LECTURE NOTES

ELE2201: PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING I

WEEK 6: CAPACITORS AND INDUCTORS.

4.1 Introduction

So far we have limited our study to resistive circuits. In this section, we shall introduce two new
and important passive linear circuit elements: the capacitor and the inductor. Unlike resistors,
which dissipate energy, capacitors and inductors do not dissipate but store energy, which can be
retrieved at a later time. For this reason, capacitors and inductors are called storage elements.

We begin by introducing capacitors and describing how to combine them in series or in parallel.
Later, we do the same for inductors.

4.2 Capacitors

A capacitor is a passive element designed to store energy in its electric field. Capacitors are used
extensively in electronics, communications, computers, and power systems. A capacitor is
typically constructed as depicted in Fig. 4.1.

Figure 4.1. A typical capacitor

The capacitor consists of two conducting plates separated by an insulator (or dielectric). In many
practical applications, the plates may be aluminum foil while the dielectric may be air, ceramic,
paper, or mica.

1
When a voltage source 𝑣 is connected to the capacitor, as in Fig. 4.2, the source deposits a positive
charge q on one plate and a negative charge –q on the other. The capacitor is said to store the
electric charge.

Figure 2. A capacitor with applied voltage v

The amount of charge stored, represented by q, is directly proportional to the applied voltage so
that

𝑞 = 𝐶𝑣 (1)

where C, the constant of proportionality, is known as the capacitance of the capacitor. Capacitance
is the ratio of the charge on one plate of a capacitor to the voltage difference between the two
plates, measured in farads (F).

For the parallel-plate capacitor shown in Fig. 4.1, the capacitance is given by

𝜖𝐴
𝐶= 𝑑

where A is the surface area of each plate, d is the distance between the plates, and 𝜖 is the
permittivity of the dielectric material between the plates. Fig. 4.3 shows the circuit symbols for
fixed and variable capacitors.

Figure 4.3. Circuit symbols for capacitors: (a) fixed capacitor, (b) variable capacitor.

2
To obtain the current-voltage relationship of the capacitor, we take the derivative of both sides of
Eq. (1).

𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑣
= 𝐶 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡

Since,

𝑑𝑞
= 𝑖 , therefore we have
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑣
𝑖 = 𝐶 𝑑𝑡 (2)

The voltage-current relation of the capacitor can be obtained by integrating both sides of Eq. (2).
We get

1 𝑡
𝑣 = 𝐶 ∫𝑡 𝑖𝑑𝑡 + 𝑣(𝑡𝑜 ) (3)
𝑜

where 𝑣(𝑡𝑜 ) = 𝑞(𝑡𝑜 )⁄𝐶 is the voltage across the capacitor at time 𝑡𝑜 . Equation (3) shows that
capacitor voltage depends on the past history of the capacitor current.

The instantaneous power delivered to the capacitor is

𝑑𝑣
𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑑𝑡 (4)

The energy stored in the capacitor is therefore

𝑡 𝑡 𝑑𝑣 𝑣(𝑡) 1 𝑣(𝑡)
𝑤 = ∫−∞ 𝑝𝑑𝑡 = 𝐶 ∫−∞ 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐶 ∫𝑣(−∞) 𝑣𝑑𝑣 = 2 𝐶𝑣 2 |
𝑣(−∞)

𝑣(−∞) = 0 since the capacitor is uncharged at 𝑡 = −∞. Thus,

1
𝑤 = 2 𝐶𝑣 2 (5)

Using Eq. (1), we may re-write Eq. (5) as

𝑞2
𝑤 = 2𝐶 (6)

Note that from Eq. (2) when the voltage across a capacitor is not changing with time (i.e., dc
voltage), the current through the capacitor is zero. Thus, A capacitor is an open circuit to dc.
However, if a battery (dc voltage) is connected across a capacitor, the capacitor charges

3
Example 4.1:

Example 4.2:

Exercise 4.1:

4
Example 4.3: Determine the current through a 200 − 𝜇𝐹 capacitor whose voltage is shown in Fig.
E4.3.

Figure E4.3.

Solution:

4.2.1 Capacitors in Series and Parallel

We know from resistive circuits that the series-parallel combination is a powerful tool for reducing
circuits. This technique can be extended to series-parallel connections of capacitors, which are
sometimes encountered. We desire to replace these capacitors by a single equivalent capacitor 𝐶𝑒𝑞 .

