Unit 1

Workshop practice
Scope and objectives

 In order to gain a good basic knowledge of manufacturing process, a student

entering the first year of engineering degree, should undergo a course on workshop
practice.
 In order to have a balanced overall development of budding engineers, it is
necessary to integrate theory with practice.
 General workshop practices are included in the curriculum in order to provide
hands on experience about use of different engineering materials, tools, equipment
and processes that are common in the engineering field.
 Besides above, the development of dignity of labor, precision, and safety at work
place, team working and development of right attitude are the other objectives.
What is workshop practice?

 Workshop practice gives the basic working knowledge required for the production
of various engineering products.
 It explains the construction, function, use and application of different working tools,
equipment, machines as well as the technique of manufacturing a product from its
raw material.
Health and Safety

 It is as important to ensure risks and hazards to health are controlled, just as much
as for safety.
 Health hazards include noise, vibration and harmful substances, including wood
dust and welding fumes.
 Ensure risk assessments take account of health hazards.
Working safely in workshops and Safety precautions

 Always ensure equipment and tools are safe to use, fit for purpose and suitable for
the task.
 If you suspect any item is unsafe, take it immediately out of service, so it cannot be
used and report it to your supervisor.
 Before you start work, check the equipment and the work area.
 You must only use equipment and tools that you have been trained on and are
authorized to use.
 Make sure you are familiar with the risk assessments and safe working procedures
for the tasks you carry out.
  You must only use equipment and tools that you have been trained on and are
authorized to use.

 Make sure you are familiar with the risk assessments and safe working procedures
for the tasks you carry out.
Accident
It is very difficult to define ‘Accident’. However, a generally accepted conception is that an
accident is a mishap, a disaster that results in some sort of injury, machines or tools and
equipment, and loss to the organization.
Minor or major injury or loss are termed as non-reportable or reportable accident. For
example, a small cut on the body will be reportable accident in a training workshop. It can
be treated by first aid and does not involve any appreciable loss of time, and will not be
considered a reportable accident in a production unit.
Causes of accidents
The 98% of accidents can be easily avoided if precautions are taken well in time. A very
familiar slogan goes on to say that accidents do not just happen but are caused due to the
failure of one element or the other, and the most unfortunate factor is that the human
element is the most pronounced of all which fail.
The common causes which lead to accidents are the following:

 Unsafe working position.

 Improper or defective tools or their improper use.
 Improper acts
Common sources of accidents
The large number of machines and parts in use. This can be regarded as sources of danger
and require guarding for protection against accidents.
Some common sources of accident are:
i. Projecting nips between sets of revolving parts, gears, rolls and friction wheels, etc.
ii. Projecting fasteners on revolving parts.
iii. Revolving cutting tools, circular saw blades.
iv. Revolving drums, crushers, spiked cylinder and armed mixers, etc.
v. Revolving shafts, spindles, bars and tools like drills, reamers, boring bars and chucks,
etc.
vi. Projecting sharp edges or nips of belt and chain drives viz., belt, pulleys, chains,
sprockets and belt fasteners.
vii. Reciprocating tools and dies of power presses, drop hammers, and revolving
presses, etc.
viii. Grinding wheels and stones.
ix. Reciprocating knives and saw blades such as cutting and trimming machines and
power hack-saws, etc.
x. Revolving drums and cylinders without casing, such as concrete and other mixers.
xi. Intermittent feed mechanisms.
xii. Projecting nips between various links and mechanisms, like cranks connecting rods,
piston rods, rotating wheels and discs, etc.
Common Methods of Protection
Safety by position
The machine design is in such a way that the dangerous parts are located such that they
are always beyond the reach of the operator.
Safety by construction
A new machine designed should ensure that all its dangerous parts are either enclosed in
suitable housings or provided with suitable safety guards.
Safety by using interlock guards
The efficient method of guarding machine parts and the guard cannot be removed and
dangerous parts cannot be exposed until and unless the machine is totally stopped.
Similarly, the machine cannot be started to work unless the guard returns in position and
protects the dangerous parts.
An interlocking guard may be mechanical, electrical or some sort of a combination of these.
It is essential that it should:
i. Prevent the starting and operation of the machine in case the interlocking device
fails.
ii. Always acquire its position to guard the dangerous part before the machine can be
started.
iii. Remain closed in position until the dangerous part is completely at rest.
Safety by using fixed guards
These guards are either main integral part of the machine or are tightly secured to them.
They should be made to have rigid construction and should be so placed that any access to
the dangerous parts of the machine is totally prevented in the running condition of the
machines.
Safety by using distance guards
The principle of a distance guards is that a fencing, enough high, is made of bars, at a
suitable distance from the machine such that even if the operator by chance extends his
hands over it, his fingers, clothes or any part of the body does not reach dangerous parts.
Safety by using automatic guards
The principle of an automatic guard is that its operation is actuated by some moving part
of the machine.
The design of the guard is such that it automatically forces the operator away from the
dangerous area of work before the operation starts and does not permit his access to the
area again until and unless the machine stops. It may be noted that due to enough time
being required for their operation, this type of guards are not suitable for quick-acting and
fast-running machines. Their use is largely favored for heavy and slow acting machines like
heavy power presses.

