CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
Imagine that you are in a big city with a lot of people moving about, and it seems as if every
space is occupied. Can you guess the number of people in that city? How would you know the
number of men, women and children; the level of education and the occupation of everybody
in this city? The answers to these questions can only come with the help of demography. So,
what is demography?
Demography is the science of human population. Population here means: the inhabitants of a
given area, but perhaps most importantly, the human inhabitants of the earth. In this unit, we
shall look at the various definitions of demography to help your understanding of the subject.

WHAT IS DEMOGRAPHY?
Demography is the scientific study of the characteristics of human populations. Demography is
usually defined as the study of human populations – their size, growth, density and distribution
– and statistics regarding birth, marriage, disease and death. It is also sometimes called
population studies or human ecology. Demography is considered to be a branch within the field
of sociology (the study and classification of human societies).[Link] 2012 says that it
is the branch of sociology that studies the characteristics of human populations. However,
Demographers have often suffered from identity crises when trying to locate themselves within
a scientific discipline. By nature, demography is a multi-disciplinary subject, which emphasizes
rigorous data analysis using specific methods accompanied by theory that is often associated
with sociology, statistics, anthropology, economics and public health, among others. According
to some scholars, health demography has become a discipline in its own right.
Biggs, Kapicka and Lundgren (1998), stated that ‘the study of population growth is the subject
of demography’. Demography is the study of population. It looks at everything that influences
population size, distribution, processes, and the influence that change in population has on
other contemporary issues. Demography is the study of the changes in numbers of births,
deaths, marriages, and cases of disease in a community over a period of time.
Other Definitions of Demography
• Demography is the study of population (Chambers, 1972).
• Demography is the statistical study of human populations (Oxford dictionary, 1999).
• Demography is the study of information in figures (Statistics) about the population of
an area or country and how these figures vary with time (Procter, 1978).
• Demography is the study of the population in its static and dynamic aspects. The static
aspects include characteristics such as composition by age, sex, race, marital status,
economic characteristics. The dynamic aspects are fertility, mortality, natality, and
migration (John Hopkins University, 2008).

HISTORY OF DEMOGRAPHY

Demography had always existed. Throughout history, rulers have been interested in
the number of population. This was important for taxation purposes and also, the
power of several countries laid on a large number of men fit for military service. In

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 addition, many philosophers pondered about the meaning of the number and
structure of population.
Wikipedia (2009) outlined that: Demographic thoughts can be traced back to
antiquity, and are present in many civilizations and cultures, like: Ancient Greece,
Rome, India and China. For example, in ancient Greece, this can be found in the
writings of Herodotus, Hippocrates, Plato and Aristotle. The Natural and Political
Observations
... upon the Bills of Mortality (1662) of John Graunt contains a primitive form of life
table. Mathematicians, such as Edmund Halley, developed the life table as the basis
for life insurance mathematics. Richard Price was credited with the first textbook on
life contingencies published in 1771, followed later by Augustus de Morgan, On the
Application of Probabilities to Life Contingencies‘(1838). The credit of fusing two
Greek words to give the term demography goes to Achilles Guillard in 1885.
At the end of the 18th century, Thomas Malthus concluded that, if unchecked,
populations would be subject to exponential growth. He feared that population
growth would tend to outstrip growth in food production, leading to ever-increasing
famine and poverty. He is seen as the intellectual father of ideas of overpopulation
and the limits to growth. Later, more sophisticated and realistic models were
presented by Benjamin Gompertz and Verhuist.
The period 1860-1910 can be characterised as a period of transition wherein
demography emerged from statistics as a separate field of interest. Within this
period, great demographers contributed to the development of demography and to
the toolkit of methods and techniques of demographic analyses. Like many
branches of sciences, demography began in the 19th century (precisely 1875-80),
when the general craze for cataloguing information about the world really took off
([Link] is demography?
i. Write four other different definitions of demography.
ii. What period would you describe as the most important in the history of
demography?

DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION
Demographers explain the past changes in the population through a theory, or rather a model,
known as the “Demographic Transition Theory”. This theory of “Demographic Transition”
describes how birth and mortality rates have changed during transition situations, and builds
upon the experiences of Western Europe in the last two hundred years. This model seeks to
summarize the demographic experiences of as many countries as possible within a theoretical
framework. However: Even when the model suits the industrial countries well, one has to keep
in mind that this model is less applicable in other countries, like in Africa and Asia.
The history of world population since 1650 suggests that there is a demographic transition of 5
stages the nation passes through;
1. THE FIRST STAGE: the birth and mortality rates are very high. Many people are born, but
within the same population, many people also die, particularly at a young age,

