Fixed and

UNIT 2 FIXED AND CONTINUOUS BEAMS Continuous Beams

Structure
2.1 Introduction
Objectives
2.2 Statically Indeterminate Structures : Degree of Redundancy
2.3 Conditions of Compatibility
2.3.1 Illustrative Example of Propped Cantilever
2.3.2 Numerical Example of Propped Cantilever
2.4 Moment Area Theorems
2.5 Fixed Beams
2.6 Beams with Variable Moment of Inertia
2.7 Continuous Beams
2.8 Theorem of Three Moments
2.9 Summary
2.10 Answers to SAQs

2.1 INTRODUCTION
You have already learnt from your studies of “Strength of Materials” how to
analyse simply supported beams and cantilevers to find out their external
support reactions, and internal stress resultants (Bending Moments, Shearing
Forces) and displacements (deflections) under any loading. You will recall that
while solving these structures you used only the conditions of statics, which in a
co-planar structure and force system, consists of the following well-known set of
three equations of statical equilibrium, namely,
∑ Fx ≡ 0 (i.e. resultant of all forces parallel to axis OX is zero).
∑ Fy ≡ 0 (i.e. resultant of the forces perpendicular to the OX axis and
parallel to the OY axis is zero).
∑ M z ≡ 0 (i.e. resultant of all moments and couples about any point in the
plane XOY is zero).
Such structures which can be analysed only with the help of the above three
equations of statical equilibrium are known as Statically Determinate
Structures. For such structures the unknown support reactions are three and these
can be solved by statics only. However, there is another category of equally
common and important structures which are called Statically Indeterminate
Structures, which cannot be solved by solving the set of above three conditions
of equilibrium. Additional restraints in the form of extra members or support
constraints are imposed, which makes the number of unknowns to be solved as
greater than three, hence they need additional equations to analyse them, i.e.
compatibility conditions.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• conceptualise a new type of structures, which cannot be solved by
equations of statics only, and are known as statically indeterminate
structures,
21
Theory of Structures-I • to identify such structures and learn what are the main features which
distinguish them from statically determinate structures, and
• to analyse such structures, that is, to find their support reactions and
draw the BM and SF diagrams.

2.2 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE

STRUCTURES : DEGREE OF REDUNDANCY
The above facts will be made clear by the following three examples of statically
indeterminate structures.
(a) Propped Cantilever
The simplest example of such a structure is the so-called propped cantilever
shown in Figure 2.1. You know that a cantilever fixed at A and free at the
end B is a stable structure as it provides three support reactions VA, HA and
MA at the fixed end A which is capable of supporting any loading on the
cantilever and can be determined by using the three equilibrium equations.
P1 P2

MA
HA A B

VB
VA

Figure 2.1 : Propped Cantilever

Thus, it is a statically determinate structure. Now, if we provide an
additional roller support at B, this causes one additional constraint condition
on the beam by not allowing it to freely deflect at this end. This induces a
vertical reaction VB at the roller end. The propped cantilever has now four
B

constraints. At the fixed end A it is denial of both horizontal and vertical

displacements and also of any rotations of the beam (3 constraints) and at
the end B it is preventing of any vertical deflection (1 constraint). Thus, we
find that there are four corresponding reactions : VA, HA, MA and VB, while B

the equations of statics are three only, hence they cannot be determined by
using these equations only.
(b) Fixed Beam
In Figure 2.2, we have the example of a fixed beam which is fixed (i.e. no
horizontal and vertical displacement and no end rotation of beam) at both
ends A and B. These induce six restraints resulting in six corresponding
reactions, three at each supports, namely VA, HA, MA at end A, and VB, HB, B

P1 P2

MA MB

HA A B HB

VA VB

Figure 2.2 : Fixed Beam

22
 MB at end B. Again, these six unknown reactions cannot be determined
B
Fixed and
Continuous Beams
using the three equations of equilibrium and the structure is statically
indeterminate.
(c) Continuous Beam
A third example of such a structure is the continuous beam ABCD which
has a hinged support at A and roller supports at B, C and D. You are
familiar with a simply supported beam AD which can be formed by
removing the rollers at B and C and which is statically determinate. Now
the beam AD is
P1 P2 P3
w

B C
HA A D

VA VD

Figure 2.3 : A Continuous Beam

having a hinged support at A (with two reaction components HA and VA) and
the roller support at D (with the vertical reaction VD) and is the same as
simply supported beam with 3 unknown reaction (HA, VA, VD) and can be
solved by the 3 equations of equilibrium. However, the present beam with
the additional supports at B and C providing additional reaction VB and VC
B

(thus, total of five unknown reactions acting on the beam) cannot be solved
by using equilibrium equations making it statically indeterminate again.
You may wonder why such structures are used at all, making matters more
complicated. In fact, there are certain advantages in favour of statically
indeterminate structures. As we shall see soon, in statically indeterminate
structures bending moments and shearing forces induced are smaller in magnitude
than in comparable statically determinate structures. This results in smaller and
lighter sections accompanied with lesser costs, and cheaper construction.
However, apart from computational difficulties, the statically indeterminate
structures are subjected to internal stresses caused by differential settlement of
supports, temperature changes and errors in exact fabrication of members, which
are not perceptible in statically determinate structures. Thus, there are both
advantages and disadvantages in such a construction. Also, indeterminacy is
sometimes imposed by other considerations and cannot be avoided altogether. We
now turn our attention to the analysis and solution of statically indeterminate
structures.
In all the above three examples, we see that the number of unknown reactions
exceeds the number of equations of equilibrium (which in the co-planar case is
three). This excess is known as the degree of redundancy of the indeterminate
structure. Thus, in Example (a) the degree of redundancy is 4 – 3 = 1. In
Example (b), it is 6 – 3 = 3 and in Example (c), it is 5 – 3 = 2. Therefore, in
Example (a) we require one extra equation to solve the structure, while in
Examples (b) and (c) three and two extra equations are to be obtained by what is
called the conditions of compatibility which will be now explained below.

2.3 CONDITIONS OF COMPATIBILITY

Compatibility lies in satisfying the geometrical continuity of the structure, as well
as, ensuring that the extra constraints placed on it satisfy the new displacement
conditions. 23
Theory of Structures-I For example, in the case of the propped cantilever, if we remove the roller
support at B, the end is free to deflect. Under a given loading this vertical
displacement can be calculated using the methods given in Unit 5 of Strength of
Materials course. However, when we have placed the rigid roller support at B
this downward deflection is prevented, and as a result a vertical reaction VB B

appears there. By conditions of compatibility the magnitude of VB should be such B

that it should neutralize the deflection of cantilever end B due to loads and be able
to bring it back to its original level, as if there were no deflection. This also gives
us a clue to determine the value of the redundant reaction VB. Knowing VB the B B

remaining three reactions at A, namely VA, HA and MA can be obtained by using

the three equilibrium equations. This is explained in Example 2.1.
Here we want to emphasize that for statically indeterminate structures there will
be an infinite number of combinations of redundant forces which will satisfy
equilibrium conditions. However, among them there will be only one set of
values that will simultaneously satisfy the requirements of both equilibrium and
compatibility.