Personal protective equipment (PPE)

General purpose of (PPE)
The purpose of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is to protect you from work place
hazards and the risk of injury. Hazards must be eliminated or controlled that when PPE can
work as expected and it should be used a last resort for human protection in the workshop.

General use of PPE is based on protection eyes and face, head, foot, hands and arms,
respiratory, hearing and body parts.
Classification of PPE
Head protection
Head injuries are commonly caused by impact from falling or flying objects, and falling or
walking into hard objects. PPE such as hard hats are used to protect the head from falling
objects, in a limited way, from electrical shock or burns. Hard hats should be worn in areas
where there is potential for head injuries.
Hardhats must be ANSI Z89.1-2003 compliant and rated for the hazards encountered.
Hardhats fall into these impact categories:
Type I Hard Hats: are intended to reduce the force of impact resulting from a blow only to
the top of the head.

Figure 1 Type I hard hat

  Type II Hard Hats: are intended to reduce the force of impact resulting from a blow
which may be received off center or to the top of the head.

Figure 2 Type II Hard hat

 A Type II hard hat typically is lined on the inside with thick high density foam.
And these are electrical classes:
 Class G (General) Class G hard hats are tested at 2200 volts.
 Class E (Electrical) Helmets-Class E protective helmets are tested at
 20,000 volts.
 Class C (Conductive) Helmets-This class provides no electrical insulation.
Eye and face protection
Eye and face protection must be worn to protect you from eyes or face injury from small
particles, toxic chemicals, flying objects or particles, large objects, thermal or radiation
hazards, and lasers. PPE for the face and eyes includes devices such as safety glasses,
goggles, and face shields. These must always remain clean and free of contaminants and
must be ANSI Z87.1-2003 compliant. Face shields are a secondary form of protection;
safety glasses or goggles must still be worn underneath the face shield.
Note that most sunglasses are not safety glasses.

Impact hazards Impact hazards Impact hazards Face

Should provide Splash protection protection Shaded
peripheral Shaded lenses available lenses for optical
protection, Shaded for radiation hazards
lenses available for optical radiation (welding helmets)
optical radiation hazards Secondary protection
hazards Dust protection (glasses or goggles must
Vented and non-vented still be worn)

