Fuel 305 (2021) 121583

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Alternative fuels for decarbonisation of road transport sector in India:

Options, present status, opportunities, and challenges
M.R. Nouni, Prakash Jha, Rudranath Sarkhel, Chandan Banerjee, Arun K. Tripathi,
Joydev Manna *
Hydrogen Energy Division, National Institute of Solar Energy, Gwal Pahari, Gurugram, Haryana 122003, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Rapid economic development and increasing population are contributing to growing energy demand in India.
Alternative fuels Road transport sector, almost fully dependent on petroleum oil, is the third highest user of the total final energy
Biofuels in India. More than four-fifth of crude petroleum is imported, which is responsible for nearly one-fifth of
Compressed natural gas
country’s import bill. India’s share of the global energy related CO2 emissions was about 7% in 2018, of which
Compressed biogas
Decarbonisation
about 13% was caused by the transport sector. With a view of decarbonising the road transport sector and also
Electric mobility addressing issues concerning energy efficiency, energy security, air quality and transport induced noise, alter­
Hydrogen native fuels have been explored in India for about two decades. This paper reviews policy support and related
Methanol developments regarding biofuels, compressed natural gas, methanol, electricity, and hydrogen for automotive
Cost of ownership applications in India with a brief mention about international progress. The opportunities for their growth by
2030 and challenges to realise the potential are also analysed. Biofuels and electricity can offer significant op­
portunities for decarbonising the road transport sector in the near term. Compressed natural gas in short term
and hydrogen in medium and long term may also play important roles in this regard.

1. Introduction Strong economic growth coupled with rapidly increasing population is

contributing strongly to growing demand for energy. Different studies
India was the fifth largest global economy with GDP of US$ 2.87 and projections estimate that demand for supply of the total primary
trillion and the second most populous country with about 1.38 billion energy in India is likely to grow from around 880 Mtoe in 2020 to about
people in 2020 [1,2]. It is expected to emerge as the second largest 1930 Mtoe by 2040/2042 [5–7]. While 44% of the primary energy de­
economy in the world with about 1.64 billion people by 2050 [3,4]. mand in India was met by coal in 2020, oil and gas accounted for 31%

Abbreviations: ₹, Indian Rupee; 2G, Second Generation; 4W, Four Wheeled; B5, 5% Biodiesel Blended Diesel; BL, Billion Litres; BS-IV, Bharat Stage Emission
Standard 4; CAGR, Compound Annual Growth Rate; CBG, Compressed Biogas; CI, Compression Ignition; CNG, Compressed Natural Gas; CO, Carbon Monoxide; CO2,
Carbon Dioxide; E0, 0% Ethanol Blended Petrol; E5, 5% Ethanol Blended Petrol; E20, 20% Ethanol Blended Petrol; E100, 100% Ethanol; EV, Electric Vehicle;
FAMHEV, Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of (Hybrid &) Electric Vehicles; FC, Fuel Cell; FCV, Fuel Cell Vehicle; GDP, Gross Domestic Product; GHG, Greenhouse
Gases; GoI, Government of India; Gt, Giga tonnes; GW, Giga Watt; H-CNG, Hydrogen-Compressed Natural Gas; HEFA, Hydrotreated Esters and Fatty Acids; HFV,
Hydrogen Fuelled Vehicle; HGU, Hydrogen Generation Unit; HICE, Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engine; HRS, Hydrogen Refuelling Station; HVO, Hydrotreated
Vegetable Oil; ICE, Internal Combustion Engine; IEA, International Energy Agency; IITD, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi; IOCL, Indian Oil Corporation Ltd.;
LCV, Light Commercial Vehicle; LIB, Lithium Ion Battery; LMV, Light Motor Vehicle; LNG, Liquefied Natural Gas; LPG, Liquefied Petroleum Gas; M15, 15% Methanol
Blended Petrol; M&M, Mahindra & Mahindra; MMSCM, Million Metric Standard Cubic Metre; MMSCMD, Million Metric Standard Cubic Metre per Day; MNRE,
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy; MT, Million Tonnes; MTA, Million Tonnes per Annum; Mtoe, Million tonnes of oil equivalent; NBEM, National Board of
Electric Mobility; NBP, National Biofuel Policy; NG, Natural Gas; NHER, National Hydrogen Energy Roadmap; NISE, National Institute of Solar Energy; NITI, National
Institution for Transforming India; NMEM, National Mission on Electric Mobility; NEMMP, National Electric Mobility Mission Plan; NOx, Oxides of Nitrogen; NPB,
National Policy on Biofuels; NTPC, National Thermal Power Corporation; O&M, Operation and Maintenance; PM, Particulate Matter; R&D, Research and Devel­
opment; SATAT, Sustainable Alternative Towards Affordable Transportation; SCI, Supreme Court of India; SI, Spark Ignition; SIAM, Society of Indian Automobile
Manufacturers; SOx, Oxides of Sulphur; TML, Tata Motors Limited; UCO, Used Cooking Oil; UNIDO, United Nations Industrial Development Organisation.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: joydev@[Link] (J. Manna).

[Link]
Received 27 April 2021; Received in revised form 25 June 2021; Accepted 26 July 2021
Available online 6 August 2021
0016-2361/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M.R. Nouni et al. Fuel 305 (2021) 121583