2.3.1 Illustrative Example of Propped Cantilever

Example 2.1

A propped cantilever of span L carries a concentrated load P at a distance of

a from the fixed support as shown in figure below. Find the support
reactions and draw the BM and SF diagrams. EI is constant for the beam.
P

A B
C
a

Solution

a P B
HA = 0 A
c
A B MA = VB.L VB
L
urve
VA = VB tic C Δ'
Elas
a P
MA = P.a
L
HA = 0 A'
VA = P Δ0 x
x Mx
Elastic Curve
B'
– P.a Mx
VB.L ⊕
BM Diagram
BM Diagram

(a) Cantilever under External Load P (b) Cantilever with Reaction VB as B

Load
Figure 2.4
The problem can be divided into two parts (which will be joined together
later on).
24
(a) A cantilever fixed at A and free at B, acted upon by the load P. The Fixed and
Continuous Beams
reactions and bending moment diagram can be easily verified as given
in Figure 2.4(a).
(b) The same cantilever acted upon by the unknown reaction VB acting at
B

the end B. The reactions and the BM diagram are shown in

Figure 2.4(b).
(i) To determine the downward deflection Δ 0 due to the load P.
There are two regions :
In the region AC, where 0 ≤ x ≤ a .

M = − P (a – x) . . . (2.1)
In the region CB, where a ≤ x ≤ l .
M=0 . . . (2.2)
d2y
For the region AC, M = EI = − P (a − x) .
dx

dy P ⎛⎜ x 2 ⎞⎟
On integration the slope =− ax − + A.
dx EI ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠

P ⎛ ax 2 x 3 ⎞
And deflection y = − ⎜ − ⎟ + Ax + B .
EI ⎜ 2 6 ⎟⎠
⎝
The arbitrary constants can be found from the conditions :
Slope at A (x = 0) is zero and deflection at A (x = 0) is also zero
which gives the value of the arbitrary constants A = 0 and B = 0.
∴ Between A and C,

dy P ⎛ x2 ⎞⎫
Slope =− ⎜⎜ ax − ⎟⎪
dx EI ⎝ 2 ⎠⎟ ⎪
⎬ . . . (2.3)
P ⎛ ax 2 x3 ⎞ ⎪
Deflection y=− ⎜ − ⎟ ⎪
EI ⎜⎝ 2 6 ⎟⎠ ⎭

Again in the region CB,

d2y
M = 0 ⇒ EI =0
dx 2
On integration
dy
Slope, =C . . . (2.4)
dx
and Deflection, y = Cx + D . . . (2.5)
where C and D are arbitrary constants.
To find the arbitrary constants C and D we have the following
conditions :
The slope and deflection at the common point C shall be same
as determined by Eqs. (2.3), (2.4) and (2.5).
25
Theory of Structures-I From First Set :
Slope at C
dy P ⎛⎜ 2 a 2 ⎞⎟ Pa 2
=− a − =− . . . (2.6)
dx EI ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ 2 EI

Deflection at C
P ⎛ a3 a3 ⎞ 3
y=− ⎜ − ⎟ = − Pa . . . (2.7)
EI ⎜ 2 6 ⎟⎠ 3 EI
⎝
From Second Set :
Slope at C
dy
=C . . . (2.8)
dx
Deflection at C
y = Ca + D . . . (2.9)
Equating the corresponding values, we get
Pa 2
C=−
2 EI

Pa 3
Ca + D = −
3 EI

from which the value of the arbitrary constants are found to be

Pa 2
C=−
2 EI

Pa 3
D=+
6 EI

On substitution, the Eqs. (2.4) and (2.5) become (between C

and B)
dy Pa 2 ⎫
Slope =− ⎪
dx 2 EI ⎪
⎬ . . . (2.10)
Pa 2 x Pa3 ⎪
Deflection y = − + ⎪
2 EI 6 EI ⎭
Hence, the downward deflection Δ 0 at the end B is given by
(using second set)
Pa 2 l Pa3 Pa 2
Δ 0 = C.l + D = − + =− (3L − a ) . . . (2.11)
2 EI 6 EI 6 EI

(ii) Next considering the case of Figure 2.4(b) when the cantilever
is acted upon by the reactive force VB. B

BM at any distance x from A is given by M = VB ( L − x)

d2y VB
or 2
= ( L − x)
dx EI
26
 On integration Fixed and
Continuous Beams
dy VB ⎛⎜ x 2 ⎞⎟
Slope = Lx − +Q
dx EI ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠

VB ⎛ x 2 x3 ⎞
Deflection y = ⎜L − ⎟ + Qx + R
EI ⎜ 2 6 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
The value of the arbitrary constants are determined by the
support conditions at fixed end A; namely, when x = 0, we have
dy
= 0 and y = 0.
dx
Substituting these conditions in the above two equations, we get
Q = 0 and R = 0.
dx VB ⎛ x2 ⎞ ⎫
= ⎜⎜ Lx − ⎟⎟ ⎪
dy EI ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎪
∴ ⎬ . . . (2.12)
V ⎛ x 2
x ⎞ ⎪
3
y = B ⎜L − ⎟
EI ⎜⎝ 2 6 ⎟⎠ ⎪⎭

Hence, calculating the upward deflection Δ′ at the end B, we get

VB ⎛ L3 L3 ⎞ VB L3
Δ′ = ⎜ − ⎟= . . . (2.13)
EI ⎜ 2 6 ⎟ 3 EI
⎝ ⎠
Now as the roller support at D is rigid there is no vertical
deflection or Δ 0 + Δ′ = 0 which is the required equation of
compatibility in this case.
Substituting, we get
Pa 2 V L3
− (3 L − a ) + B =0
6 EI 3 EI

Pa 2
or VB = (3 L − a) . . . (2.14)
2 L3
Pa P
MA = [a2 + 2L2 – 3La]
2
2L a

HA A B
C

P L Pa2
VA = (2L3 – 3a2L + a3 ) VB = (3L – a)
2L3 2L3
2
Pa
(3L – a) (L – a)
C′ 2L3
B′
A′ D′ ⊕
BM Diagram

P
VA = (2L3 – 3a2L + a3 ) C′
2L3 Pa2
⊕ VB = (3L – a)
2L3
SF Diagram

Figure 2.5
Next applying the conditions of static equilibrium, we get the
support reactions at A,
27
Theory of Structures-I ∑ H = 0 gives HA = 0
∑V = 0 gives VA + VB = P giving
P
VA = [2 L3 − 3a 2 L + a3 ] . . . (2.15)
3
2L
∑ M = 0 gives
Pa Pa
MA = 2
[3 La − a 2 − 2 L2 ] = − 2
[a 2 + 2 L2 − 3La]
2L 2L
The bending moment and shearing force diagrams are shown in
Figure 2.5. (You should verify the values given yourself.)
Between A′ and D′ the BM diagram is negative and between D′
and B′ it is positive.
SF is negative between A′ and C′, and is positive between C′
and B′.
2.3.2 Numerical Example of Propped Cantilever
In the above example of a propped cantilever you have seen how the method of
consistent deformation can be used to solve a statically indeterminate beam
problem. The method of consistent deformations is a special case of compatibility
methods of solution.
You can now solve any numerical problem of propped cantilever if you remember
just one formula namely the vertical reaction at the propped end VB due to a load B

P acting at a distance a from the fixed as given by Eq. (2.14).