Hearing protection
Exposure to high levels of noise may result in hearing loss. Most hearing loss will take time
to develop and will depend on intensity, duration, and how often exposure to noise occurs.
Popular types of hearing protection devices include canal caps, earmuffs and earplugs.
Working high noise environments (boiler, compressor rooms etc.) or work with high noise
output equipment (saws, trimmers, blowers, etc.) requires to put on protective devices.
 Working with high Working with high Working with high Working with high
powered powered powered powered
equipment such as equipment such as equipment such as equipment such as
shop machinery, shop machinery, shop machinery, shop machinery,
power tools, or gas power tools, or gas power tools, or gas power tools, or gas
powered powered powered powered
equipment. equipment. equipment. equipment.
Disposable Reusable Reusable Reusable

Hand Protection
Selecting the proper gloves is very important since it is our hands that are often used to
handle hazardous materials. These materials usually consist of caustic or toxic chemicals,
biological substances, electrical sources, or extremely cold or hot objects that may irritate
or burn your hands. In addition, traumatic injuries such as cuts, sprains and punctures
may also occur. With the wide range of hazards, there also exists a wide range of gloves
that may be used as PPE. It is important to know that not all gloves are protective against
all chemicals and hazards and it requires to one choose the correct hand protection for
the job.

Foot protection
Injuries that may occur when the proper footwear is not worn are chemical and heat
burns from spills and splashes of acids and caustics, compression injuries, electrical
shocks, and slipping. Wearing the proper footwear is therefore, very important when
working in areas where physical and chemical hazards are present. Close-toed, heeled
shoes must always be worn in laboratory areas where chemicals are present.

Body protection
Protective clothing, such as lab coats or work suits should be worn when handling
hazardous materials. This will prevent the contamination of skin and clothing. Full Body
Harnesses worn as part of a personal protection from falling. Other body protection
includes heat resistant leather jackets or sleeves for welding or arc flash suits for work
around live electrical equipment.

Figure 3 body harnesses

Workshop equipment and tools

Types of Workshop Tools
The following are common types of workshop tools that you can discover in any
workshop:

1. Tape measure 11. Drill 21. Screw

2. Handsaw 12. Drill bit 22. Chainsaw
3. Level 13. Ruler 23. Hacksaw
4. Duct tape 14. Clamp 24. Mallet
5. Screwdriver 15. Anvil 25. File
6. Utility knife 16. Shears 26. Chisel
7. Hammer 17. Sandpaper 27. Extension cord
8. Wrench 18. Paint brush 28. Glue
9. Pliers 19. Nail 29. Toolbox
10. Crowbar 20. Awl 30. Brace

First aid
An introduction to First Aid

Imagine: Whilst feeding your child, they start to gag and appear unable to breathe. You
have tried slap on the back, with no success. Then seem close to losing consciousness, you
call emergency service is referred to first aid.
People rarely give first aid a thought, until the day they need it. The above scenario is the
sort of everyday occurrence that can so easily lead to tragedy.
However, with the correct first aid training anyone could, in the short term (until the
arrival of the emergency services) save a life.
The Aims of First Aid
Preserve life
This doesn’t just refer to the injured party, but yourself and anyone helping you. Far too
often, a helper will inadvertently put themselves in danger and subsequently be another
casualty for the emergency services to deal with.
Please take a moment to assess the situation, and make sure there are no threats to you
before you step in.

Prevent the situation from getting worse

If you are in no danger yourself, try to stop the situation from becoming worse by
removing any obvious dangers (such as stopping traffic, clearing people away from the
casualty, opening a window to clear any fumes, etc.).
Also, act as quickly as you can to stop the casualty’s condition from worsening.

Promote recovery
After ensuring that the situation cannot get worse, helping the casualty to recover from
their injury or illness, or stop their condition from getting worse. If the injury is severe,
then the best you can do is try to keep them alive until the emergency services arrive.

The priorities of treatment

Primary survey (Airway → Breathing):
A. Make sure the casualty’s airway is clear. Do this by gently tipping their head back
so that the front of the throat is extended.

B. Check if they are breathing normally. You can do this by placing the back of your
hand near their nose and mouth. You are looking for about two breaths in every
ten seconds. If the casualty is breathing, then their heart is working, which means
blood is being circulated around their body.

