical energy in the form of
producers capture
organic compounds using simple inorganic materials like carbon dioxide and
solar energy?
water.

The first law of thermodynamics (law of energy conservation) states

4. What is the significance of that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed. This
the first and second laws of applies to ecosystems, where energy flows from the Sun through
thermodynamics in energy producers and consumers. The second law (entropy) indicates that
flow? energy transfer results in energy loss as heat, which is why energy
diminishes at higher trophic levels.

The two major categories of ecosystems are terrestrial ecosystems

5. What are the two major
(e.g., forests, grasslands, deserts) and aquatic ecosystems (e.g., ponds,
categories of ecosystems?
lakes, rivers, estuaries).

6. What is the A food chain represents a linear flow of energy from one organism to
difference between a another, while a food web consists of multiple interconnected food chains,
food chain and a food showing more complex relationships and interdependencies between
web? organisms in an ecosystem.

7. What is meant Trophic levels refer to the position of an organism in the food chain, based on its
by trophic source of nutrition. Producers are at the first trophic level, primary consumers at
levels? the second, secondary consumers at the third, and so on.

Energy flows unidirectionally in an ecosystem because it is captured by

8. Why does energy flow
producers and passed on to consumers through the food chain. As energy
unidirectionally in an
moves up the trophic levels, it is dissipated as heat and lost to the
ecosystem?
environment, following the Second Law of Thermodynamics.

Gross Primary Productivity (GPP) is the total amount of solar energy

9. What is the difference
captured by producers during photosynthesis, while Net Primary
between gross primary
Productivity (NPP) is the GPP minus the energy used by producers for
productivity (GPP) and net
their own respiration. NPP represents the energy available for
primary productivity (NPP)?
consumption by herbivores and decomposers.

Decomposition is the breakdown of complex organic matter into simpler

10. Define inorganic substances. The steps include fragmentation (breaking down into
decomposition and smaller particles), leaching (dissolution of water-soluble nutrients),
list the steps involved. catabolism (degradation by bacteria/fungi), humification (formation of
humus), and mineralization (release of inorganic nutrients).

The rate of decomposition is influenced by temperature and moisture. A

11. How does temperature
warm, moist environment accelerates decomposition, while low
affect the rate of
temperatures and anaerobic conditions slow down the process, leading
decomposition?
to a buildup of organic material.

12. What is the role of Decomposers, such as fungi and bacteria, break down dead organic matter
decomposers in the (detritus) into simpler inorganic substances like carbon dioxide, water, and
 nutrients, thereby recycling these elements back into the ecosystem for
ecosystem?
reuse by producers.

The detritus food chain starts with dead organic matter and is mainly
13. What is the role
composed of decomposers like bacteria and fungi. It provides an energy flow
of detritus food
that is parallel to the grazing food chain but starts with detritus (dead organic
chain in energy flow?
matter) rather than living organisms.

14. Why are humans considered Humans are considered omnivores because they feed on both
omnivores in the context of a plants (producers) and animals (consumers), occupying multiple
food chain? trophic levels in the food chain.

The 10% rule of energy transfer states that only 10% of the energy at one
15. What is the
trophic level is passed on to the next trophic level. This means that energy
significance of the 10%
diminishes as it moves through the food chain, limiting the number of
energy transfer rule?
trophic levels that can exist.

16. Explain why the In aquatic ecosystems, the pyramid of biomass is inverted because the
pyramid of biomass in biomass of secondary consumers (e.g., fish) is greater than that of
aquatic ecosystems is primary producers (e.g., phytoplankton), despite the producers having a
inverted. higher number due to rapid turnover rates in the water.

17. Why is the The pyramid of energy is always upright because at each trophic level, energy is
pyramid of energy lost as heat due to the Second Law of Thermodynamics. This loss of energy
always upright? ensures that energy at higher trophic levels is always less than at lower levels.

Ecological pyramids have limitations such as not accounting for species that
18. Discuss the
occupy multiple trophic levels, assuming a simple food chain (which is rarely the
limitations of
case), and neglecting the role of saprophytes, which play an important role in
ecological
decomposition. Moreover, they do not accommodate food webs, which are a
pyramids.
more accurate representation of energy flow in ecosystems.

19. How do human Human activities, such as deforestation, pollution, and overfishing, disrupt
activities impact the the natural energy flow in ecosystems. These actions can alter food
energy flow in chains, reduce biodiversity, and decrease the efficiency of energy transfer
ecosystems? between trophic levels, leading to ecosystem imbalance.

20. How would you Humans can be classified as both primary and secondary consumers in
classify human beings in the food web. They primarily consume plants (as herbivores) and animals
the context of a food (as carnivores), meaning they occupy multiple trophic levels depending
web? on their diet.

SUMMARY

Question Answer

1. What are the An ecosystem consists of two main components: abiotic components (non-
components of an living factors such as air, water, and soil) and biotic components (living
ecosystem? organisms such as producers, consumers, and decomposers).