Pa 2
VB = (3 L − a) . . . (2.16)
2 L3
This is illustrated by the following example.

Example 2.2

A propped cantilever shown in Figure 2.6 carries the loads as shown. Find
the support reactions and draw the BM and SF diagrams.

10 kN/m 30 kN

A B
C D

4m 2m 2m

Figure 2.6
Solution
The reaction VB at B due to the concentrated load of 300 kN is
B

(using Eq. (2.14))

30 × 6 2
VB = (3 × 8 − 6) = 18.984 kN .
2 × 83
28
To find the reaction VB due to the uniformly distributed load we employ the
B
Fixed and
Continuous Beams
following strategy :
10 dx
10 kN/m

MA B
x dx
RA
RB
4m
L=8m

Figure 2.7
Consider a small strip dx at a distance x from fixed end A (Figure 2.7), as
the load intensity is 10 kN/m the small load on this strip is 10 dx. We
assume it to be a small concentrated load and the reaction Δ VB due to this B

2
(10 dx) x
small load is [3 × 8 − x] , hence, the VB due to the entire u d l will
2 × 83
B

be obtained by integrating this expression over the range x = 0 to x = 4 m.

In other words
4
(10 dx) x 2
VB = ∫ 2 × 83
[3 × 8 − x]
0
4
10
On rearrangement VB = ∫ (24 x 2 − x 3 ) dx = 4.375 kN .
1024
0

Hence the total reaction at B is given by

VB = 18.984 + 4.375 = 23.359 kN.
B

The reaction at A is determined by ∑V ≡ 0 and is equal to

VA = (10 × 4 + 30) − 23.359 = 46.641 kN.
The fixing moment at A is
M A = 23.359 × 8 − 30 × 6 − 10 × 4 × 2 = − 73.128 kN m .
Now the BM and SF diagrams can be easily drawn as shown in Figure 2.8.
10 kN/m 30 kN
MA = 73.128 kNm

A B
C D

VA = 46.641 kN 4m 2m 2m VB = 23.359 kN

Pa (a) Load Diagram

ra
bo
lic
–73.128
F C' D' B'
A'
1.99 m
⊕ line
St.
St. line
33.436 46.718 kNm

(b) BM Diagram

46.641
6.641 6.641
B'
A′ C' D' 23.359 kN

(c) SF Diagram

Figure 2.8
29
Theory of Structures-I [Note : From A to C, the BM at any distance x is given by
x2
M x = − 73.128 + 46.641 x − 10 . This is a parabola; which becomes 0
2
+ 46.641 ± 46.6412 − 4 × 73.128 × 5
when x = = 1.99 m . Hence, from A to F
10
the bending moment is negative and for the rest of the beam it is positive.]

2.4 MOMENT AREA THEOREMS

From the above discussions about the consistent deformation method, it may be
observed that for the solution of statically indeterminate structures, it is necessary
to determine slopes and deflections at various points. One of the most convenient
and versatile methods for this is based upon two theorems, which are known as
the moment-area theorems. You know that the elastic line (or elastic curve) is
the changed shape of the structure after loading or support movements etc. The
first moment area theorem is related to the change of slope of the elastic line
between any two points. The second moment area theorem is related to the
distance between the tangents drawn to the elastic curve at two given points. In
fact these are semi-geometrical methods and are explained below.
You know how to draw the bending moment (M) diagram for a beam. In a beam
with variable moment of inertia (I) and modulus of elasticity (E), on division of M
M
by EI at all points we can plot the so-called diagrams.
EI
s

x dx Original Beam

A X
X B S
yA

A' θA yB Deflected Beam

(Elastic Curve)
S'
θB θA.S
B' θB (s – a)

x dx T2 Tangent
M Diagram i
EI T1

(Area = A)
CG

A'' S''
(s – x) B''
x

M
Area = dx
EI

Figure 2.9
Let A and B be any two points on a beam ABS which when loaded shows a
concave downward deflection A′B′ which is the elastic curve for this part of the
beam. The tangents at A′ and B′ to this curve meets the vertical line SS′ at T1 and
T2 respectively.
M
Let the bending moment (M) be a sagging moment and the diagram is drawn
EI
(Figure 2.9). (Here, sagging moments and downward deflections are taken
30
because they are considered positive as per our sign convention. However, the Fixed and
Continuous Beams
following discussion is true for any deflection or moment with any sign.)
Let the distance AB be ‘a’ and imagine a vertical line SS′ passing through another
point S which is at a distance ‘s’ from A. Coordinate origin is at A and x is
measured positive to right and y is positive downwards. θ A , y A and θ B , y B are the
slopes and deflection at the points A and B respectively. The tangential intercepts
on the vertical line SS′ are s tan θA and (s – a) tan θB, which are approximately
B

equal to s θA and (s – a) θB respectively, because the slopes θA and θB are very

B B

small and for such small angles the value of tan θA is equal to θA (in radians).
Now, from the study of ‘Strength of Materials’, we know that
dθ d 2 y M
= 2 =− . . . (2.17)
dx dx EI
The negative sign is taken because for a positive (sagging) moment the slope θ of
the beam goes on decreasing as x increases. Integrating the above equation
between A and B, we get the following relation :
B B
M
∫ dθ = − ∫ EI
dx
A A
B
M
or θB − θ A = − ∫ EI
dx
A
B
M
or θ A − θB = ∫ EI
dx . . . (2.18)
A

The left hand side (LHS) of the equation is the change in slope from A to B and
M
right hand side (RHS) of the equation is the area of the diagram between A
EI
and B. Thus, we have the first moment area theorem : Change in slope from A
M
to B is equal to the area of the diagram between these points.
EI
[Here the slopes θ A , θ B etc. are all measured in ‘radians’.]
Next, let us multiply both sides of Eq. (2.17) by (s – x), we get
dθ M
( s − x) = − ( s − x)
dx EI
M
or dθ ( s − x) = − ( s − x) dx
EI
Integrating both sides between A and B, we get
B B
M
∫ dθ (s − x) = − ∫ EI
(s − x) dx . . . (2.19)
A A