Secondary survey (Breathing → Bleeding → Bones):

Once you are satisfied that the casualty is breathing normally, the second thing to
do is make sure to treat any bleeding. This is done to make sure there is no blood
loss and to ensure there is a steady supply of oxygenated blood to the casualty’s
vital organs. If there is no bleeding, or you have dealt with any cuts, the next
priority is broken bones.
An emergency action plan is important to have in place should you be faced with a
situation requiring first aid.

1. REMOVE DANGER: Make the scene safe, do not take risks.

2. DANGER: Look for any further danger. If yes, go back a step, if no go to step 3.

3. RESPONSE: Shout and gently shake or tap the casualty. If the casualty responds,
find out what happened. Check their signs and symptoms (how does the casualty
feel or look? Try to work out what’s wrong), and determine a treatment
(remember - if you are unsure, always seek medical advice). If there is no
response, shout for help but don’t leave the casualty just yet, and go to step 4.

4. AIRWAY: Open the casualty’s airway by lifting their chin and tilting their head
back.

5. BREATHING NORMAL: Look, listen and feel for two breaths in a maximum of ten
seconds. If you can clearly determine the casualty is breathing, perform a
secondary survey (check for bleeding, injuries and clues). Put the casualty into
the recovery position, dial 999 if not already done, monitor airway and breathing
and keep the casualty warm. If you cannot determine if the casualty is breathing,
go to step 6.

6. DIAL or CALL FOR AN AMBULANCE NOW IF YOU HAVEN’T DONE SO ALREADY.

7. RESUSCITATION: Give 30 chest compressions followed by 2 rescue breaths,

continue giving cycles of 30 compressions to 2 breaths. If there is more than one
first aider on hand, change over every 2 minutes to prevent fatigue. Continue
until the ambulance arrives.

Fire safety
Introduction
Fire safety is the set of practices intended to reduce the destruction caused by fire. Fire
safety measures include those that are intended to prevent ignition of an uncontrolled fire,
and those that are used to limit the development and effects of a fire after it starts. Fire
safety measures include those that are planned during the construction of a building or
implemented in structures that are already standing, and those that are taught to
occupants of the building. Threats to fire safety are commonly referred to as fire hazards.
Definition of fire
A fire is a chemical reaction. A fire is self-sustained oxidation of a fuel that emits heat and
light. A fire requires three variables to initiate: a fuel, oxygen, and heat. The fire triangle is
a well -known representation of the three variables needed to initiate a fire. In order to
initiate a fire, fuel, oxygen, and heat are required.
Fire tetrahedron
Fire prevention is the concept of preventing the variables of the fire triangle from coming
into contact with each other to initiate a fire. Once a fire begins, it requires four variables
to sustain the combustion reaction. The four variables required to sustain a fire are fuel,
oxygen, heat, and chemical chain reactions. These four variables represent the fire
tetrahedron.

Figure 4 Fire tetrahedron

Chemical chain reactions are a product of the combustion process. The chemical reactions
ultimately produce combustion byproducts such as carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide,
carbon, and other molecules, depending on the specific fuel. It is these byproducts of
combustion found in the smoke that usually affect the safety and health of occupants and
fire fighters.
Fire extinguishment is done by eliminating one of the variables of the fire tetrahedron. By
removing the fuel, oxygen, or heat, or inhibiting the chemical chain reactions, a fire can be
extinguished.
A fuel is a combustible solid, liquid, or gas. The most common solid fuels are wood, paper,
cloth, coal, and so forth. Flammable and combustible liquids include gasoline, fuel oil, paint,
kerosene, and other similar materials. Propane, acetylene, and natural gas are some
examples of gases that are flammable. Solid and liquid fuels share a common characteristic;
they must be converted into a gas in order to support combustion. Gaseous fuels can
undergo direct oxidation because the molecules are already in the gas state.
Oxygen:
The atmosphere contains approximately 21% oxygen by volume. During combustion, the
oxygen necessary for oxidation is sufficiently provided from the surrounding air. When the
oxygen content of the atmosphere falls below 15%, a free-burning fire will begin to
smolder. When the oxygen content of the atmosphere falls below 8%, a smoldering fire
will stop burning (Bryan, 1982).
Heat:
By preventing heat sources from contacting the ignitable fuel -air mixtures, fires can be
effectively prevented from occurring. Some common sources of heat for ignition in the
workplace are:
• Open flames such as from cutting and welding torches
• Cigarettes
• Sparks such as from electrical equipment, brazing, or grinding
• Hot surfaces such as electrical motors, wires, and process pipes
• Radiated heat from boilers or portable heaters
• Lightning
• Static discharges such as during the transfer of flammable liquids
• Arcing from wires and electrical equipment
• Compression such as hydraulic oil under pressure on a machine
• Exothermic chemical reactions
• Spontaneous ignition from slow oxidation or fermentation combined with proper
insulation of a fuel