for the same, that too mostly through imports [5,6]. Growing demand transportation fuel demand is heavily dependent on diesel as it has about
for fossil fuels is not only increasing import dependence but also two-third share between the two dominant transport fuels. Among the
contributing to increased CO2 emissions and poor air quality. Produc­ vehicles using petrol, two wheelers consume more than 60% of it and
tion, import and consumption of coal, crude oil, and natural gas (NG) by remaining by cars [20].
India during the recent years are shown in Fig. 1. Coal production in the Driven by higher energy demand, 33.1 Gt of CO2 emissions were
country and imports, mainly of coking coal, during the year 2019 – 20 caused by energy related uses globally in 2018. India with 2.299 Gt
were 730.87 MT and 248.54 MT, respectively [8,9]. This indicates that (6.94%) of energy related CO2 emissions was the 3rd largest emitter of
import dependence of coal during 2019–20 was about 34% and it has greenhouse gases (GHG) globally behind China (28.6%) and the USA
been witnessing upward trend in the recent times [Fig. 1(a)]. Globally, (14.75%) [21]. Globally, 8 Gt of CO2 emissions were contributed by the
India was at the third position, behind the USA and China, in terms of transport sector in 2018 [22]. In India, the transport sector contributed
import of crude petroleum during 2019 [10,11]. In 2019–20, India to about 0.29 Gt, which was 13% of total CO2 emissions of 2.234 Gt in
consumed 214.12 MT and produced 32.2 MT of crude petroleum 2017 [23]. Air pollution constitutes the most pressing environmental
resulting in import dependence of 85%, which has been progressively health risk faced by the global population. As per 2020 World Air
increasing over the years as domestic production is declining [Fig. 1(b)] Quality Report, compiled by IQAir, the annual average PM2.5 air quality
despite policy measures to increase it [12]. India’s import bill for oil was in India was estimated at 51.9 µg/m3 in 2020. There has been
estimated at US$ 112 billion out of the total imports of US$ 631.29 improvement in PM2.5 air quality during 2020 as compared to 2018 and
billion during 2018–19, indicating that oil imports constituted about 2019 due to COVID-19 pandemic [24]. Air quality in India was the third
18% of total imports in monetary terms [13,14]. During 2019–20, poorest among different countries and out of the 30 most polluted cities
import bills shrank by 9% to US$ 102 billion as international crude globally in terms of air quality, 22 cities were in India. In dealing with
prices crashed towards the end of the financial year due to COVID-19 issues related to climate change, primarily caused by accumulation of
pandemic though import volume remained almost similar [15]. So far GHGs emission, India had launched eight national missions, including
as NG is concerned, domestic production has been falling, whereas im­ one concerning solar energy for increasing deployment of technologies
ports have been increasing during the last decade with more than 50% of for harnessing it for meeting a part of the total energy requirement of the
consumption being met through imports during 2019–20 [16]. Among country. This was to reinforce the efforts that were already in progress
different fossil fuel based primary energy sources, import dependence of for increasing penetration of other environmentally sustainable options
India on crude oil is significantly higher as compared to coal and NG. like wind and bio energies and also to expand contribution of atomic
The total final energy consumption in India during 2019 was estimated energy in its overall energy mix [25].
at 809.2 Mtoe with shares of industry, residential, transport and service Renewable energy-based power generation capacity in India was
including agriculture sectors being 42%, 29%, 17% and 12%, respec­ about 92.55 GW as on 31 January 2021 with contributions from wind,
tively and 95% of the total final energy consumption of the transport solar, small hydro (up to 25 MW capacity project) and bioenergy being
sector was met by petroleum oil [17]. Diesel and petrol estimated to 38.68 GW, 38.79 GW, 4.76 GW and 10.31 GW respectively [26]. With a
have met transportation fuel demand of India by 65% [100.24 billion view to further improve penetration of renewables in its power mix,
litres (BL)] and 27.7% (42.27 BL) respectively during 2019–20 [18,19]. India aims for having renewable energy-based power generating ca­
The balance demand was largely met by compressed natural gas (CNG), pacity of 175 GW by 2022, which is projected to further go up to 455 GW
and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). Thus, it is evident that Indian by 2030 and thereby contributing about 55% of its total installed

Fig. 1. Production, imports, and consumption of different fossil fuels such as (a) Coal, (b) Crude Oil, (c) Natural Gas by India.

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M.R. Nouni et al. Fuel 305 (2021) 121583