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 specifically new-born and infants. This results in either very low or even no population
growth: There are many births, but this is countered by the high death rate.
2. THE SECOND STAGE: the mortality rate begins to decrease. Due to scientific and social
advancements, fewer people die in the early life stages and they also live longer. During
such periods when the mortality already begins to decrease and the birth rate continues
to be very high, the population significantly increases temporarily.
3. THE THIRD STAGE: after some time, the birth rate begins to decline: People bring fewer
and fewer children into the world. Parents do not have to have as many children as
before since children no longer present an economic benefit. Now is when the birth rate
begins to drastically decline.
4. THE FOURTH STAGE: both the mortality and the birth rates are low: Less people are
dying (or rather they are living longer) and they have fewer children. As a result, the
population growth is low or is close to approaching zero.
5. THE FIFTH STAGE: the birth rate begins to slowly grow again. The increase does not
reach the same level as it was before, but the birth rate gets closer to two children per
woman. The population grows either very slowly or stays at zero. Although population
growth is very low, both in the phase before the actual “Demographic Transition” and in
the phase after it, the two phases differ considerably in regards to the age composition
of the population:
Before the “Demographic Transition”, there are numerous births and many deaths, the latter
also at younger ages. This results in a population with a “young” age structure with a high
proportion of children and a small proportion of older people.
After the “Demographic Transition”, fewer children are born, but the majority of them live until
a very high age. This results in a population with an “older” age structure. This is what is meant
by “population ageing”.
The beginning, ending and length of the “Demographic Transition” differs by country. In
Sweden, the transition lasted from 1810 to 1960, over 150 years, but in France from 1785 to
1970, a total of 185 years. In Asian countries, the changes went a bit faster and happened later
on, for example, in China from 1930 to 2000 and in Taiwan from 1920 to 1990. In Germany, the
“Demographic Transition” began in 1876 and ended in 1965, so almost 90 years.

OBJECTIVES OF DEMOGRAPHY
Stockwell (1973), cited in Ogunbameru (2009), stated that the science of population or
demography has four broad objectives, namely:
a. Ascertaining the size, composition and distribution of the population in any given
area of human habitation
b. Observing, measuring and describing changes in sizes, composition and distribution
over time
c. Observing, measuring and describing the process through which such changes are
being affected and
d. Analysing the underlying determinants and consequences of such changes.

PEOPLE INVOLVED IN DEMOGRAPHY

The people involved in demography ar;

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  Demographers: These are experts who study the size, distribution, composition and
density of populations and how these factors affect individual lives and the changing
structure of human populations.
 Statisticians: These are experts who collect and analyze data on populations.
 Sociologists: These are experts who study the social characteristics and statistics of a
human population.
 Epidemiologists: These are experts who study the patterns, causes and effects of health
and disease conditions in defined populations.
 Geographers: These are experts who study the spatial distribution of populations.
 Anthropologists: These are experts who study the social and cultural characteristics of
human populations.
 Researchers: These are experts who study population trends and movements.
 Policymakers: These are experts who use demographic data to craft ideas and plan for
the future.

CHAPTER TWO
DEMOGRAPHIC PRINCIPLES
Demography is the science that studies human population from different aspects. Demography
is very important for health planning, recruitment and allocation of resources. It is clear that
demography performs all functions characteristic of science such as cause and effect relation
and prediction about the future. It employs scientific methods of observation and analysis. It is
factual as well as universal. It is veridical. It establishes cause and effect relationship. Its laws
are verifiable generalizations
Weeks (1998) and Ashry (2012) explained that demography may describe population from
three main aspects, namely: size, composition and distribution.
1. Population Size: is the number of people who live in a specified geographical area
during a defined time. The size of the population is the total number of people in a given
geographical area such as a country, a state, a town or a community. This number is
derived through head counts and periodic statistical projections. To know the number of
all persons in the community, we use either census or estimated population.
Factors that influence population size include:
1. Birth rate: The number of births per 1,000 people.
2. Death rate: The number of deaths per 1,000 people.
3. Migration: Movement of people into or out of a population.
4. Fertility rate: The average number of children per woman.
5. Mortality rate: The number of deaths per 1,000 people.
2. Population Composition: This is the description of the quality of the population.
Ogunbameru (2009), outlined that: the basic characters used to express features of
population as noted above are: number, space and time. These characters should not be
confused with the factors that cause change in population.
Population composition refers to the characteristics of a population, including:

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 1. Age structure: The distribution of people across different age groups (e.g., youth,
working age, elderly).
2. Gender distribution: The proportion of males and females in the population.
3. Marital status: The number of people who are married, single, divorced, or
widowed.
4. Household composition: The number and type of households (e.g., nuclear
families, single-parent households).
5. Education level: The highest level of education completed by individuals in the
population.
6. Occupation and industry: The types of jobs and industries in which people work.
7. Income and socioeconomic status: The distribution of income and social class
within the population.
8. Ethnicity and race: The diverse groups of people based on their shared culture,
language, and ancestry.
9. Religion: The various religious beliefs and affiliations within the population.
10. Urban-rural residence: The proportion of people living in urban and rural areas.
3. Population Distribution: Population distribution refers to the way people are spread out
across a particular area, such as a country, region, or city. It involves the study of:
1. Spatial distribution: The physical location of people, including urban and rural
areas, cities, towns, and villages.
2. Density: The number of people per unit of area, such as people per square mile
or square kilometer.
3. Concentration: The clustering of people in specific areas, such as cities or towns.
4. Dispersion: The scattering of people across a wide area, such as rural areas.