LHS is integrated by parts and we get

⎛B ⎞ B
LHS = ⎜ dθ ⎟ × (s − x) −
∫ ∫ (∫ dθ) × d (s − x)
⎜ ⎟
⎝A ⎠ A

B B
dy
= [ θ ( s − x) ] A − θ (− dx) = [θ (s − x)]BA +
B
∫ ∫ dx
. dx
A A
31
Theory of Structures-I B
= [θ B ( s − a) − θ A ( s − 0)] + ∫ dy = θ B ( s − a ) − θ A s + yB − y A
A

On substituting it back in Eq. (2.19), we get

B
⎛M ⎞
θ B (s − a) − θ A s + y B − y A = − ∫ ⎜
⎝ EI
dx ⎟ (s − x)
⎠
A
B
⎛M ⎞
On rearranging [θ A s + y A ] − [θ B ( s − a ) + y B ] = ∫ ⎜
⎝ EI
dx ⎟ (s − x)
⎠
. . . (2.20)
A

If we look at the various intercepts on the vertical line SS′ we find that the
intercept T1T2 between the tangents A′T1 and B′T2 is equal to the left hand side of
M
the above equation, while the moment of the diagram area between A and B
EI
about the SS′ line is the right hand side of the equation. If A is this area and x is
the CG distance of this area from the line SS′, the right hand side is equal to A x .
Thus, we can write Eq. (2.20) as the intercept, i = A x , which in words can be
expressed as follows.
M
The moment of the area between any two points, about a vertical line, is
EI
equal to the intercept made by the tangents at these points on the same vertical
line.
This is the second moment area theorem. We shall next see in the following
example how to calculate the slopes and deflections of a beam using these
theorems.
Example 2.3

Using the moment area theorems calculate the slopes at the supports and at
midpoint, and the deflection at the midpoint of the beam shown in
Figure 2.10(a). EI (= 6000 kN m2) for the beam is constant.
18 kN

A B
P

RA = 6 kN RB = 12 kN
4.5 m

6m 3m

(a) Loading Diagram

27
36
EI
EI

(b) M Diagram
EI Elastic Curve
C
A' B'
θA θB
δc
C'
α H
θA θC iA
C'' α
T3
Q
iB T1

T2
(c) Elastic Curve

Figure 2.10
32
Solution Fixed and
Continuous Beams
The reactions at A and B can be calculated as
18 × 3
RA = = 6 kN
9
18 × 6
RB = = 12 kN
9
18 × 6 × 3
The BM diagram is a triangle with apex at P, M P = = 36 kNm . As
9
M
EI is constant, the diagram is a similar triangle with maximum ordinate
EI
36
at P = . This is shown in Figure 2.10(b). The ordinate below the
EI
36 4.5 27
midpoint C = × = .
EI 6 EI
The deflected shape of the beam (the elastic curve) is shown in
Figure 2.10(c).
A′T1 and B′T2 are tangents to this curve at supports A and B respectively.
The tangent through C′ is C′T3. A line C′Q is drawn parallel to A′T1, then
∠ HC ′Q = θ A .
Let ∠ T3C ′Q = α , then slope at C ′ = ∠ HC ′T3 = θ C = θ A − α .
The vertical through C meets the elastic curve at C ′ and tangent at A′T1
at C ′′.
The deflection at C, δC = CC ′ = CC ′′ − C ′ C ′′ .
M
By second moment area theorem, intercept B′T1 = Moment of the entire
EI
area about BB′, i.e.
⎛ 36 9 ⎞ ⎛ 0 + 3 + 9 ⎞ 648
iA = ⎜ × ⎟×⎜ ⎟=
⎝ EI 2 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ EI
Now, because θ A is small
i A 648 72 72
θ A ≈ tan θ A = = = = radians = 0.012 radian = 0.688o
9 9 EI EI 6000
M
Similarly, θ B is obtained by taking moments of the area about A
EI
⎛ 36 9 ⎞ ⎛ 0 + 6 + 9 ⎞ 810
iB = A′T2 = ⎜ × ⎟×⎜ ⎟=
⎝ EI 2 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ EI
iB 810
∴ θB = = = 0.015 radians = 0.859 o
9 9 × 6000
Now, from the diagram α is the difference of the slopes between A and C
M
and by first moment area theorem, it is equal to the area between A
EI
and C.
27 4.5 60.75
α= × =
EI 2 EI
72 60.75 11.25 11.25
∴ Slope at C, θC = θ A − α = − = = radians = 0.107 o .
EI EI EI 6000 33
Theory of Structures-I Now deflection at C, δC = CC ′ = CC ′′ − C ′ C ′′ .
72 324
Here, CC′′ = AC × θ A = 4.5 × =
EI EI
and C′C′′ = intercept between tangents at A and C at a line passing
through C.
M
= moment of area between A and C about C (by second
EI
moment area theorem).
⎛ 27 4.5 ⎞ 4.5 91.125
=⎜ × ⎟× =
⎝ EI 2 ⎠ 3 EI
324 91.125 232.875
∴ δC = − = = 0.0388 m = 39 mm (approx.)
EI EI 6000
SAQ 1

A simply supported beam AB of 6 m span carries a load of 12 kN/m over

the whole span. Find the deflection and the slopes at the following points :
(using moment area theorems) :
(a) at the supports; and
(b) at the centre of the beam.
(E = 200,000 MPa and I = 30 × 106 mm4)

2.5 FIXED BEAMS

After studying the propped cantilever you will be now able to appreciate the
analysis of fixed beams. As shown in Figure 2.11, fixed beams have generally
three redundancies, which in the case of transversely loaded beams reduces to
two only, as the horizontal reactions at each end is zero. Here the reactions and
fixing moment at any one of the ends may be taken as the unknown redundant
reactions for which two equations of compatibility are required. The other two
reactions will be then determined by the equations of static equilibrium namely
∑ V ≡ 0 and ∑ M ≡ 0 . Alternatively we can take the two end fixing moments MA
and MB as the redundant reactions and then determine VA, VB by using the
B B

equations of statics. In the next example we shall use the second method.
P1 P2 w
MA MB
HA = 0 A B HB = 0

VA VB

Figure 2.11

Example 2.4

Analyse the fixed beam AB which carries a uniformly distributed load w per
unit length over a span of length l. EI is constant.
34
Solution Fixed and
Continuous Beams
We shall take advantage of the symmetry of the structure.
The fixed end moments MA and MB are both hogging (negative) and of
B

equal value due to symmetry. On the left end hogging moment MA is

anticlockwise; on the right hand end it is clockwise in direction. Due to the
statical condition, ∑ H ≡ 0 , the two horizontal reactions at HA and HB are B

both zero.
Due to symmetry both the vertical reactions VA and VB are equal and B

wl
VA + VB = wl ∴ V A = VB = .
2
B

Next, considering the beam as simply supported at A and B you know that
the free beam BM diagram is parabola with maximum ordinate at centre
wl 2
equal to as shown in Figure 2.12(b).
8
w per unit length
MA MB