capacity of 831.5 GW [27,28]. 2.1.1. Development in India

The highly fluctuating crude oil prices in the international market, Biofuels are the most promising substitutes to liquid fossil fuels, as
finite indigenous oil reserves, absence of new major oil reserves, more or they can be obtained from locally available feedstocks for replacing or
less stagnant domestic petroleum oil production and ever-increasing supplementing petrol or diesel to meet growing energy requirements for
domestic demand leading to heavy dependence on imported crude oil, different economic activities, including that for the road transport ve­
prompted the policy makers to look for alternative fuels especially for hicles. Apart from addressing issues related to energy security, local air
the road transport sector in India. Here, the road transport is referred to quality and GHG mitigation, biofuels can also contribute to employment
the transportation of goods and personnel from one place to the other on generation and rural development in a country like India.
roads using motorised carriage [29]. Consumption of diesel in Indian In 2001, India took the first concrete step for promoting use of bio­
railways during the period 2014–15 to 2017–18 has not seen any sig­ fuels with an ultimate goal of reducing dependence on imported crude
nificant growth and it is increasingly moving towards electrification of oil by initiating 3 pilot projects in the states of Maharashtra and Uttar
its goods and passenger trains [30,31]. On the other hand, technologies Pradesh for 5% ethanol blended petrol (E5) along with carrying out
to use renewable fuels in aviation and maritime transport systems are in studies for ensuring safety of engine and vehicles by way of blending
their primary stages. Therefore, rail transportation along with air and [35]. It was followed by mandatory introduction of E5 in some regions of
maritime transportation are excluded from the scope of this study. In the the country, which included nine states and four centrally administered
above context, the options that are best suited to decarbonise the road territories, effective from January 2003. Beside ethanol, biofuel can be
transport sector and also to address the issues relating to better energy supplied by biodiesel derived from soybean and palm oil or even non-
efficiency, energy security, rural development, employment generation, edible oilseeds. In 2003, National Biodiesel Mission, launched by the
climate change, worsening air quality and minimising transport induced GoI set the biodiesel blending target of 20% by 2011–2012 [36]. With a
noise have been considered for development and utilisation in the view to prevent further widening of the gap between demand and supply
country. This paper attempts to review policy support and related de­ for edible vegetable oil in the country, the GoI mandated use of only
velopments regarding biofuels, CNG, methanol, electricity and non-edible oilseeds for biodiesel production. In September 2006, the
hydrogen for the road transport applications in India. The opportunities mandate for supply of E5 was extended to a larger geographical spread
for their growth by 2030 and challenges to realise the potential are also of the country by including eleven more states in the programme [37].
analysed. Like many other countries around the world, India had also faced hur­
dles in its biofuel programme due to insufficient availability of ethanol.
2. Alternative fuels for surface transportation – Options and In December 2009, India adopted the National Policy on Biofuels (NPB)
present status to allow procurement of ethanol produced from non-food feed stocks
like molasses, celluloses, and lignocelluloses materials, including
Among the different options, alternative fuels such as biofuels petrochemical route [38]. It envisaged achieving target of 20% admix­
(ethanol and biodiesel), CNG, methanol, electricity, hydrogen, etc. have ing of ethanol and biodiesel in petrol and diesel respectively by the end
been considered for development and utilisation in India. In fact, “Auto of 2017 [39].
Fuel Policy, 2003” of the Government of India (GoI) had recommended
among others: utilisation of CNG/LPG in cities having higher vehicular 2.1.2. National biofuel policy 2018
penetration; accelerating development of battery electric, hydrogen and Despite of the efforts made in India over a period of 15 years from
fuel cell vehicles (FCV); and development of sustainable biofuel pro­ 2003 onwards, ethanol blending of 2% in petrol and biodiesel blending
duction technologies based on locally available resources and also ve­ of below 0.1% in diesel could be attained in 2018 [38]. The constraints
hicles for their utilisation [32]. Recent developments that include faced by India included focussing mainly on the first generation (1G)
increasing penetration of renewable energy in the power mix of India, technologies for ethanol production for want of more R&D, investment,
evolution of shared mobility solutions which optimise utilisation of market interest etc. for the second generation (2G) ethanol production
transport assets that have high initial cost and advances in battery technologies and usage of only wasteland for cultivation of non-edible
chemistries have created a favourable environment for the development oilseeds needed for biodiesel production. With a view to enhance the
and deployment of electric mobility. The following sections provide usage of biofuels in liquid fossil fuel consuming sectors of the economy,
details of the policy initiatives taken especially in India for development the National Biofuel Policy (NBP) was made operative in 2018 with
and promotion of different alternative fuels for the road transportation overall objectives of utilising, developing, and promoting locally avail­
with progress achieved vis-a-vis global achievements. able resources for production of biofuels leading to progressively
reducing dependence on liquid fossil fuels and in the process aiming for
energy security and climate change mitigation along with creating new
2.1. Biofuels jobs [39]. NBP has also set a goal to bring down imports of crude pe­
troleum by 10% by 2022 and achieve an indicative target of 20%
The important liquid biofuels produced and utilised globally are ethanol admixing in petrol and 5% of biodiesel admixing in diesel by
ethanol and biodiesel. While ethanol is produced mainly using corn, 2030. In view of the difficulties faced in procuring biodiesel, the target
sugar cane and other crops; for biodiesel production animal and vege­ for admixing was relaxed for 2030 from an ambitious target of 20%
table oils, including used cooking oil (UCO) from kitchens are utilised. admixing for 2017, set earlier in 2009. For improving ethanol blending
Besides, hydro-treated vegetable oil (HVO) and hydro-treated esters and percentage, efforts like making ethanol prices more attractive, which
fatty acids (HEFA) are also being increasingly produced from the same was in the range of US$ 0.61–0.84 per litre during the supply year of
feed stocks that are used for biodiesel production for utilisation as diesel 2019–2020, and simplification of ethanol procurement process were
substitute. Biofuels accounted for about 3.1% of total global transport made [40]. However, ethanol procurement from distilleries attached to
energy requirement in 2018 [33]. Global ethanol production during different sugar mills, having ethanol production capacity of 3.55 BL,
2019 was estimated at 114 BL with the USA (59.7 BL), Brazil (35.3 BL), stood around 1.5 BL in India during ethanol supply year 2017–18
China (4 BL), India (2 BL) and Canada (1.9 BL) being the top five ethanol (December 2017 to November 2018) which was adequate enough for
producing countries [33]. Global biodiesel production during 2019 was around 4.22% admixing on countrywide basis. Therefore, with a view to
estimated at 47.4 BL with Indonesia (7.9 BL), the USA (6.5 BL), Brazil augment supply of ethanol, a law (Pradhan Mantri JI-VAN Yojana) was
(5.9 BL), Germany (3.8 BL) and France (3 BL) being the top five biodiesel approved by GoI in 2019 for providing financial support for setting up of
producing countries. It is also expected that the average global biofuel 12 commercial scale and 10 demonstration scale 2G ethanol projects
production will grow up to 182 BL during 2023–25 [34]. using lignocellulosic biomass and other renewable feed stocks, with a

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M.R. Nouni et al. Fuel 305 (2021) 121583