Factors that influence population distribution include:

1. Geography: Mountains, rivers, and coastlines can affect population distribution.
2. Climate: Weather patterns, temperature, and precipitation can influence
population distribution.
3. Economy: Job opportunities, industry, and resources can attract or repel people.
4. Culture: Historical and social factors, such as language and religion, can influence
population distribution.
5. Government policies: Laws and regulations, such as zoning and immigration
policies, can impact population distribution.

USES OF DEMOGRAPHY
Weeks, (1998) observed that demography is one of the areas in sociology that treats things
from the practical point of view. The uses of demography are seen in our lives every day. The
uses of demography include:
1) Statistical Study: Demography is the statistical study of human populations,
especially with reference to size, distribution, and structure.
2) Census Data: Demographers use census data, surveys, and statistical models to
analyze the size, movement, and structure of populations.

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 3) Population Trends: Demography helps in understanding population trends,
migration patterns, and age structure of populations.
4) Policy Making: Demographic data is used in policy making, especially in areas
like healthcare, education, and economic development.
5) Business and Marketing: Demographic data is used in business and marketing to
understand consumer behavior, preferences, and needs.
6) Environmental Studies: Demography is used in environmental studies to
understand the impact of population growth on the environment.
7) Epidemiology: Demography is used in epidemiology to understand the spread of
diseases and to develop strategies for disease prevention and control.
8) Social Sciences: Demography is used in social sciences to understand social
phenomena, such as poverty, inequality, and social change.
9) Economic Development: Demography is used in economic development to
understand the impact of population growth on economic development and to
develop strategies for economic growth and development.

MAJOR COMPONENTS OF DEMOGRAPHY

There are numerous components of demography. The major components of demography include:

1. Size: The total number of people living in a specific place at a specific time.

2. Geographical Distribution: The study of the causes that lead people to migrate
internally and externally within and across countries.

3. Composition: The description of population defined by characteristics such as age,

race, sex, or marital status.

4. Components of Change: The birth and death rates are the most important
determinants of population growth.

DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES

How does population change?

The population changes in accordance with three demographic variables: fertility/births,

mortality/deaths and migration. This is otherwise known as components of population change.
Population growth or decline in a society is influenced by the birth rate, the death rate, and the
migration rate. Gains and losses from whatever cause, are the bases of the dynamics sometimes
called the population mechanism.

Births add to population, while deaths subtract from population. Migration can either add or
subtract from the population. Therefore, the growth of a nation‘s population is determined by the

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number of births minus the number of deaths plus the net migration rate. Thus, we have what is
called balancing equation which is given as:

P t = Po + B – D + M. Where:

Pt = population at the time in the future Po = the base population

B = births between time o and t

D = deaths between time o and t

M = net migration.
WORLD POPULATION GROWTH AND DISTRIBUTION
The world population has grown from one billion in 1800 to more than eight billion today. The
population is expected to reach nearly ten billion by the middle of this century and will level off
at around 10.4 billion by the 2080s. 90% of the world’s population lives in about 10% of the
earth’s land area. China and India are the most populous countries, comprising 19 and 18% of
the total global population. Nigeria is growing the most rapidly and is expected to surpass the
population of the United States shortly before 2050.
REVOLUTION OF HUMAN POPULATION
The revolution of human population refers to the significant changes in population size,
structure, and distribution that have occurred over time. These revolutions have transformed
human population dynamics, shaping the world we live in today and presenting new challenges
and opportunities for the future.
Here are some key milestones in this revolution:
1. Hunter-gatherer era (pre-10,000 BCE): Small, nomadic populations with limited growth.
2. Agricultural revolution (10,000 BCE - 1800 CE): Population growth accelerated with
settled agriculture, leading to increased food production and reduced mortality rates.
3. Industrial Revolution (1800 - 2000 CE): Rapid population growth due to improved
healthcare, sanitation, and living standards.
4. Demographic transition (20th century): Declining birth rates and mortality rates in
developed countries, leading to aging populations.
5. Global population growth (20th century - present): The world population grew from 1
billion in 1800 to over 8 billion today, with most growth occurring in developing
countries.
6. Urbanization (20th century - present): Mass migration from rural to urban areas,
leading to the growth of cities and changes in population distribution.
7. Aging population (21st century): Many countries face aging populations, with significant
implications for healthcare, social security, and economic growth.
8. Migration and mobility (21st century): Increased movement of people across borders,
leading to cultural exchange, economic growth, and social change.