2. What are abiotic Abiotic components are the non-living elements in an ecosystem, which
components in an include air, water, soil, sunlight, and temperature. These factors affect the
ecosystem? organisms living in the ecosystem.

3. What are biotic Biotic components refer to the living organisms in an ecosystem, which
components in an are classified as producers (plants), consumers (animals), and
ecosystem? decomposers (fungi, bacteria).

The physical structure of an ecosystem is formed by the interaction of abiotic

4. What is the
and biotic components, creating a specific environment where species live.
physical structure of
This includes features such as species composition, stratification (layering of
an ecosystem?
plants, animals), and the physical landscape.

5. What is species Species composition refers to the variety and abundance of different
composition in an species present in an ecosystem. It includes all the organisms (producers,
ecosystem? consumers, decomposers) found in a particular ecosystem.

Stratification refers to the vertical layering of different species within an

6. Define stratification
ecosystem. This is often seen in plant communities, where taller plants are
in the context of an
at the top layer and smaller plants, shrubs, and herbs grow underneath,
ecosystem.
with different animals occupying various layers.

Organisms occupy a specific place in an ecosystem based on their source of

7. How do organisms
nutrition. Producers create their own food (autotrophs), consumers depend
occupy a place in an
on other organisms (heterotrophs), and decomposers break down organic
ecosystem?
material. This defines their position in the food chain.

Primary productivity is the rate at which producers (plants and photosynthetic

8. What is primary
organisms) capture solar energy and produce biomass. It is a crucial factor for
productivity?
determining the energy available in an ecosystem.

Gross Primary Productivity (GPP) is the total rate at which producers capture
9. Differentiate solar energy and convert it into chemical energy. Net Primary Productivity (NPP)
between GPP and is the remaining biomass after producers use some of the energy for their own
NPP. respiration. NPP represents the energy available for consumption by herbivores
and decomposers.

10. What is Secondary productivity refers to the rate at which consumers assimilate food
secondary energy for their growth and reproduction. It represents the energy obtained
productivity? from producers by herbivores or carnivores.

Decomposition involves three main processes: 1) Fragmentation: breaking

11. What are the down of detritus into smaller particles; 2) Leaching: movement of water-
processes involved in soluble nutrients from dead matter into the soil or water; and 3)
decomposition? Catabolism: breakdown of complex organic molecules into simpler
inorganic substances by decomposers.

Decomposers break down dead organic matter into simpler inorganic

12. What is the role of
substances such as carbon dioxide, water, and nutrients, which are then
decomposers in an
recycled back into the ecosystem. This process ensures the continual cycling
ecosystem?
of nutrients, maintaining ecosystem balance.

13. Why is energy flow Energy flows unidirectionally because it is captured by producers through
 photosynthesis and passed through the food chain to consumers and
in an ecosystem
decomposers. At each level, energy is lost as heat due to the Second Law of
unidirectional?
Thermodynamics, and it does not flow back to lower trophic levels.

A food chain is a linear sequence of organisms in which each organism serves as food
14. What is a
for the next one in the chain. It shows the flow of energy from producers to various
food chain?
levels of consumers (herbivores, carnivores, etc.).

A food web is a complex network of interconnected food chains within an

15. How do food
ecosystem. It demonstrates the multiple feeding relationships between
webs differ from
organisms, whereas a food chain represents a simpler, linear path of energy
food chains?
flow.

Nutrient cycling is the movement and exchange of organic and inorganic

16. What is nutrient
matter back into the production of living matter. It involves the transfer of
cycling in an
elements such as carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus between biotic and
ecosystem?
abiotic components.

17. What is the difference Gaseous nutrient cycles, such as the carbon cycle, involve the
between gaseous and atmosphere or hydrosphere as the main reservoir for nutrients. In
sedimentary nutrient contrast, sedimentary cycles, such as the phosphorus cycle, rely on the
cycles? Earth's crust as the main reservoir for nutrient storage and movement.

The carbon cycle is classified as a gaseous cycle because the main reservoir
18. Why is the carbon
of carbon is the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide, which is absorbed
cycle classified as a
by producers and released back into the atmosphere through respiration and
gaseous cycle?
combustion.

The phosphorus cycle is a sedimentary cycle, meaning phosphorus is stored

19. How does the primarily in the Earth's crust, particularly in rocks and minerals. Unlike
phosphorus cycle differ carbon, which is cycled through the atmosphere, phosphorus moves
from the carbon cycle? between the soil, plants, and animals and does not have a significant
gaseous phase.

Ecosystem services are the benefits that humans derive from ecosystems,
20. What are
including services like the purification of air and water, climate regulation,
ecosystem
pollination of crops, and soil fertility. These services are crucial for maintaining
services?
ecological balance and supporting life on Earth.

EXCERCISES

Question Answer

1. Fill in the blanks.

Producers – Plants are producers (autotrophs) because they

(a) Plants are called
capture solar energy and fix carbon dioxide during photosynthesis,
as_________because they fix
creating organic molecules that serve as the foundation for the
carbon dioxide.
food chain.
 Inverted – In an ecosystem dominated by trees, the pyramid of
(b) In an ecosystem dominated by
numbers is inverted because a few large trees support a large
trees, the pyramid (of numbers)
number of herbivores (such as insects) and other smaller
is_________type.
organisms.