total funding of about US$ 277.756 million for the period 2018–19 to 2.2.1. Development in India
2023–24 [41]. Potential for ethanol production from 2G technologies Regulatory and judicial interventions have paved the way for
using a part of available agro-residues in India has been estimated at introduction of CNG vehicles in India in the cities of Mumbai and Delhi
27.9 BL, 37.3 BL and 50.1 BL in 2010–11, 2020–21 and 2030–31, in the early 1990s. Following a directive from the Supreme Court of
respectively [42]. India (SCI), an empowered multi-stakeholder body - Environment
The consumption of petrol and diesel in India were 30.06 MT (42.27 Pollution (Prevention and Control) Authority was established in January
BL) and 88.71 MT (100.24 BL), respectively during 2019–20 [43]. With 1998 to advise the SCI on measures for controlling pollution and also
a view to further increase production and supply of ethanol for admixing overseeing implementation of its orders. Since then, a spate of rulings on
with petrol, GoI in April 2021 brought in a new policy for setting up of CNG as well as other measures for vehicular pollution control has been
distilleries for production of 1G ethanol by adding cereals (rice, wheat, passed [56]. Judicial orders have mandated use of CNG in buses, auto-
barley, corn & sorghum), sugarcane, sugar beet etc. for distillation. For rickshaws, and taxis in Delhi from 2002 onwards. Indigenous capacity
this purpose, interest subvention @ 6% or 50% of interest rate charged to produce NG vehicles has enabled adoption of significant numbers of
by the banks was announced [44]. A very encouraging response by way CNG vehicles in India. Favourable policy regime adopted by the GoI has
of setting up annual ethanol production capacity of 5.33 BL was received also facilitated purchase of CNG vehicles by users. All these efforts have
by the GoI [45]. Besides, use of sugar and sugar syrup has also been led to cumulative stock of about 3.38 million CNG fuelled vehicles and
allowed for ethanol production with a view to liquidate their stock with setting up of 2207 CNG refuelling stations in 20 states and 4 centrally
the sugar mills [46]. A pilot study for assessing economic, operational, administered territories of India as on 31 March 2020 [57]. These ve­
and developmental aspects of E100 has also been initiated [45]. Demand hicles consumed about 6.7% of the total NG consumption during
for petrol and diesel in India is likely to grow by 4.5% and 4% respec­ 2019–20 [58]. The number of CNG fuelled vehicles and CNG refuelling
tively up to 2030 and their respective demands are expected to be about stations in India are projected to go up to 33 million and 10,000
64 BL and 160 BL by 2030–31 [47]. The actual demand for petrol would respectively by 2030 [59]. India consumed 63,932 million metric
also be impacted by the uptake of EV and a study projects it to be 57.85 standard cubic metre (MMSCM) of NG, including imported LNG (33,680
BL in 2030–31 [48]. During ethanol supply year 2018–19, 1.89 BL of MMSCM) during 2019–20 [57].
ethanol was blended with petrol and this resulted in achieving blend
ratio of 5% in petrol [45,48]. Considering all domestic ethanol pro­ 2.2.2. Compressed biogas
duction and supply options, production capacity for ethanol in India is Compressed biogas (CBG) is purified and compressed form of biogas
likely to grow to about 15 BL in the year 2025–26 and there is a realistic that can be produced by anaerobic digestion of different kinds of wastes/
possibility of achieving revised target of E20 by 2025, as about 12.8 BL biomass resources from agricultural, dairy, municipal sewage treatment
of ethanol may be required for E20 and there is a likelihood of achieving plants, solid waste from cities, etc. It can be either used as substitute for
a target higher than E20 by 2030 [48]. So far as compatibility of the CNG or LNG to reduce dependence on imports or mixing with NG/CNG.
vehicles with E10 is concerned, vehicles produced after 2008 are E10 CBG has methane fraction of more than 0.95 and is similar to com­
compliant. However, vehicles built prior to 2008 will need E0 fuel mercial NG in its composition, energy content and other properties.
dispensing facilities. For achieving 5% admixing of biodiesel in diesel by India has potential for production of 62 MTA of CBG from various re­
2030, about 8 BL of biodiesel may be required, which is a stiff challenge. sources. Under an initiative of the GoI known as Sustainable Alternative
Passenger and commercial vehicles manufactured presently are material Towards Affordable Transportation (SATAT) launched in 2018, it is
compatible with B5. On top of the challenges discussed later, biofuel envisaged to establish 5,000 CBG systems in the country in phases by
production is not constant during the year. Storage facilities must 2025. These systems are likely to generate 15 MTA (equivalent to 54
regulate seasonal biofuel peak production and weather–related crop MMSCMD) of CBG, which is close to about 30% of NG consumption of
yield variability against almost constant fuel consumption for transport 48.65 MTA in the country during 2019–20 [57,60].
during the entire year [49]. Flexible concentration of biofuel blending
may be needed to accommodate the unbalance between biofuel supply 2.2.3. Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
and demand in India, as it also occurs with the winter and summer–­ LPG, which is a mixture of propane and butane could also be used as
blend petrol in the USA [50]. a transport fuel in unblended form and it is also known as “autogas” in
some countries. It is relatively a clean fuel that causes lower carbon
2.2. Compressed natural gas emissions. More than 27 million vehicles are powered by auto LPG and it
is the third most widely used automotive fuel in the world. Moreover, it
NG, mostly comprising of methane, can be used in three-wheeled is economical to the user and results in lower engine maintenance cost
auto-rickshaws, cars, and city buses in its compressed form, which is and longer engine life. More than 70 countries use auto LPG with about
called as CNG. Pressure of CNG could be raised up to 250 bar [51]. The 71,000 dispensing stations. South Korea is the leading country in terms
utilisation of CNG as an automotive fuel has matured and it is widely of usage of auto LPG with Turkey, Poland, Japan, Australia, Italy,
used in many countries presently. Among different fossil fuels, CNG has Mexico, USA, Russia, and China being other major countries making its
advantages in terms of reduced emissions of CO, CO2, NOx, and partic­ use [61].
ulate matters (PM) [52]. Other factors contributing to its adoption
include its wide availability; compatibility with spark ignition (SI) and [Link]. Development in India. Realising the benefits associated with
compression ignition (CI) engines and low operational cost. CNG vehi­ alternative fuels such as CNG and LPG, Auto Fuel Policy 2003 of GoI
cles are considered suitable for intra-city use due to weight penalty recommended among other measures, use of these gaseous fuels in the
imposed by storage tanks to have extended driving range. Though use of cities having higher population of vehicles [62]. Further, GoI in 2014
CNG as an automotive fuel dates back to early 1930s in Italy, yet its use brought Auto Fuel Vision and Policy 2025, which laid down the road­
at a significant level commenced only in late 1970s and early 1980s due map for making a rapid transition to new emission norms across India as
to global oil crisis [53]. Globally, about 28.54 million CNG powered specified in BS-IV [32]. At the point of bringing the policy document in
vehicles, refuelled by 33,383 refuelling stations, were in operation in 2014, automotive LPG had already been introduced in about 350 cities
more than 85 countries as on 31 December 2019 [54]. China, Iran, India, with about 900 dispensing facilities for it. There were 1150 dispensing
Pakistan, and Argentina are the top five countries in terms of having stations for auto LPG in 564 cities in India as on 15 March 2021 [63].
maximum numbers of CNG fuelled vehicles [55]. Despite economic benefits to the user and being environment friendly as
compared to petrol and diesel, auto LPG has been only marginally