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 FACTORS AFFECTING POPULATION
Population are never static, it either grow or decline through the interplay of three main
demographic processes. These factors interact and influence one another, shaping population
trends and dynamics.
1. Birth rate: Birth rate, also known as natality, refers to the number of live births per
1,000 people in a population over a given period, usually a year. It is an important
demographic indicator of population growth and change. Birth rates vary across
countries, cultures, and socioeconomic groups, influenced by factors such as:
a. Age and fertility of the population
b. Marriage and family planning practices
c. Economic and social development
d. Education and income levels
e. Cultural and religious beliefs
f. Government policies and healthcare systems

Types of birth rates:

a. Crude birth rate (CBR): Total number of live births per 1,000 people in a
population.
b. General fertility rate (GFR): Number of live births per 1,000 women aged 15-44.
c. Total fertility rate (TFR): Average number of children a woman would have in her
lifetime based on current fertility rates.
d. Age-specific birth rate: Number of live births per 1,000 people in a specific age
group (e.g., teenagers, women 20-24).
2. Death rate: Death rate, also known as mortality rate, refers to the number of deaths per
1,000 people in a population over a given period, usually a year. It is an important
demographic indicator of population change and public health. Death rates vary across
countries, cultures, and socioeconomic groups, influenced by factors such as:
a. Age and health status of the population
b. Lifestyle and behavioral factors (e.g., smoking, diet)
c. Environmental and occupational hazards
d. Access to healthcare and medical technology
e. Economic and social development

Types of death rates:

a. Crude death rate (CDR): Total number of deaths per 1,000 people in a
population.
b. Age-specific death rate: Number of deaths per 1,000 people in a specific age
group (e.g., infants, elderly).
c. Cause-specific death rate: Number of deaths per 1,000 people due to a specific
cause (e.g., heart disease, cancer).
d. Infant mortality rate (IMR): Number of deaths per 1,000 live births among infants
under one year old.

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 e. Maternal mortality rate (MMR): Number of deaths per 100,000 live births among
women due to pregnancy or childbirth complications.

3. Migration: Migration refers to the movement of individuals or groups from one place to
another, often involving a change of residence, nationality, or citizenship. Types of
migration include:
a. Internal migration: Moving within a country, e.g., from a rural area to a city.
b. International migration: Moving from one country to another, e.g., for work,
education, or political reasons.
c. Emigration: Leaving one's home country to settle in another.
d. Immigration: Entering and settling in a new country.
e. Return migration: Moving back to one's home country after living abroad.
f. Seasonal migration: Temporary movement for work or other reasons, e.g.,
migrant workers.
g. Forced migration: Involuntary movement due to conflict, persecution, or natural
disasters.

Migration can be influenced by various factors, including:

a. Economic conditions
b. Political instability or conflict
c. Environmental factors (e.g., climate change)
d. Social and cultural ties
e. Education and job opportunities
f. Government policies and regulations

The following are other factors that affect population:

1. Fertility rates: The number of children per woman.
2. Mortality rates: Death rates, including infant mortality and life expectancy.
3. Migration: Movement of people into or out of a population.
4. Economic conditions: Poverty, employment, and income affect population growth
and distribution.
5. Education: Access to education, especially for women, impacts fertility rates and
population growth.
6. Culture and social norms: Family planning, marriage, and childbearing practices vary
across cultures.
7. Government policies: Laws and regulations on immigration, family planning, and
healthcare influence population dynamics.
8. Environmental factors: Natural disasters, climate change, and resource availability
impact population growth and distribution.
9. Health and healthcare: Access to healthcare, disease prevalence, and medical
advancements affect mortality rates and population growth.
[Link]: Movement from rural to urban areas changes population distribution
and dynamics.

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 [Link] advancements: Improvements in transportation, communication, and
medicine impact population growth and distribution.
[Link] instability and conflict: Wars, refugees, and political unrest affect population
growth and distribution.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT POPULATION GROWTH

1) Economic development: Countries in the early stages of economic development
tend to have higher rates of population growth
2) Immigration levels: Some countries' biggest drivers of population growth come
from net migration
3) Historical factors/war: Historical events and a combination of factors which
caused a delay in having children until the war ended can influence population
growth
4) Fertility: Fertility rates, the number of children per adult, affect population
growth
5) Mortality: Mortality rates, the number of deaths per population, affect
population growth
6) Lifespan: The length of time a species can live affects population growth
7) Fecundity: The ability of a species to reproduce affects population growth
8) Environmental factors: Availability of food, water, and other resources affect
population growth
9) Pollution: Environmental pollution can affect population growth
10) Natural disasters: Natural disasters such as hurricanes, fires, droughts, floods,
and volcanic eruptions can affect population growth
11) Disease: The prevalence of disease can affect population growth
12) Human intervention: Human activities such as habitat destruction, hunting, and
poaching can affect population growth
13) Carrying capacity: The maximum number of individuals of a species that an
environment can support affects population growth
14) Predator-prey relationships: The relationships between predators and prey can
affect population growth
15) Medical care: Access to medical care can affect population growth
16) Social and economic factors: Social and economic factors such as poverty,
education, and gender equality can affect population growth

POPULATION CONTROL
Population control refers to measures aimed at managing population growth, size, and
distribution to achieve economic, social, and environmental goals. Effective population control
strategies consider human rights, cultural sensitivity, and sustainable development, balancing
individual freedoms with collective well-being and environmental protection.
Methods include:
 Family planning: Access to contraception, education, and reproductive
healthcare.