HA = 0 A B HB = 0
C
E F

l
wl wl
VA = VB =
2 2

(a) Beam Loading and Reactions

wl 2
wl 2 8
+
8

(b) Free BM Diagram

– MA

(c) Fixed BM Diagram

(d) Resultant BM Diagram

E C F
A' B'
2
– wl
12

0.211 l ⊕ 0.211 l
2
+ wl
24

(e) Final BM Diagram

Figure 2.12
35
Theory of Structures-I Due to fixed end moments the negative BM diagram will be a rectangle as
both the end moments are equal and negative as shown in Figure 2.12(c).
The resultant bending moment diagram is obtained by superimposing
Figure 2.12(c) on Figure 2.12(b) as shown in Figure 2.12(d). Now the value
of the unknown moment – MA is obtained by the compatibility condition
that the change in slope from end A to end B is zero. (Because the beam is
fixed at A and at B the slopes at both ends are zero.) By the first moment
M
area theorem this is equal to the area of the diagram between A and B,
EI
M
hence the net algebraic value of the diagram from end A to B is zero.
EI
M
This implies that the area of the positive free diagram is equal to the
EI
M M
negative diagram. The EI is constant, diagram will be similar to
EI EI
2
M-diagram. As area of the parabola is × area of circumscribing rectangle,
3
M 2 wl 2 wl 3
the area of the positive diagram is × ×l = .
EI 3 8 EI 12 EI

M
The area of the negative diagram is that of the rectangle and is equal
EI
M
to − l.
EI
M
As the algebraic sum of the two diagrams is zero, we have
EI

MA wl 3
− ×l + =0
EI 12 EI

wl 2
which gives M A = .
12
Thus, the negative fixed end moments at A and B are both have the value
wl 2
− , and the final BM diagram is as shown in Figure 2.12(e). The
12
wl 2 wl 2 wl 2
positive BM is maximum at centre and is equal to − = .
8 12 24
At the two ends we have the negative BM zones. The distance of the point
of contraflexure (i.e. the points where the sign of BM changes) E and F
from the ends is obtained by solving the quadratic equation
wx 2 wl 2 wl wx 2
M x = − M A + RA x − =− + x− = 0 giving x = 0.211 l.
2 12 2 2

Example 2.5

Now let us take the example of analysis of a fixed beam AB which carries a
single concentrated load P at distance a and b from the ends A and B
respectively (span l = a + b, and EI of the beam is constant).
36
Solution Fixed and
P Continuous Beams

HA = 0 A B HB = 0
C
a b
Pab2 Pa2 b
MA = – MB = –
l2 l2

Pb + Pab l Pa – Pab
VA = (b – a) VB = (b – a)
l l3 l l3

(a) Loads and Reactions

Pab
+
l

(b) Positive (Free Bending BM Diagram)

– MB
– MA

(c) Negative (Fixed) BM Diagram

b+l
x=
3

Pab C.G.
+
EIl

M
(d) Diagram (Positive)
EI
2MA + MB
x= . l
MA + MB 3

MA C.G.
–
EI

M
(e) Diagram (Negative)
EI
T1 T2
A' B'
θA = 0 θB = 0

(f) Elastic Curve

Pab2 Pa2b
MA = – MB = –
l2 l2
⊕

(g) Final BM Diagram

Figure 2.13
37
Theory of Structures-I The free BM diagram is shown in Figure 2.13(b). It is a triangle with
Pab
maximum ordinate at the point C (below the load).
l
Assuming the fixed end moments which are negative as – MA and – MB the B

fixed BM diagram is a trapezium as shown in Figure 2.13(c).

M
As EI is constant, the diagrams are similar and shown in
EI
Figures 2.13(d) and (e).
Now to find the unknown end moments A and B we have the following two
conditions of compatibility :
(a) The change of slope from A to B is zero since both the slopes
are zero.
(b) The intercept of the tangents at A and B on a vertical line
through B is zero since both the tangents are horizontal and at
the same level.
Now, applying the moment area theorem to these condition :
M
(a) The first condition implies that the net area of the diagram
EI
M
from A to B is zero, i.e. area of positive diagram = area of
EI
M
negative diagram.
EI
M
(b) The second condition gives that the net moment of the
EI
diagram about the vertical through B is zero which means the
M
moment of area of positive diagram about B = moment of
EI
M
area of negative diagram about B.
EI
The areas of the diagrams and their CG distances from B are shown in
Figures 2.13(d) and (e) from which we get :
Pab ⎛ M A + M B ⎞
(a) +⎜ ⎟⎟ l = 0
2 EI ⎜⎝ 2 EI ⎠

⎛ Pab ⎞ ⎛ b + l ⎞ ⎛ M A + M B ⎞ 2M A + MB l
(b) ⎜ ⎟.⎜ ⎟ + ⎜⎜ l ⎟⎟ . . =0
⎝ 2 EI ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 2 EI ⎠ MA + MB 3
which when simplified gives the following simultaneous equation
Pab
(M A + M B ) = −
l
Pab (l + b)
and 2M A + MB = −
l2
Subtracting the first from the second
Pab 2
MA = − . . . (2.21(a))
l2
Substituting the value of MA in first equation above, we get
38
 Pab ⎛ Pab 2 ⎞ Fixed and
MB = − − ⎜− ⎟ Continuous Beams
l ⎜ l2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠

Pab l Pab 2
=− +
l2 l2
Pab
=− ( a + b − b)
l2

Pa 2 b
=− . . . (2.21(b))
l2
Here, because of their negative signs MA and MB are both hogging B

moments. But from the point of view of statics MA is an anticlockwise

moment while MB is a clockwise moment as shown in the diagram.
B

Again by taking moments about B, we have

Pab 2 Pa 2b
VA l − + − Pb = 0
l2 l2
Pb Pab
giving VA = + 3 (b − a) . . . (2.22(a))
l l
Pa Pab
and VB = – (b − a ) . . . (2.22(b))
l l3
In Eq. (2.22), we clearly see that the first term in either case is the reactions
of a simply supported beam; while the second term is caused due to the
fixity of the supports. The sum of VA + VB remains equal to P for vertical
B

equilibrium.
The maximum positive BM occurs below the load and is given by
2 Pa 2b 2
M C = − M A + VA . a = . . . . (2.23)
l3
2.5.1 General Case of Fixed Beams
Using the result of Example 2.5, we can solve most of the problems of fixed
beams subjected to any type of loading as shown below.