5
In order to obtain the equivalent capacitor 𝐶𝑒𝑞 of N capacitors in parallel, consider the circuit in
Fig. 4.4 (a). The equivalent circuit is given in Fig. 4.4 (b).

Figure 4.4. Parallel capacitors

The equivalent capacitance 𝑪𝒆𝒒 of N parallel-connected capacitors is the sum of the individual
capacitances. Thus,

In order to obtain the equivalent capacitor 𝐶𝑒𝑞 of N capacitors in series, consider the circuit in Fig.
4.5 (a). The equivalent circuit is given in Fig. 4.5 (b).

Figure 4.4. Series capacitors

The equivalent capacitance of series-connected capacitors is the reciprocal of the sum of the
reciprocals of the individual capacitances. Thus,

6
4.3 Inductors

An inductor is a passive element designed to store energy in its magnetic field. Inductors find
numerous applications in electronic and power systems. They are used in power supplies,
transformers, radios, TVs, radars, and electric motors.

Any conductor of electric current has inductive properties and may be regarded as an inductor. But
in order to enhance the inductive effect, a practical inductor is usually formed into a cylindrical
coil with many turns of conducting wire, as shown in Fig. 4.5.

Figure 4.5. A typical inductor

An inductor consists of a coil of conducting wire. If current is allowed to pass through an inductor,
it is found that the voltage across the inductor is directly proportional to the time rate of change of
the current.

(7)

where L is the constant of proportionality called the inductance of the inductor. The unit of
inductance is the henry (H).

where C, the constant of proportionality, is known as the capacitance of the capacitor. Capacitance
is the ratio of the charge on one plate of a capacitor to the voltage difference between the two
plates, measured in farads (F).

For example, for the inductor, (solenoid) shown in Fig. 4.5, the inductance is given by

𝑁 2 𝜇𝐴
𝐿= 𝑙

7
where N is the number of turns, l is the length, A is the cross-sectional area, and 𝜇 is the
permeability of the core. Fig. 4.6 shows the circuit symbols for fixed and variable inductors.

Figure 4.6. Circuit symbols for inductors: (a) air-core, (b) iron-core, (c) variable iron-core

The current-voltage relationship is obtained from Eq. (7) as

Integrating both sides, we get

1 𝑡
𝑖 = 𝐿 ∫𝑡 𝑣(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖(𝑡𝑜 ) (8)
𝑜

where 𝑖(𝑡𝑜 ) is the total current for −∞ < 𝑡 < 𝑡𝑜 and 𝑖(−∞) = 0.

The instantaneous power delivered to the inductor is

𝑑𝑖
𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 = 𝐿𝑖 𝑑𝑡 (9)

The energy stored in the inductor is therefore

𝑡 𝑡 𝑑𝑖 𝑡 1 𝑡
𝑤 = ∫−∞ 𝑝𝑑𝑡 = 𝐶 ∫−∞ 𝐿𝑖 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐿 ∫−∞ 𝑖𝑑𝑖 = 2 𝐿𝑖 2 |
−∞

Since 𝑖(−∞) = 0

1
𝑤 = 2 𝐿𝑖 2 (10)

Note that an inductor acts like a short circuit to dc.

8
Example 4.4:

Solution:

The energy stored is

Example 4.5: Find the current through a 5-H inductor if the voltage across it is

Also, find the energy stored at 𝑡 = 5 𝑠. Assume 𝑖(𝑣) > 0.

Solution:

9
4.3.1 Series and Parallel Inductors

In order to obtain the equivalent inductor 𝐿𝑒𝑞 of N inductors in series, consider the circuit in Fig.
4.7 (a). The equivalent circuit is given in Fig. 4.7 (b).

Figure 4.7. Series inductors

The equivalent inductance of series-connected inductors is the sum of the individual

In order to obtain the equivalent inductor 𝐿𝑒𝑞 of N inductors in parallel, consider the circuit in Fig.
4.8 (a). The equivalent circuit is given in Fig. 4.8 (b).

Figure 4.8. Parallel inductors

10
The equivalent inductance of parallel inductors is the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals
of the individual inductances. Thus,

11