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  Birth control: Limiting family size through policies, incentives, or restrictions.
 Immigration control: Regulating migration to manage population growth and
composition.
 Urban planning: Designing cities to accommodate population growth, reduce
density, and improve living conditions.
 Education and awareness: Promoting responsible reproductive behavior, gender
equality, and population awareness.
 Economic incentives: Offering benefits or tax breaks for small families or those
with fewer children.
 Government policies: Implementing laws, regulations, and programs to manage
population growth and distribution.
 Healthcare access: Ensuring access to quality healthcare, including reproductive
healthcare and family planning services.
 Social welfare programs: Providing support for families, children, and vulnerable
populations.
 Environmental policies: Addressing resource depletion, pollution, and climate
change related to population growth.

IMPACT OF POPULATION GROWTH ON THE ECONOMY

Population growth has many effects on the economy. Population growth may have a positive
effect on the economy. For example, an increase in the number of people in the in a country
will lead to more access to labor, which will lead to higher productivity, which then will lead to
more goods being produced. Output (as measured by GDP) will increase in the country as a
result. More people in the country will also lead to more demand for goods. Demanding and
producing more goods will yield economic growth. This is an example of population growth
having a positive effect on the economy.
Population growth may also have a negative effect on the economy. For example, what if there
is an increase in the number of people in a country, but many of them are not able to work? No
greater access to labor, no higher productivity, and no extra goods being produced. However,
the demand for those goods is still higher since there are more people in the country than
before. There is more demand with relatively the same supply leading to an increase in prices.
This is an example of population growth having a negative effect on the economy.

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IMPORTANT OF POPULATION GROWTH AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Population growth can be a potential catalyst for economic development. Will a country with
100 people produce more goods than a country with 100,000 people? Of course not! A country
with a larger population will have the potential to increase its output more than a country with
a smaller population. But just because a country has a large population doesn't mean that it will
automatically develop its economy.
Developing countries experiencing a sudden spike in population can be problematic for a
variety of reasons. Developing countries do not have the infrastructure or human capital to
keep up with a large influx of people, an increase in output is not guaranteed in this situation.
Institutions are also not as well trusted by other countries which makes it hard to engage in

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trade in the first place. Developing countries will end up being strained to keep up with a
growing population.
Overall, it is important to recognize that population growth can have different outcomes on
economic development depending on the current state of the country.

Positive Effects of Population Growth on Economic Development

What do more people in a country do for the economy? There are more buyers and sellers this
is pivotal for economic growth. More products can be made and purchased from a growing
population.
Besides, that a growing population can provide a larger labor force, expand domestic markets,
and act as a catalyst for innovation. Other potential benefits of population growth on economic
development include:
 Increased entrepreneurship,
 Greater diversity and cultural richness,
 Support for social security systems through an influx of younger workers,
 Increased demand leading to economies of scale in production,
 Infrastructure development driven by urbanization, larger political influence,
 Increased potential for specialization and division of labor,
 Faster diffusion of ideas and innovation,
 And a larger pool of talent

Negative Effects of Population Growth on Economic Development

On the other hand, unchecked population growth can exert immense pressure on economic,
social, and environmental resources. Negative effects of population growth on economic
development may include overpopulation leading to resource depletion, increased social
expenditure, and rising unemployment and poverty rates. Other possible drawbacks
encompass:
 Increased pressure on housing and infrastructure,
 Potential for increased crime and social unrest,
 A higher risk of disease spread,
 Potential food and water shortages,
 Impacts, increased waste production and pollution,
 Challenges in managing urbanization and ensuring adequate public services,
 Potential increase in income inequality,
 Difficulty in achieving universal education,
 And increased demand for energy resources contributing to global warming.

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 CHAPTER THREE
FAMILY PLANNING
Family planning refers to the ability of individuals and couples to anticipate and attain their
desired number of children, spacing and timing of births, and management of fertility.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), family planning is defined as “the ability of
individuals and couples to anticipate and attain their desired number of children and the
spacing and timing of their births. It is achieved through use of contraceptive methods and the
treatment of involuntary infertility”.
Family planning empowers individuals and couples to make informed decisions about their
reproductive health, leading to:
 Improved maternal and child health
 Reduced poverty and economic burden
 Increased education and empowerment
 Better spacing and timing of births
 Reduced population growth
 Improved overall well-being

According to WHO 2017 estimates, 214 million women of reproductive age in developing
regions have an unmet need for contraception. Reasons for this include:
 Limited access to contraception
 A limited choice of methods
 A fear or experience of side-effects
 Cultural or religious opposition
 Poor quality of available services
 Gender-based barriers.

SCOPE OF FAMILY PLANNING SERVICES

The scope of family planning services may vary depending on the healthcare provider, facility,
or region, and should always prioritize patient-centered care and respect for individual
autonomy and choices.
The scope of family planning services includes:

1. Contraceptive services: Providing various contraceptive methods, such as

hormonal pills, intrauterine devices (IUDs), condoms, and implants.
2. Preconception care: Offering health check-ups, counseling, and guidance for
individuals and couples planning to conceive.
3. Pregnancy testing and counseling: Providing pregnancy tests and counseling on
options, including prenatal care, adoption, and abortion.
4. Maternal and child health services: Offering prenatal, delivery, and postpartum
care, as well as immunizations and well-child check-ups.