Example 2.6

Find the fixed end moments and draw the BM and SF diagrams for the
fixed beam shown in Figure 2.14. EI is constant for the beam.
30 kN
10 kN/m

A B
D

4m 4m 4m

(a) Loading Diagram

Figure 2.14

39
Theory of Structures-I 10 dx 30 kN

dMA A B dMB
D

x (l – x)

dx

(b) End Moments due to udl

10 kN/m 30 kN

MA = 75.56 A B MB = 66.67
C D

VA = 44.075 VB = 25.925

(c) Reactions

Parabolic
– 75.56
– 66.67

⊕ ⊕

20.74 37.07

(d) BM Diagram (Superimposed)

MA = – 75.56 MB = − 66.67

⊕ ⊕
Parabolic 93.34

106.7 kNm

(e) Final BM Diagram (on Common Axis)

44.075
⊕ 4.075

25.925 kN

25.925 kN

(f) SF Diagram
Figure 2.14
Solution
From Example 2.5, for the concentrated load
30 × 8 × 4 2
MA = − = − 26.67 kNm
12 2
30 × 82 × 4
MB = − = − 53.33 kNm
12 2
For the uniformly distributed load, we consider a small width dx at a
distance x from A (Figure 2.14(b)), the load on this small strip is 10 dx and
may be assumed concentrated at this point, the elemental fixed end bending
moment dMA due to this load will be
(10 dx) x (12 − x) 2
dM A = −
12 2
40
Integrating both sides within limit x = 0 to x = 4. Fixed and
Continuous Beams
4
1
We have ∫ dM A = −
12 2 ∫ (10 dx) x (12 − x) 2
0

1
or MA = −
12 2 ∫ 10 x (144 − 24 x + x 2 ) dx
0

4
1 ⎡ x2 x3 x4 ⎤
=− ⎢1440 − 240 + 10 ⎥
144 ⎢⎣ 2 3 4 ⎥⎦
0

1 ⎛ 16 64 2560 ⎞
=− ⎜1440 × − 240 × + ⎟
144 ⎝ 2 3 4 ⎠

= − 48.89 kNm

(10 dx) x 2 (12 − x)

Similarly, dM B = −
12 2
4
(10 dx) x 2 (12 − x) 10
Integrating M B = − ∫ 2
=− ∫ (12 x 2 − x 3 ) dx
12 144
0

4
10 ⎡ x3 x4 ⎤ 10 ⎡ 3 44 ⎤
=− ⎢12 . − ⎥ =− ⎢4 × 4 − ⎥
144 ⎢⎣ 3 4 ⎥⎦ 144 ⎢⎣ 4 ⎥⎦

= − 13.33 kNm

Adding the moments due to both u. d. l. and concentrated load we get

M A = − (26.67 + 48.49) = − 75.76 kNm and this is anticlockwise at left
hand end (because a hogging bending moment).
M B = − (53.33 + 13.33) = − 66.66 kNm and this is clockwise at right hand
end again (because a hogging bending moment).
The free body diagram is shown in Figure 2.15.
10 kN/m 30 kN

75.56 A B 66.67
C D
4m 4m 4m

VA VB

Figure 2.15
Vertical reactions VA and VB are now obtained by the conditions of static
B

equilibrium.
∑M = 0.

Taking moments of all the forces and couples about B, we have

V A × 12 − 75.56 + 66.66 − 40 × 10 − 30 × 4 = 0 ; giving VA = 44.075 kN ↑ .

Similarly, ∵ ∑ V ≡ 0 ⇒ V A + VB = 10 × 4 + 30 ; giving VB = 25.925 kN ↑ .

The BM diagrams are shown in Figures 2.14(d) and (e) and the SF diagram
in Figure 2.14(f) which may be verified.
41
Theory of Structures-I
SAQ 2

A fixed beam AB of 12 m span carries a uniformly distributed load of

20 kN/m over the left half of the span. Find the support reactions and draw
the BM and SF diagrams.

2.6 BEAMS WITH VARIABLE MOMENT OF

INERTIA
Till now, we have solved problems with EI constant for the beam. If the modulus
of elasticity, E, or moment of inertia, I, of the beam varies and is not constant
M
along the length of the beam the diagram will no longer be similar in nature
EI
to the M diagram (bending moment diagram). Hence, this is to be re-drawn and
modified taking into consideration the variation of E or I. This is explained in the
example below.

Example 2.7

Find the fixed end moments and the vertical support reactions for the fixed
beam shown in Figure 2.16. Draw the BM and SF diagrams.
20 kN

C D E
A I I B
2I

3m 3m 3m 3m

(a) Beam and Loading

+ 30 + 30
+ 60

(b) Free BM Diagram (Positive)

15/EI 15/EI

30/EI 30/EI 30/EI

M
(c) Free Diagram
EI

– MA = – M – MB = – M

(d) Fixed End BM Diagram (Negative)

Figure 2.16
42
 –M Fixed and
–M 2EI –M Continuous Beams
EI EI

M
(e) Fixed End Diagram
EI
–25 –25 kNm
+5 +5
⊕
+35
2.5 m 2.5 m

3m 3m 3m 3m

(f) Final BM Diagram

+ 10 ⊕
– 10

(g) Final SF Diagram

Figure 2.16
Solution
The moment of inertia in the central portion CE is double that of the end
portions AC and EB.
The free beam BM diagram is shown in Figure 2.16(b). This is a triangle
with apex below the load point D (which is also the midpoint of the beam).
20 × 12
The maximum ordinate of the triangle at D is = 60 kNm .
4
By similar triangles the value of BM at C and E are 30 kNm. For obtaining
M
the diagram we divide by EI in the region AC and EB, and by 2 EI in
EI
M
the region CE. Thus, we obtain the diagram as shown in Figure 2.16(c).
EI
Similarly, by symmetry the fixed end (negative) bending moments MA and
MB must be equal say – M, and the diagram is a rectangle as shown in
B

M
Figure 2.16(d). For the regions AC and EB the ordinates of the diagram
EI
M M
is − and for the region CE it will be − as shown in Figure 2.16(e).
EI 2 EI
Thus, there will be three rectangles as shown in Figure 2.16(e).
Since the slope at fixed ends at A and B are both zero the change in slope
from A to B is zero. So by the first moment area theorem the net area of the
M
final (superimposed) diagram should be zero. Meaning thereby, that
EI
M M
positive diagram and negative diagrams have equal areas.
EI EI
M
Now the positive diagram consists of two triangles and two trapeziums
EI
hence the total areas as can be easily seen are
M ⎡ 30 3 15 + 30 3 ⎤
Positive area = 2 ⎢ × + × ⎥
EI ⎣ EI 2 EI 2⎦

43
Theory of Structures-I M ⎡M M ⎤
Negative area = 2 ⎢ × 3 + × 3⎥
EI ⎣ EI 2 EI ⎦
⎡ 30 3 45 3 ⎤ ⎡M M ⎤
∴ 2⎢ × + × ⎥+2⎢ ×3+ × 3⎥ = 0
⎣ EI 2 EI 2 ⎦ ⎣ EI 2 EI ⎦
giving M = − 25 kN m, which is the value of the fixed end moment MA
and MB. These moments are hogging (− ve) moments.
B

The final BM diagrams is shown in Figure 2.16(f). By Eq. (2.22(a))

Pb Pab 20 × 6 20 × 6 × 6
VA = + 3 (b − a ) = + (6 − 6) = 10 kN
l l 2 123
Similarly, VB = 10 kN .
It can be easily seen that the points of centraflexure (zero BM) are 2.5 m
from the end supports.
The final SF diagram is shown in Figure 2.16(g).
[Note : It may be noted that in the case of the fixed beam AB having
20 × 12
constant EI the fixed end moments M A = M B = − = − 30 kNm . The
8
extra stiffness provided in the central zone decreases the value of the end
fixing moment.]