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successful in India due to not so favourable policy regime for its growth. vehicular emissions, global climate change and energy security started
In addition, there are only a limited number of auto LPG vehicles getting the attention of policy makers as well as and vehicle manufac­
manufactured in India and retrofitting of auto LPG kits is preferred and turers that rekindled interest in EV again in the last decade [76]. While
this is an unregulated market [64]. in some countries the transition to electric mobility is still in initial
stages, in several of the world’s largest personal vehicle markets,
2.3. Methanol adoption of EV is growing at a fast pace due to dropping cost of batteries
and expansion of charging infrastructure for EV of different kinds that
Methanol can be produced from resources such as coal, NG and include cars, buses, taxis and shared vehicles, light commercial vehicles
biomass that are capable of producing syngas. Methanol is an efficient (LCV), two/three-wheelers and heavy-duty vehicles with short range
fuel and emits lower emissions of NOx and PM than petrol and does not requirements such as for urban deliveries. Consequently, the global
cause any emissions of SOx due to absence of sulphur in methanol. It can stocks of electric cars, LCV and buses have reached to levels of 7.2
be blended with petrol or fully substitute it for use as an automotive fuel. million, 0.37 million and 0.51 million respectively by the end of 2019. In
However, methanol is more corrosive than petrol and may require addition, there are large numbers of electric two and three wheelers in
substantial modifications in infrastructure for its storage and distribu­ operation, mostly in Asian countries [76].
tion and is also harmful to humans, if consumed [65]. Global methanol
production during 2019 was estimated at 98.281 MT, of which 19.777 2.4.1. Development in India
MT was used as an alternative fuel for blending with petrol and com­ So far as introduction of electric mobility in India is concerned, it
bustion; biodiesel and dimethyl ether production; and in fuel cells (FC) commenced in early 1980s when Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd was roped
[65,66]. in to manufacture an ‘electravan’ with 18 seats for use in Delhi and other
metropolitan cities. About 200 such vehicles were built up and
2.3.1. Development in India demonstrated [77]. The first electric car in India was developed in 1993
India is at a nascent stage in methanol production with domestic by Eddy Current Control (India) Ltd. [78]. Thereafter, from 1996 on­
production of about 0.27 MT during 2018–19 against installed pro­ wards electric three wheelers/rickshaws, e-bikes, and small electric car
duction capacity of 0.47 MT [67]. It imported 2.3 MT of methanol (Reva) were developed and deployed [79]. However higher cost, limi­
during 2019 [68]. Indian methanol production is mostly based on im­ tations of battery technology, range anxiety, absence of charging
ported NG presently and therefore, it can exploit its large coal reserves infrastructure, consumer perception and inadequate government sup­
for methanol production for either blending it with petrol or fully port were recognised as critical barriers constraining adoption of EV by
substituting it. Indian high ash coal, stranded gas, and biomass could users and therefore, GoI decided in 2011 to set up a National Board of
also be used to increase the methanol production capacity [65,69]. Coal Electric Mobility (NBEM) to implement National Mission on Electric
India Ltd. is going ahead with setting up a 0.676 MT methanol pro­ Mobility (NMEM) [80]. It was followed up with policy measures by way
duction facility using coal [70]. A pilot programme for using canister- of formulation of National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NMEPP) 2020
based methanol for cooking was launched in the state of Assam in in 2012 and launching of the first phase of Faster Adoption and
2018. It is proposed to extend this programme to other states to cover Manufacturing of (Hybrid &) Electric Vehicles (FAMHEV) in 2015 by the
0.1 million households. A pilot study for 15% methanol blended petrol Ministry of Heavy Industries and Public Enterprises, GoI [80,81]. Phase-
(M15) has been initiated in the state of Assam and adjoining states and I of FAMHEV (known as FAME-I in India) was implemented from April
based on its outcome, use of M15 might be extended to other areas [45]. 2015 to March 2019 with a budget of US$ 140.7 million. Thereafter,
National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC), a public sector company FAMHEV-II (or FAME – II) was launched in April 2019 for a period of 3
has plans to set up methanol production facilities in its existing fossil years for promotion of e-2Wheelers, e-3Wheelers, e-4Wheelers, 4W
fuel-based power plants on build, own, operate basis. NTPC would make strong hybrids and e-buses and also setting up of charging infrastructure
available flue gas as a source of CO2, electricity, water, and land for with a total allocation of US$ 135.86 million. The financial assistance
setting up the methanol production facility [71]. provided for EV is dependent on the capacity of the battery used as
shown in Table 1 [82].
2.4. Electricity for mobility India had a very small stock of 10,600 electric cars by the end of
2019 against a total estimated population of registered cars of about 34
Electricity and liquid fossil fuels are two main components of the million. Electric two and three wheelers accounted for 99% of the EV
present-day energy system and the former provides highly dense energy stock in the country. The total e-2 Wheeler and e-3 Wheeler (almost all
across the globe for a variety of applications ranging from lighting, of them e-rickshaws) fleets in the country were about 0.6 million and 2.4
motive power, refrigeration, communication, and computation. Beyond million, respectively [83].
its generation stage, electricity is an extremely clean and efficient energy
vector to use. Efficiency of utilisation of electricity in motors to achieve
rotary motion for a variety of everyday applications can be in excess of Table 1
90%. These qualities of electricity make it a very important energy Financial Incentives under FAMHEV-II for different electric vehicles [82].
vector for mobility [72]. Electric vehicles (EV) are those vehicles which
S. Vehicle Number of Approximate Total financial
are propelled by electric motor(s). The electricity for operating the No. segment vehicles to be size of battery incentives for e-
propulsion motor(s) could be drawn either from electricity distribution supported (kWh) buses & trucks and
network or through a single or a series of connected storage batteries or for other vehicles
(US$)*
it could be generated on board using a FC [73,74]. Electric locomotives,
metro trains, and trams draw electricity directly from electricity 1. e-2Wheelers 1 million 2 282
network and other EV make use of storage batteries. The history of 2. e-3Wheelers 0.5 million 5 705
3. e-4Wheelers 50,000 15 2115
development of electric cars in Europe and the USA dates back to 1880s 4. 4W strong 20,000 1.3 183
and the period up to early 1920s is considered as the first golden age for hybrid
significant adoption of EV in several thousand. The advent of internal vehicles
combustion engine (ICE) based vehicles along with lack of proper 5. e-buses 7090 250 70,515
*₹. 20,000/kWh for e-buses & trucks; ₹. 10,000/kWh for other vehicles;
infrastructure for distribution of electricity and recharging of batteries,
including time taken for recharging were some of the factors that were
responsible for end of the first golden age of EV [75]. Issues like