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 5. Sexually transmitted infection (STI) prevention and treatment: Providing testing,
treatment, and counseling for STIs.
6. HIV prevention and treatment: Offering HIV testing, counseling, and referral for
treatment.
7. Cancer screening and prevention: Providing Pap tests, breast exams, and
education on cancer prevention.
8. Men's health services: Offering reproductive health check-ups, vasectomy
services, and counseling.
9. Adolescent health services: Providing confidential reproductive health care,
education, and counseling for teens.
10. Infertility services: Offering evaluation, counseling, and referral for infertility
treatment.
11. Abortion services: Providing safe and legal abortion options, including medical
and surgical abortion.
12. Postpartum care: Offering medical care, breastfeeding support, and counseling
after childbirth.
13. Family planning counseling: Providing education and guidance on family planning
options, reproductive health, and relationships.
14. Community outreach and education: Offering workshops, classes, and outreach
programs on family planning, reproductive health, and related topics.

FAMILY PLANING METHODS

Birth control methods vary far and wide. There’s a method for nearly every body and lifestyle.
In fact, there are about 12 methods in total and counting. And those methods range from non-
hormonal and hormonal to single use and long-lasting use.

1. Permanent Birth Control

A surgical procedure that makes a person who can produce sperm unable to cause a
pregnancy or a person who can ovulate unable to become pregnant. Permanent birth
control is not reversible and prevents pregnancy 99% of the time. While people with a
uterus can choose from bilateral tubal ligation in the hospital (aka “having your tubes
tied”) or a tubal removal done in a health center, people with testes may choose a
vasectomy (cutting the tubes that carry sperm). Learn more about the pros, cons and
side effects of a tubal ligation, tubal block or vasectomy.

2. IUD (Non-hormonal/Hormonal)

A small t-shaped device that is placed inside of the uterus by a health care provider to
prevent pregnancy 99% of the time. Less than 1 out of 100 women will get pregnant
each year if they use an IUD. Available in non-hormonal (copper) and hormonal options,

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 the IUD is one of the most effective forms of birth control and can last anywhere
between 3 to 12 years depending on which type you choose. Non-hormonal and
hormonal IUDs work to prevent sperm from fertilizing an egg. Learn more about the
pros, cons and side effects of the IUD.

3. Implant (Hormonal)

A small rod placed under the skin in the upper arm by a health care provider to prevent
pregnancy 99% of the time. Less than 1 out of 100 women a year will become pregnant
using the implant. The implant, which lasts for 3-5 years, releases the hormone
progestin to stop the ovaries from releasing eggs, and it thickens cervical mucus, so it is
difficult for sperm to enter the uterus. Learn more about the pros, cons and side effects
of the implant.

4. The Shot (Hormonal)

An injection given by a medical professional of the hormone progestin in the arm or hip
that lasts three months and prevents pregnancy 96% of the time. Less than 1 out of 100
women will get pregnant each year if they always use the shot as directed. The shot,
also known as Depo-Provera, stops the ovaries from releasing eggs and thickens the
cervical mucus, so it is difficult for sperm to enter the uterus. Learn more about the
pros, cons and side effects of the shot.

5. The Vaginal Ring (Hormonal)

A flexible ring that is inserted into the vagina each month that prevents pregnancy 93%
of the time. Less than 1 out of 100 women will get pregnant each year if they always use
the ring as directed. The vaginal ring releases hormones that stop the ovaries from
releasing eggs and thickens cervical mucus, so it is difficult for sperm to enter the
uterus. Learn more about the pros, cons and side effects of the ring.

6. Patch (Hormonal)

The patch is applied (like a sticker) weekly to approve areas of skin and prevents
pregnancy 93% of the time. Less than 1 out of 100 women will get pregnant each year if
they always use the patch as directed. The patch releases hormones that stop the
ovaries from releasing eggs, and it thickens cervical mucus, so it is difficult for sperm to
enter the uterus. Learn more about the pros, cons and side effects of the patch.

7. The Pill (Hormonal)

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 A pill that should be taken at the same time every day for maximum effectiveness,
which is often used to reduce cramping and bleeding during periods and that prevents
pregnancy 93% of the time. Less than 1 out of 100 women will get pregnant each year if
they take the pill each day as directed. The pill releases hormones (progestin-only or a
combination of hormones) to stop the ovaries from releasing eggs and thickens cervical
mucus, so it is difficult for sperm to enter the uterus. Learn more about the pros, cons
and side effects of the pill.

8. Condoms (Non-hormonal)

Available in latex or polyurethane, condoms, which prevent pregnancy 87% of the time
when used correctly, are placed over an erect penis to stop sperm from entering the
vagina during ejaculation. 2 out of 100 women whose partners use condoms will get
pregnant if they always use condoms correctly.

Internal/female condoms are inserted into the vagina and prevent pregnancy 79% of the
time. This means that 5 out of 100 women will become pregnant if the insertive condom
is always used correctly.

Not only are condoms arguably one of the most affordable, accessible forms of birth
control, they also protect against STDs. Learn more about the pros, cons and side effects
of condoms and insertive condoms.