2.7 CONTINUOUS BEAMS

We have seen earlier in Section 2.2 that a continuous beam resting on n supports
has (n – 1) redundancies representing the reactions at the (n – 1) intermediate
supports. To determine these unknown support reactions we have to solve (n – 1)
simultaneous equations of compatibility which may be cumbersome if solved
manually. However, there is a general method available which can break up these
general compatibility equations into smaller equations, easier to handle.

1 2 3 4 n–2 n–1 n Support No.

L1 L2 L3 Ln – 2 Ln – 1
Span

Figure 2.17

2.8 THEOREM OF THREE MOMENTS

In this method, an equation is established relating the three support moments of
any two adjacent spans of the continuous beam. Thus, a relation is established
between the support moments M2, M3, M4 (at support numbers 2, 3, 4) of the two
adjacent spans L2 and L3 and so on. A continuous beam on n supports has (n – 1)
spans. Thus, (n – 2) equations will be established. We also know that out of the n
support moments, the two support moments at the ends are zero. Hence, the
(n – 2) unknown intermediate support moments can be determined from the
(n – 2) simultaneous equations. As the equation establishes a relation between
any three consecutive support moments, it is called the equation of three
moments. This will be explained now.
44
The basis of this equation is the compatibility condition which ensures the Fixed and
Continuous Beams
continuity of the beam between adjacent supports. Simply told this means that as
the beam is continuous over the intermediate support the tangent to the elastic
curve at the support is common to the adjacent spans and its slopes on the two
sides are same. This is shown in Figure 2.18(d).
P1 P2 P3
w

I J K

Li Lj

(a) Loading on the Beam (General Case)

I′ J′ K′
Area = Ai/EiIi Area = Aj/EjI j

C.G. C.G.

xi xj

M
(b) Free Beam Diagram on Each Span
EI
Mj / Ej I j
Mj / Ei Ii
Mk / Ej Ij
Mi / Ei Ii CG
C.G. C.G.
CG

I′ J′ K′
2Mj + Mi Li 2Mj + Mk Lj
. .
Mj + MI 3 Mj + Mk 3

(c) Support Moments Diagram

Original Beam Line

I J K

Δi
Δi
I'
Ci
Δj Δk
Δk
T1
Deflected Beam Line
(Elastic Curve)
θ H'
H
θ K'
J' Ck

T2

(d) Elastic Curve and Tangential Intercepts

Figure 2.18
45
Theory of Structures-I Figure 2.18(a) shows any two adjacent spans Li, Lj of the continuous beam, and
the loading diagram. The supports I, J, K sink by amounts Δi, Δj and Δk and the
new elastic curve is shown in Figure 2.18(d). The tangent at the central support J
′ is T1 J ′ T2 which meets the verticals through I and K at T1 and T2 respectively.
As the beam is continuous over the support the compatibility conditions stipulate
that the slopes on the two sides are the same, i.e. ∠ T1 J ′ H = ∠ T2 J ′ H ′ = θ where
HH ′ is a horizontal line through J, by geometry
T1 H T H′
tan T1 J ′ H = and tan T2 J ′ H = 2 and both are equal to tan θ.
Li Lj

It can be also seen from the diagram that T1 H = Δ j − Δi – Ci and

T2 H ′ = Δ k − Δ j + C k

Δ j − Δ i − Ci Δ k − Δ j + Ck
∴ We have = = tan θ . . . . (2.24)
Li Lj

Let us assume that the E and I on the two spans are different (Ei, Li and Ej Lj
respectively). The free beam BM diagrams (M-diagram) can be easily drawn
knowing the loads on it. Dividing the M-diagram of span Li by Ei Ii, and that of
M
span Lj by Ej Ij we get the two free diagram for the two adjacent spans as in
EI
Ai Aj Ai
Figure 2.18(b), having areas and . Let the CG of the area be x i
Ei Li Ej Lj Ei Li
Aj
from IH and of area be x j from KH′.
E j Lj

Similarly, let as assume that Mi, Mj and Mk are the BM’s at the supports I, J, K,
the support BM diagrams are trapeziums with ordinates Mi, Mj and Mk. If these
ordinates are divided by Ei, Ii in span Li and Ej Ij in span Lj, we get the
M
corresponding fixed diagrams which are two trapezium with areas
EI
Mi + M j M j + Mk 2 M j + M i Li
Li and Lk . The CG of the former trapezium is
2 Ei I i 2Ej I j Mi + M j 3
2 M j + M k Lk
from vertical IH and CG of the second trapezium is from vertical
M j + Mk 3
KH ′ (Figure 2.18(c)).
Now, we know that the intercept Ci between the tangents at I and J is equal to the
M
moment of the total (free + fixed) diagram about vertical IH. Similarly, the
EI
intercept Ck is equal to the moment of these areas about vertical KH ′. This can be
expressed by the following expression :

Ai xi Mi + M j 2 M j + M i Li ⎛⎜ 6 Ai xi + ( 2 M j + M i ) L2i ⎞⎟
Ci = + Li . =
Ei I i 2 Ei I j Mi + M j 3 ⎜ 6 Ei I i ⎟
⎝ ⎠

Similarly,
Aj x j M j + Mk 2M j + Mk Lj 6 A j x j + ( 2 M j + M k ) L2j
Ck = + Lj . =
Ej I j 2Ej I j M j + Mk 3 6Ej I j
46
Substituting these values in Eq. (2.24), we get Fixed and
Continuous Beams
Δ j − Δi Ai xi (2 M j + M i ) Li Δk − Δ j ⎡ Aj x j (2 M j + M k ) L j ⎤
− − = +⎢ + ⎥
Li Ei I i Li 6 Ei I i Lj ⎢⎣ E j I j L j 6Ej I j ⎥⎦

⎛ L ⎞ ⎛ Li Lj ⎞ ⎛ Lj ⎞
On rearranging M i ⎜⎜ i ⎟⎟ + 2 M j ⎜ + ⎟ + Mk ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Ei I i ⎠ ⎜ Ei I i Ej Ij ⎟ ⎜Ej I j ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

Ai xi Aj x j ⎛ Δ j − Δi Δ j − Δ k ⎞
+6 +6 =6⎜ + ⎟ . . . (2.25(a))
Ei I i Li E j I j Lj ⎜ Li Lj ⎟
⎝ ⎠

This is the Theorem of Three Moments.