Light – In aquatic ecosystems, the primary limiting factor for

(c) In aquatic ecosystems, the
productivity is the amount of light that penetrates the water, which
limiting factor for the
affects the rate of photosynthesis by phytoplankton and aquatic
productivity is_________.
plants.

Earthworms, fungi, bacteria – Detritivores are organisms that feed on

(d) Common detritivores in
dead organic matter, breaking it down into simpler substances.
our ecosystem
Earthworms, fungi, and bacteria play key roles in the decomposition of
are_________.
detritus.

(e) The major reservoir of The atmosphere – The major reservoir of carbon on Earth is the
carbon on earth atmosphere, specifically in the form of carbon dioxide (CO2), which is
is_________. utilized by plants during photosynthesis.

2. Which one of the following (a) Producers – Producers (like plants) have the largest population
has the largest population in a in a food chain because they form the base, supporting all the
food chain? other trophic levels in the food chain.

3. The second (b) Zooplankton – Zooplankton are the second trophic level in a lake ecosystem,
trophic level in a feeding on phytoplankton (the first trophic level) and providing food for higher-
lake is level consumers like small fish.

4. Secondary (a) Herbivores – Secondary producers (or consumers) are herbivores that feed
producers are on producers (plants) and are the first consumers in the food chain.

(c) 1-5% – Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR) refers to

5. What is the percentage of
the portion of the solar radiation that plants can use for
photosynthetically active radiation
photosynthesis, and it constitutes only about 1-5% of the
(PAR) in the incident solar radiation?
total incident solar radiation.

6. Distinguish between

Grazing Food Chain: Involves the flow of energy from producers (plants) to
(a) Grazing food chain herbivores (primary consumers) and then to higher consumers.
and detritus food chain Detritus Food Chain: Involves the decomposition of dead organic matter,
starting with decomposers (bacteria, fungi), which break down detritus.

Production: The process by which producers (like plants) convert solar

(b) Production and energy into biomass, contributing to primary productivity.
decomposition Decomposition: The breakdown of organic matter into simpler inorganic
substances by decomposers, returning nutrients to the ecosystem.

Upright Pyramid: Found in ecosystems where the number of producers is

(c) Upright and larger than consumers, typical in terrestrial ecosystems.
inverted pyramid Inverted Pyramid: Occurs in ecosystems dominated by a few large producers
(e.g., trees), supporting a large number of smaller consumers.
 Food Chain: A linear sequence showing the flow of energy from one organism to
(d) Food chain the next (e.g., plant → herbivore → carnivore).
and Food web Food Web: A more complex network of interconnected food chains, reflecting the
multiple feeding relationships between organisms in an ecosystem.

Litter: Dead plant material (leaves, branches, etc.) that falls to the ground in an
(e) Litter and ecosystem.
detritus Detritus: Dead organic matter, including litter and decomposing organisms, which
is broken down by decomposers.

Primary Productivity: The rate at which producers (plants) capture solar

(f) Primary and secondary energy and produce biomass.
productivity Secondary Productivity: The rate at which consumers (herbivores and
carnivores) assimilate food energy for growth.

An ecosystem consists of abiotic components (air, water, soil, sunlight,

7. Describe the
temperature) and biotic components (producers, consumers, decomposers).
components of an
The interaction between these components forms a balanced system where
ecosystem.
energy flows and nutrients cycle through the environment.

Ecological Pyramids represent the flow of energy or

biomass through different trophic levels of an ecosystem.
Pyramid of Number: Shows the number of organisms at
8. Define ecological pyramids and
each trophic level, typically showing more producers than
describe with examples, pyramids of
consumers.
number and biomass.
Pyramid of Biomass: Illustrates the total mass of
organisms at each trophic level, often showing a larger
biomass at the producer level.

Primary Productivity refers to the rate at which producers (plants)

9. What is primary
capture solar energy and convert it into chemical energy or biomass.
productivity? Give a brief
Factors affecting primary productivity include light intensity,
description of factors that
temperature, nutrient availability, water availability, and
affect primary productivity.
atmospheric carbon dioxide levels.

Decomposition is the breakdown of organic matter by

decomposers like bacteria, fungi, and detritivores. The processes
10. Define decomposition and involved are:
describe the processes and Fragmentation (breaking down organic material into smaller
products of decomposition. pieces), Leaching (dissolving nutrients into the soil or water), and
Catabolism (the breakdown of organic compounds into simpler
molecules like CO2, H2O, and inorganic nutrients).

Energy Flow in an ecosystem is unidirectional, starting with the capture of solar

11. Give an energy by producers (plants) through photosynthesis. This energy moves
account of energy through the food chain, from primary producers to primary consumers
flow in an (herbivores), secondary consumers (carnivores), and so on. As energy moves
ecosystem. through the trophic levels, much of it is lost as heat (following the Second Law of
Thermodynamics), and only a small percentage is passed on to the next level.