9. Emergency Contraception (Hormonal & Non-hormonal)

Emergency contraception can be used up to five days after unprotected sex. It can come
in the form of a pill or IUD, which have varying degrees of effectiveness. Emergency
contraception prevents pregnancy from occurring by preventing ovulation and
thickening cervical mucus, but it does NOT cause an abortion. Learn more about the
pros, cons and side effects of emergency contraception.

10. Spermicide & Gel

Made with sperm-killing chemicals, spermicides such as foams, suppositories or film

(used separately, not in combination) prevent pregnancy 79-86% of the time. 18 out of
100 women will get pregnant each year if they always use the spermicide as directed.
Placed inside the vagina shortly before sex, spermicides block the cervix and keep sperm
from joining with an egg. Learn more about the pros, cons and side effects of
spermicides.

11. Fertility Awareness/ Natural Family Planning (Non-hormonal)

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 Natural family planning involves a woman tracking her monthly cycle from her period
through ovulation to determine when she is most and least likely to get pregnant. When
used correctly, this method prevents pregnancy 77-98% of the time. 24 out of 100
women who use natural family planning will have a pregnancy if they use the method
correctly. Learn more about the pros, cons and side effects of natural family planning.

13. Withdrawal/Pull-out Method (Non-hormonal)

Withdrawal prevents pregnancy 78% of the time by pulling the penis out of the vagina
before ejaculation. 27 out of 100 women whose partners use withdrawal will become
pregnant each year, even if used correctly. Remember, there is always a chance of
pregnancy if sperm is introduced to the vagina.

BENEFITS OF FAMILY PLANING

Family planning has numerous benefits for individuals, families, and societies as a whole. Some
of the advantages of family planning include:

1. Improved maternal and child health: Spacing births and limiting family size reduces the risk
of maternal and child mortality.

2. Empowerment of women: Family planning enables women to make informed choices about
their reproductive health, education, and career.

3. Reduced poverty: Smaller family size allows for more resources per family member, reducing
poverty and improving economic opportunities.

4. Increased education and economic opportunities: Family planning enables individuals to

pursue education and career goals, leading to economic empowerment.

5. Improved family well-being: Family planning helps families achieve their desired family size,
reducing stress and improving overall well-being.

6. Reduced population growth: Family planning helps control population growth, reducing
pressure on resources and infrastructure.

7. Environmental benefits: Slower population growth reduces the strain on natural resources,
contributing to environmental sustainability.

8. Improved health outcomes: Family planning reduces the risk of unwanted pregnancies,
abortions, and sexually transmitted infections.

9. Increased access to education and healthcare: Family planning enables governments to

allocate resources more efficiently, improving access to education and healthcare.

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10. Reduced gender-based violence: Family planning empowers women, reducing the risk of
gender-based violence and domestic abuse.

11. Improved nutrition and food security: Family planning helps ensure adequate nutrition and
food security for family members.

12. Reduced infant mortality: Family planning reduces the risk of infant mortality, ensuring
more children reach their fifth birthday.

By supporting family planning, individuals, communities, and governments can improve health,
education, economic opportunities, and overall well-being.

Advantages of Family Planning

1. Improved maternal and child health

2. Empowerment of women

3. Reduced poverty

4. Increased education and economic opportunities

5. Improved family well-being

6. Reduced population growth

7. Environmental benefits

8. Improved health outcomes

9. Increased access to education and healthcare

10. Reduced gender-based violence

11. Improved nutrition and food security

12. Reduced infant mortality

Disadvantages of Family Planning

1. Cost and accessibility

2. Cultural and religious opposition

3. Side effects of contraceptives

4. Limited options for men

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 5. Coercive policies (e.g. China's one-child policy)

6. Ethical concerns (e.g. forced sterilization)

7. Limited availability in rural or marginalized areas

8. Stigma and social pressure

9. Inadequate education and counseling

10. Potential for abuse or exploitation

Family planning has a significant impact on population growth and dynamics. Here are some
key relationships between family planning and population:

1. Population growth rate: Family planning helps reduce population growth rates
by decreasing the number of unwanted pregnancies and births.
2. Population size: Effective family planning can lead to a reduction in population
size over time, alleviating pressure on resources and infrastructure.
3. Age structure: Family planning can influence the age structure of a population,
reducing the number of dependents (children and elderly) and increasing the
working-age population.
4. Population distribution: Family planning can affect population distribution, as
smaller family sizes can lead to more compact and manageable populations.
5. Urbanization*: Family planning can influence urbanization rates, as smaller
families are more likely to migrate to cities for better economic opportunities.
6. Resource allocation: Family planning helps optimize resource allocation, as
smaller families require fewer resources, reducing the burden on healthcare,
education, and social services.
7. Environmental impact: Family planning can reduce the environmental impact of
a growing population, alleviating pressure on natural resources and reducing
carbon emissions.
8. Demographic transition: Family planning is a crucial component of the
demographic transition, which involves a shift from high birth and death rates to
low birth and death rates, leading to population stability.
9. Population momentum: Family planning can help reduce population momentum,
which refers to the continued population growth due to a large number of
people in the reproductive age range.
10. Sustainable development: Family planning is essential for achieving sustainable
development, as it helps balance population growth with resource availability
and environmental sustainability.