On the right hand side of the equation Δ i − Δ j is the relative settlement of the left
support with respect to the central support and Δ i − Δ j is negative if Δ i < Δ j , i.e.
left hand support is above the central support (since downward deflections are
positive). Similarly, Δ k − Δ j is the movement of the right hand support with
reference to central support which is shown here as positive (downwards) since
Δ k > Δ j in the diagram. The sign of the movements have to be properly taken
when calculating the right hand side of the equation.
If there are no support settlements, which is the scope of this course, the RHS of
Eq. (2.25(a)) is zero and we get

⎛ L ⎞ ⎛ Li Li ⎞ ⎛ L ⎞
M i ⎜ i ⎟ + 2M j ⎜ + ⎟ + Mk ⎜ i ⎟
⎝ Ei Ii ⎠ ⎜ Ei I i Ej I j ⎟ ⎜ Ej I j ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

Ai xi Aj x j
=−6 −6 . . . (2.25(b))
Ei I i Li E j I j Lj
Example 2.8

Find the support reactions and draw the BM and SF diagrams of the
continuous beam shown in Figure 2.19. EI = constant.
Solution
The positive bending moment diagram (due to external loads) for the two
M
spans, the area of the diagrams and CG distances are shown in
EI
Figure 2.19(b). In the case of support moment diagrams shown in
Figure 2.19(c), MA = 0 and MC = 0, only MB is unknown and is assumed to
B

M
be M. The support diagram is shown at Figure 2.19(c). As there are no
EI
support movements, all the Δ’s are zero. Hence, the equation of three
moments Eq. (2.25(b)) is reduced to :
6 ⎛ 6 12 ⎞ 12 90 × 3 360 × 6
0× + 2M ⎜ + ⎟ + 0× + 6× + 6× =0
EI ⎝ EI EI ⎠ EI EI × 6 EI × 12

giving M = − 37.5 kNm.

To find reaction RA, take moments of forces left of B. This gives :
BM at B = RA . 6 – 20 × 3 = − 37.5 giving RA = 3.75 kN.
47
Theory of Structures-I 20 kN 20 kN

B
A C
D E

RB = 24.375
RA = 3.75 RC = 6.875
3m 3m 6m 6m

(a) Beam and Loading

A1 = 90 kNm2
A2 = 360 kNm2
D′ B′ E′ C′
A′
CG ⊕ ⊕ CG

30 kNm
x1 = 3 m x2 = 6 m

60 kNm
(b) Free Beam BM Diagram
4m 8m
A′ B′ C′

–M
EI

(c) Negative BM Diagram

A′ D′ B′ E′ C′

⊕
11.25 kNm ⊕
+30 kNm
– 37.5 kNm
41.25 kNm

+60 kNm
(d) Resultant BM Diagram (Superimposed)

– 37.5 kNm

A′ D′ E′ C′
⊕ B′
⊕
11.25 kNm

41.25 kNm
(e) Final BM Diagram (Common Axis)

⊕ 13.125
3.75 ⊕ C′
A′ D′ B′ E′ 6.875 kN

16.25

(f) SF Diagram

Figure 2.19
Similarly, taking moment of forces right of support B :
BM at B = RC. 12 – 20 × 6 = − 37.5 giving RC = 6.875 kN.
Also, ∵ ∑V ≡ 0, R A + RB + RC = 20 + 20

48 ∴ RB = 40 − 3.75 − 6.875 = 29.375 kN

 The BM diagrams are shown in Figures 2.19(d) and (e) and the SF diagrams Fixed and
Continuous Beams
in Figure 2.19(f).

SAQ 3

Find the support reactions for the continuous beam shown in Figure 2.20
and draw the BM and SF diagrams (EI is constant).
15 kN
6 kN/m

B
A C

2m
6m 5m

Figure 2.20

2.9 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have been introduced to the analysis of one of the important class
of structures, namely Statically Indeterminate Structures. You have been
introduced to the solution of three types of such structures, namely, propped
cantilevers, fixed beams and continuous beams. The methods of solution to which
you have been introduced are (a) the method of consistent deformations, and
(b) the theorem of three moments.

2.10 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
12 kN/m
P C
A B
2m 1m 3m
RA = 36 kN RB = 36 kN

6m

M
(a) Diagram
EI
C
A’ B’
θA θB

C’ θc = 0

C’’

(b) Deflection Diagram

49
Theory of Structures-I
wl 2 12 × 62
MC = = = 54 kNm ; M P = 36 × 2 − 12 × 2 × 1 = 48 kNm
8 8

EI = 200000 × 30 × 106 Nmm 2 = 200 × 30 kNm 2 = 6000 kNm 2

We shall use the following properties of the parabola here

CG
b
Parabola

x
2
Area of parabola = . a b
3
3
CG distance x = a (This can be verified by actual integration.)
8
By symmetry the tangent at C is horizontal
∴ θC = 0
and θ A = θB
Change in slope from A to C = θ A − θC = θ A − 0 = θ A .
M
By first moment area theorem the above is equal to the area of the
EI
diagram between A and C.
2 54 108
∴ θA = ×3× =
3 EI EI
3 × 108 324
Intercept CC ′′ = 3 tan θ A ≈ 3 . θ A = =
EI EI
By second moment area theorem intercept
M
C ′ C ′′ = Moment of diagram (between A and C) about C
EI
108 3 243
= × ×3=
EI 8 2 EI
324 243 405
∴ Central deflection, δC = CC ′′ − C ′ C ′′ = − =
EI 2 EI 2 EI
405
= m = 0.0375 m = 33.75 mm
2 × 6000
108 108
Slope at support, θ A = = = 0.018 radians = 1.03o .
EI 6000
SAQ 2
dx 20 kN/m
x

MB = − 75 kNm
MB = − 165 kNm
6m
RA RB
12 m
50
 Using the formula for a point load are integrating. Fixed and
Continuous Beams
6 (20 dx) x (12 − x) 2 20 6
MA = − ∫0 12 2
=−
144 ∫0 x (144 − 24 x + x 2 ) dx = − 165 kNm

6 (20 dx) x 2 (12 − x) 20 6

MB = − ∫0 12 2
=−
144 ∫0 x 2 (12 − x) dx = − 75 kNm

Taking moments about B ⇒ − 165 + 75 + RA . 12 − 120 × 9 = 0

Giving RA = 97.5 kN; similarly RB = 22.5 kN. B

− 75 kNm
− 165 kNm
B
A
4.5 m 180 kNm
Centre Line
Parabola 202.5 kNm
6m

+ 97.5

⊕
22.5
− 22.5 SFD

Between A and C the BM is given by

x2
M = − 165 + 97.5 x − 20
2
= − 165 + 97.5 x − 10 x 2
SAQ 3
M B = − 21.27 kNm
V A = 14.45, VB = 34.80, VC = 1.75 kN

51