5
M.R. Nouni et al. Fuel 305 (2021) 121583

2.5. Hydrogen enable setting up of associated infrastructure in the country. It involved

focussing on development of different links of the entire hydrogen en­
Hydrogen has been attracting a lot of attention of the policy makers, ergy value chain, starting from producing it to making it available for
environment lovers, researchers, automobile companies and others in final usage along with addressing associated issues related to its safety
view of its potential to play an important role in decarbonising trans­ and standards [91]. Till date, few sets of two wheelers, three wheelers
port, industry and household sectors and thereby offering solutions to and catalytic combustion cooking systems and small power generating
climate change related issues with which the entire world has been systems based on hydrogen as fuel for residential and industrial pur­
grappling with in the recent years [84]. Hydrogen is the most plentiful poses along with hydrogen internal combustion engine (HICE) and FC
and the lightest element in the nature. Hydrogen has highest gravimetric buses have been developed and these have undergone limited field trials
energy content (120.7 MJ/kg) among known fuels, which is 2.7 times of in the country [92,93]. Activities for development of hydrogen fuelled
calorific value of petrol. It is also environmental friendly as it does not vehicles (HFV), including hydrogen-compressed natural gas (H-CNG)
cause any emission except for water vapour at the point of use [85,86]. and hydrogen-diesel dual fuel vehicles got momentum in India after
Use of hydrogen for energy related applications has a long history. The NHER came into existence. In view of issues like high cost and durability
initial reported developmental efforts for hydrogen generation through associated with FC at that time, HICE was considered to be a better
water electrolysis and FC dates back to 1800s. Hydrogen was used to technological option for introducing hydrogen in the country as an
power ICE about 200 years ago and thereafter to lift airships in the automotive fuel. A demonstration project for 50 H-CNG buses is ex­
19thcentury and taking humans to the moon in the 1960s [87]. It is pected to be completed in New Delhi during 2021 following an inter­
widely used as feedstock in petrochemical units and refineries, fertiliser, vention by the SCI to improve ambient air quality in New Delhi. A
steel, and other industries. Hydrogen can be extracted from water, favourable outcome of this demonstration project may pave the way for
methane or other hydrogen containing compounds. It is also considered adoption of H-CNG buses in a big way in New Delhi and elsewhere [94].
as an alternative fuel or energy carrier, where energy can be stored and However, the emission results with seven different types of H-CNG ve­
delivered when needed using FC or ICE [88]. The global demand for hicles demonstrated earlier were inconclusive in terms of lowering NOx
pure hydrogen has grown by more than three-fold since 1975 and was emissions, though other emissions were reduced. Total 15 numbers of
estimated to be more than 70 MT during 2018 [87]. Hydrogen is HICE three wheelers developed under United Nations Industrial Devel­
considered attractive as an energy carrier for vehicular applications on opment Organisation (UNIDO) supported academia-industry [Indian
account of its ability to reduce GHG emissions, provide energy inde­ Institute of Technology Delhi (IITD) – Mahindra & Mahindra (M&M)]
pendence and improve ambient air quality of the localities opting to use partnership project underwent field trials at New Delhi, where a dedi­
it. cated HRS was established for refuelling of these vehicles by Air Prod­
Research and Development (R&D) efforts of a number of years by the ucts and Chemicals, Inc. The same academia-industry partnership under
automobile companies culminated in the form of launching of the first another project supported by MNRE also developed two prototypes of
commercial FC car ‘Mirai’ by Toyota in 2014. Other active players in FC HICE minibuses, which underwent field trials at R&D Centre of Indian
car market include Honda Motor Company and Hyundai Motor Com­ Oil Corporation Ltd. (IOCL), Faridabad. M&M in collaboration with
pany which introduced commercial models of their hydrogen FC cars Saskatchewan Research Council, Canada was also involved in develop­
Honda FCX Clarity and Hyundai ix35 FCEV, respectively [89]. In 2018, ment of 5 numbers of hydrogen – diesel dual fuel vehicles with an
Hyundai Motor Company introduced NEXO FC car. While FC forklifts objective of reducing emissions and improving the performance of diesel
have made significant inroads in material handling market in the USA, vehicles. These vehicles were refuelled at National Institute of Solar
FC buses and trucks have been introduced in China and other countries. Energy (NISE), Gurugram for their field trials. Tata Motors Ltd. (TML)
For refuelling of hydrogen vehicles in the major markets i.e., China, has developed FC buses under a project supported by GoI and two of
Germany, Japan, Korea and the USA, hydrogen refuelling stations (HRS) these buses were demonstrated at IOCL, Faridabad. At present there are
have also been set up. The progress made in deploying hydrogen vehi­ two operating HRS in India at IOCL, Faridabad and NISE, Gurugram
cles and refuelling stations in the major markets are given in Table 2 [94]. In view of the experience gained under the above referred projects,
[76]. the country is poised for introduction of HFV for wider demonstration.
In 2020, public sector organisations like NTPC and IOCL have
2.5.1. Development in India announced their plans for procurement of FC buses [95,96]. More
Realising the importance of hydrogen for meeting energy needs of recently, Govt. of India has announced to launch a hydrogen mission for
transport sector and also for distributed power generation, GoI has been green hydrogen production during 2021 [97].
supporting broad based R&D activities in the country for about three
decades [90]. With a view to accelerate development and commercial­ 3. Opportunities for alternative fuels in India
isation of hydrogen-based technologies in India, the Ministry of New and
Renewable Energy (MNRE), GoI prepared a National Hydrogen Energy Growth of registered vehicles during 2001 to 2017 in India is shown
Roadmap (NHER) in 2006 [91]. Specific project based on public–private in Table 3 [98]. The shares of two wheelers; combined share of personal
partnership to facilitate the generation of resources were targeted in vehicles including taxis; buses; goods vehicles; and other vehicles in
NHER. The main objectives were to spell out the pathways for devel­ total registered motor vehicles in India stood at 73.9%, 13.3%, 0.7%,
opment, demonstration, and deployment of technologies for use of 4.8% and 7.3% respectively in 2017. The total registered vehicles during
hydrogen energy in transport and power generation sectors and also to the period 2001–2017 grew at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR)
of 9.39%. Vehicle sales data for India reported by Society of Indian
Table 2 Automobile Manufacturers (SIAM) for the period 2014 to 2019 indi­
Deployment of hydrogen vehicles and HRS in major global markets [76]. cated CAGR for two-wheelers, cars, and commercial vehicles as 6.15%,
5.12% and 8.05% respectively [99]. Considering this growth data, the
Market FCV HRS
number of cumulative vehicles during 2019 was estimated and it may be
China 6303 60
around 305.5 million, as per details given in Table 3.
Germany 756 80
Japan 3529 113 The total number of vehicles in operation considering the number of
Korea 5042 33 registered vehicles may be highly overestimated as it is a cumulative
USA 8067 66 number and does not exclude the vehicles that might have gone out of
Rest of World 1513 118 use. For the purpose of estimating the number of vehicles that may be in
Total 25,210 470
use for this study, it is assumed that about 30% of the vehicles might