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 CHAPTER FOUR
CENSUS
Census, an enumeration of people, houses, firms, or other important items in a country or
region at a particular time. Used alone, the term usually refers to a population census.
The United Nations defines a population census as ‘the total process of collecting, compiling,
evaluating, analyzing and publishing or otherwise disseminating demographic, economic and
social data pertaining, at a specified time, to all persons in a country or in a well-delineated part
of a country’.
The country requires up-to-date, reliable and relevant information for evidence-based decision-
making. The fundamental purpose of a census is to provide benchmark statistics on the
population’s size, distribution, composition, and other social and economic characteristics.
Among others, the census provides key information to monitor progress in realizing the
country’s sustainable development goals. This information is necessary for planning policies and
programs, monitoring the implementation of national and global development agenda and for
research. The United Nations recommends that countries conduct a census every 10 years.
Population and Housing censuses are important statistical operations undertaken to collect
information needed for a variety of purposes.
CENSUS PHASES
The phases of census are:
Census phases varies depending on the country, census methodology, and technological
advancements.
1. Pre-census phase:
 Planning and preparation
 Budgeting and funding
 Staff recruitment and training
 Development of census questionnaire and materials
2. Enumeration phase:
 Listing and mapping of households and dwellings
 Data collection through interviews, surveys, or self-enumeration
 Use of technology such as mobile devices or online platforms
3. Data processing phase:
 Data entry and cleaning
 Coding and editing responses
 Production of preliminary results
4. Data analysis phase:
 Analysis and interpretation of data
 Production of statistical tables and reports
 Identification of trends and patterns
5. Data dissemination phase:
 Release of census results to the public
 Publication of reports and data online or in print
 Dissemination of data to stakeholders and users

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6. Post-census phase:
 Evaluation and assessment of census quality and accuracy
 Conducting post-enumeration surveys to measure undercount or over
count
 Archiving of census data and materials for future reference
7. Follow-up phase:
 Addressing data gaps or inconsistencies
 Conducting follow-up surveys or interviews to clarify or complete data

TYPES OF CENSUS
There are two types of population census;
1. De facto Population Census: It involves the counting of only those who are present
physically when the census is performed. Only people who are living within the borders
of the country or are seen by the census expert are counted.
2. De jure Population Census: It involves the counting of only people who have been
permanent residents of a specific area, but they were not necessarily present when the
census was performed. This is population census is also considered counting by proxy.
THE TYPES OF DATA COLLECTED DURING CENSUS
During a census, various types of data are collected, including:
1. Demographic data:
a. Age
b. Gender
c. Marital status
d. Relationship to head of household
e. Household size and composition
2. Housing data:
a. Type of dwelling (house, apartment, etc.)
b. Ownership status (owned, rented, etc.)
c. Number of rooms and bedrooms
d. Access to amenities (water, electricity, etc.)
3. Social and economic data:
a. Education level
b. Occupation and employment status
c. Income and sources of income
d. Health insurance and access to healthcare
4. Geographic data:
a. Location (address, GPS coordinates, etc.)
b. Geographic boundaries (city, state, province, etc.)
5. Ethnic and cultural data:
a. Ethnicity
b. Race
c. Language spoken at home

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 d. Religion
6. Migration and mobility data:
a. Place of birth
b. Place of previous residence
c. Migration status (immigrant, emigrant, etc.)
7. Disability and health data:
a. Type and severity of disability
b. Chronic health conditions
c. Access to healthcare services
8. Education and literacy data:
a. Highest level of education completed
b. Literacy skills (reading, writing, etc.)
9. Economic activity data:
a. Employment status (full-time, part-time, etc.)
b. Occupation and industry
c. Income and earnings
10. Technology and internet data:
a. Access to computers and smartphones
b. Internet usage and connectivity.

USES OF CENSUS
Census data has numerous uses, including:
1. Population statistics: Understanding population size, growth, and distribution.
2. Resource allocation: Determining funding for public services, infrastructure, and social
programs.
3. Representation and redistricting: Redrawing electoral boundaries and apportioning
representation.
4. Economic development: Informing business decisions, economic policies, and
investment strategies.
5. Social and health services: Identifying needs and targeting interventions for healthcare,
education, and social welfare.
6. Urban planning: Guiding urban development, transportation, and housing initiatives.
7. Emergency response and disaster relief: Identifying vulnerable populations and
allocating resources.
8. Research and academia: Supporting studies on demographics, economics, and social
sciences.
9. Marketing and consumer research: Understanding consumer behavior and market
trends.
10. Policy-making: Informing decisions on education, employment, healthcare, and social
policies.
11. International comparisons: Benchmarking development and progress against global
standards.

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12. Historical record: Preserving demographic and social data for future generations.
13. Genealogy and family research: Providing information for tracing family histories.
14. Infrastructure planning: Informing investments in transportation, energy, and water
management.
15. Environmental planning: Understanding population distribution and environmental
impact.