Heat is transferred by three methods: conduction, convection, or radiation. Conduction

occurs when two bodies are touching one another and heat is transferred from molecule
to molecule. Convection is the transfer of heat through a circulating medium rather than
by direct contact. The medium can be either a gas or a liquid. Radiation is the transfer of
electromagnetic waves through any medium.
Three stages of fire
Fires evolve through several stages as the fuel and oxygen available are consumed. Each
stage has its own characteristics and hazards that should be understood
Incipient stage,
The incipient stage is the first or beginning stage of a fire. In this stage, combustion has
begun. This stage is identified by an ample supply of fuel and oxygen. The products of
combustion that are released during this stage normally include water vapor, carbon
dioxide, and carbon monoxide. Temperatures at the seat of the fire may have reached
537.8°C, but room temperatures are still close to normal.
Free-burning stage:
The free-burning stage follows the incipient stage. At this point, the self-sustained
chemical reaction is intensifying. Greater amounts of heat are emitted and the fuel and
oxygen supply is rapidly consumed
Smoldering stage:
The smoldering stage follows the free-burning stage. As a free-burning fire continues to
burn, the chemical reaction will eventually consume the available oxygen within the
compartment and ultimately convert it into carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. This
causes the oxygen concentration within the compartment to decrease. When the oxygen
concentration decreases to 15% by volume, the chemical reaction will not have sufficient
oxygen to support free-burning combustion.
Fire prevention & protection:
Fire prevention
Fire prevention requires segregating the three elements of the fire triangle. A fire needs
three elements - heat, oxygen and fuel. Without heat, oxygen and fuel a fire will not start
or spread. A key strategy to prevent fire is to remove one or more of heat, oxygen or fuel.
Fire Classifications
Fires are classified as A, B, C, D or K based on the type of substance that is the fuel for the
fire, as follows:
Class A: fires involves ordinary combustibles, such as paper, trash, some plastics, wood and
cloth. A rule of thumb is if it leaves an ash behind, it is a Class A fire.
Class B: fires involving flammable gases or liquids, such as propane, oil and gasoline
Class C: fires involving energized electrical components
Class D: fires involving metal. A rule of thumb is if the name of the metal ends with the
letters ‘um’, it’s a Class D fire. Examples of this are aluminum, magnesium, beryllium and
sodium. Class D fires rarely occur in the roofing industry.
Class K: fires involving vegetable or animal cooking oils or fats; common in commercial
cooking operations using deep fat fryers.

Fire Extinguishers
There are different types of fire extinguishers which are designed to put out the different
classes of fire. Selecting the appropriate fire extinguisher is an important consideration for
a roofing contractor. The wrong extinguisher actually may make a fire emergency worse.
For example, failing to use a Crated extinguisher on energized electrical components may
endanger workers by causing the extinguishing material to be electrified by the energized
components that are on fire. C-rated fire extinguishers put out the fire by using a chemical
that does not conduct electricity.