6
M.R. Nouni et al. Fuel 305 (2021) 121583

Table 3 also their lower energy consumption. For mobility, hydrogen is the main
Growth of registered vehicles during 2001–2017 in India, estimated vehicles in competitor to electricity, as it offers the similar benefits with varying
operation and projections for 2030 (in millions) [99]. magnitude. A comparison of the energy available to wheels after
Year 2- Cars, Buses Goods Other Total considering different losses in various sub-systems of a typical EV and
Wheeler Jeeps & omni Vehicles Vehicles$ FCV under Indian electricity distribution system is shown in Fig. 2,
& Taxis buses which shows that in terms of overall efficiency of energy utilisation an
2001 38.6 7.0 0.7 3.0 5.8 55 EV (52.24%) is typically far superior as compared to a FCV (22.21%)
2005 58.8 10.4 0.9 4.0 7.4 81.5 [102].
2009 82.5 15.3 1.5 6.1 9.7 115
India as a country has not yet officially announced its EV policy,
2013 128.0 23.9 1.8 8.3 14.1 176
2017 186.9 33.6 1.9 12.2 18.4 253 though several states in the country have announced their EV policies
2019# 228.3 40.3 2.1 13.8 21.0 305.5 [103]. As per International Energy Agency (IEA), target of 30% EV sales
2019 159.8 28.2 1.5 9.7 14.7 213.9 across all modes of vehicles is to be achieved in India by 2030 [104].
(estimate However, a NITI Aayog report envisages that FAMHEV – II and other
for
vehicles
policies put in place by GoI and the state governments for promotion of
in use) electric mobility are expected to have a significant positive impact on
2030 303.4 48.2 3.4 22.5 34.3 411.8 Indian EV uptake with likely achievable market share of 70% for taxis,
(estimate 30% for personal cars, 40% for buses, and 80% for 2 and 3 wheelers by
for
2030 [105]. The study indicates that a total of 80.04 million EV (56.59
vehicles
in use) million 2-Wheelers; 12.32 million 3-Wheelers; 10.59 million cars, taxis,
$
and jeeps; and 542 thousand buses) could be running on Indian roads by
tractors, trailers, three wheelers (passenger)/ light motor vehicles (LMV)
2030. These vehicles could save 474 Mtoe of energy and avoid emissions
and other miscellaneous vehicles.
# of 846.3 MT of CO2 during their useful lives. Based on the estimated
considering vehicles sold during 2018 and 2019 (estimate).
stock of actual vehicles in use in India (411.8 million) and total number
of EVs to be sold (80.04 million), overall penetration of EVs in India is
have gone out of use [100]. Accordingly, a total of 213.9 million vehicles expected to be about 19% by 2030.
might have been in use by the end of 2019 and a total of 411.8 million
vehicles are expected to be in use in India by 2030, as per details given in
Table 3. These values have been estimated using a simplified vehicle 3.2. Hydrogen fuelled vehicles (HFV)
turnover stock assuming the historical CAGR values as observed for
different vehicles during the period 2014–2019. The estimate for total Higher vehicle cost, lower vehicle range, long charging time and lack
number of vehicles in use is broadly in agreement with the reported of adequate charging infrastructure have been the main issues that have
values [100]. Petrol and diesel demand in India are expected to be about been hampering progress of EV so far. In comparison, HFV are suited for
64 BL and 160 BL by 2030–31 [47]. As per a study undertaken in 2013, carrying heavy payload over a long distance with added advantage of
70% of diesel and 99.6% of petrol in India was consumed by transport quick refuelling. However, availability of pure hydrogen at an affordable
sector [101]. Assuming the usage pattern for diesel and petrol in price and highly restricted hydrogen dispensing infrastructure are the
transport sector in India remains more or less similar up to 2030, the major barriers for acceptance of HFV. This is more evident from the
demand for petrol and diesel are expected to be 63.4 BL and 112 BL investment cost of hydrogen plants (US$ 1.93–4.61 million for 100–350
respectively in 2030. However, the actual demand for liquid fossil fuels kg H2/day production capacity) and hydrogen production cost (US$
would depend on uptake of CNG vehicles, H-CNG vehicles, EV and HFV. 9.9–33.3/kg H2) for 45 HRS established in the USA and Europe [106]. In
The opportunities for these options are discussed in the following India, for initial introduction of several thousand of HFV in niche areas,
sections. new hydrogen production facilities need not be established as hydrogen
from chlor-alkali units (as a by-product) and petroleum refineries could
3.1. Electric vehicles (EV) be tapped for use in HFV in their vicinity. However, it may entail adding
new infrastructure for hydrogen storage, compression and dispensing at
Among all the alternatives, EV can provide the minimum fuel cost such locations. Use of hydrogen in the vicinity of the chlor-alkali units
and GHG emissions due to superior efficiency of their drive trains and and petroleum refineries will result in minimising transportation cost of

Fig. 2. Comparison of energy utilisation in an EV and an FCV.

7
M.R. Nouni et al. Fuel 305 (2021) 121583

hydrogen thereby impacting delivered cost of hydrogen favourably. Table 4

Hydrogen Production Capacity of Chlor-Alkali Units in India as 31 March 2020.
3.2.1. Hydrogen from Chlor-Alkali units Sr. Corporate Name and location Installed Chlor- Hydrogen
There are 33 chlor-alkali units in the country with installed pro­ No. of the unit(s) alkali capacity production capacity
duction capacity of 4.544 MTA of caustic soda as on 31 March 2020. (MT) (thousand kg)*
Considering the average by-product hydrogen production rate per unit 1 Atul Ltd.,Valsad, Gujarat 47,450 1,193
production of caustic soda, the rated hydrogen production capacity 2 Chemfab Alkalis Ltd., Kalapet, 45,625 1,147
during 2019–20 from the chlor-alkali units was 0.114 MT, as per details Puducherry
3 Chemplast Sanmar Ltd., 51,000 1,282
given in Table 4 with the actual hydrogen production of 0.09 MT [107]. Karaikal, Puducherry
Hydrogen produced by chlor-alkali units is used for different appli­ 4 Chemplast Sanmar Ltd., Mettur 61,200 1,539
cations like for producing hydrochloric acid, as a fuel in boilers, as Dam, Tamil Nadu
feedstock for other downstream unit, other product synthesis and as 5 DCM Shriram Ltd., Jhagadia, 5,08,000 12,773
Gujarat
compressed bottled hydrogen for different uses. Fig. 3 shows relative
6 DCM Shriram Ltd., Kota, 1,90,000 4,777
uses of hydrogen for these applications during 2019–20 [107]. It can be Rajasthan
seen from Fig. 3 that about 39% of hydrogen was used as fuel in boilers 7 DCW Ltd., Sahupuram, Tamil 1,00,000 2,514
along with about 15% hydrogen sold in bottles and these shares may be Nadu
diverted as fuel for operation of HFV. Chlor-alkali units could utilise 8 Durgapur Chemicals Ltd., 33,000 830
Durgapur, West Bengal
some other fuel in place of hydrogen in boilers. This would have made 9 Grasim Industries Ltd. Thane, 26,450 665
available about 0.05 MT of hydrogen for operation of HFV in the niche Maharashtra
locations (in the vicinity of chlor-alkali units) during 2019–20 which 10 Grasim Industries Ltd., Rehla, 1,09,000 2,740
would have been sufficient for operation of about 12,000 FC buses (with Jharkhand
11 Grasim Industries Ltd., Ganjam, 91,250 2,294
annual distance coverage of 60,000 km for each bus).
Odisha
12 Grasim Industries Ltd., Karwar, 1,00,000 2,514
3.2.2. Hydrogen from petroleum refineries Karnataka
There were 23 petroleum refineries in operation in India as on 01 13 Grasim Industries Ltd., Nagda, 2,70,100 6,791
April 2020 with total petroleum refining capacity of 249.9 MTA and Madhya Pradesh
14 Grasim Industries Ltd., 1,29,000 3,243
almost all refineries were having refining capacities in the range of
Renukoot, Uttar Pradesh
0.07–35.2 MTA [108]. All these petroleum refineries have hydrogen 15 Grasim Industries Ltd., Veraval, 91,250 2,294
generation unit (HGU) for their captive use with hydrogen production Gujarat
capacities varying in the range of 0.007–0.53 MTA. The cumulative 16 Grasim Industries Ltd., Vilayat, 3,65,000 9,177
Gujarat
hydrogen production capacity of these refineries is about 2.8 MT [109].
17 Gujarat Alkalies & Chemicals 2,59,050 6,513
Many of these refineries have installed HGU of capacities larger than Ltd., Dahej, Gujarat
their present requirement and therefore some surplus hydrogen is 18 Gujarat Alkalies & Chemicals 1,69,950 4,273
available from the refineries presently. Even diversion of a small fraction Ltd., Vadodara, Gujarat
of about 5% of the total hydrogen production capacity from petroleum 19 Gujarat Fluorochemicals Ltd., 1,40,400 3,530
Dahej, Gujarat
refineries would be able to provide 0.14 MTA of hydrogen for vehicular
20 Kutch Chemicals Industries 1,76,750 4,444
applications. This would be sufficient for operation of more than 35,000 Ltd., Kutch, Gujarat
FC buses in the vicinity of the refineries. 21 Lords Chloro Alkali Ltd., Alwar, 90,729 2,281
Rajasthan
22 Meghmani Finechem Ltd., 1,80,000 4,526
3.2.3. Hydrogen production from renewable electricity
Dahej, Gujarat
India’s power sector is growing rapidly. The share of various energy 23 Nirma Ltd., Bhavnagar, Gujarat 2,73,750 6,883
sources in the overall power scenario is shown in Fig. 4. The total 24 Orient Paper Mills-CS Unit, 44,250 1,112
installed power generating capacity of the country was 379.13 GW (as Amlai, Madhya Pradesh
on 28 Feb 2021), of which the share of renewable was about 24.52%, 25 Punjab Alkalies & Chemicals 99,000 2,490
Ltd., Naya-Nangal, Punjab
which was around 92.97 GW [110]. Electricity generation during
26 Reliance Industries Ltd., Dahej, 1,78,850 4,497
2019–20 was 1389.1 billion kWh, of which share of renewable elec­ Gujarat
tricity (excluding hydro projects >25 MW capacity) was about 10% 27 Siel Chemical Complex (A Unit 82,500 2,074
[110,111]. Projected renewable energy-based power generating capac­ of Mawana Sugars Ltd.),
Rajpura, Punjab
ity of 455 GW by 2030 will comprise of 300 GW solar, 140 GW wind and
28 Tamil Nadu Petroproducts Ltd., 56,100 1,410
10 GW of biomass-based capacities. It is estimated that about 35% of the Manali, Tamil Nadu
total estimated electricity generation of 2508 billion kWh would be 29 Tata Chemicals Ltd., Mithapur, 36,000 905
contributed by variable renewable power sources such as solar and wind Gujarat
in 2030 [112]. If only 2% of renewable electricity generated during 30 TGV SRAAC Ltd., Kurnool, 2,59,150 6,516
Andhra Pradesh
2030 is used for hydrogen production, about 0.37 MTA of hydrogen
31 The Andhra Sugars Ltd., 1,65,000 4,148
could be produced considering energy conversion efficiency of 70%. Saggonda, Andhra Pradesh
This would be sufficient for operation of about 92,000 FC buses. The 32 The Travancore-Cochin 57,750 1,452
number of vehicles that could be propelled by hydrogen would ulti­ Chemicals Ltd., Kochi, Kerala
mately depend on the fraction of green electron produced by renewable 33 UPL Ltd., Jhagadia, Gujarat 56,940 1,431
TOTAL 45,44,494 1,14,258
energy sources that is made available for production of green hydrogen
molecule by way of water splitting.
Considering hydrogen available from chlor-alkali units, and petro­ 3.3. Compressed natural gas
leum refineries and also that can be produced using renewable elec­
tricity, a total of 139,000 FC buses could be operated in India in 2030. Domestic production, import and consumption details of NG/LNG in
The number of HFV could be higher, if a mix of various vehicles (2W, India during FY 2011–12 to 2019–20 period are shown in Fig. 1(c). It is
3W, cars and buses) having different hydrogen requirement depending observed that there is a descending trend of domestic production of NG
on their respective duty cycles are used instead of only FC buses.

8
M.R. Nouni et al. Fuel 305 (2021) 121583

dung, sugar mills press mud, spent wash from distilleries, solid waste
generated in cities, sewage treatment plant waste, etc. can be used to
produce CBG. In India, around 62 MTA of CBG can be generated using
different resources mentioned above and nearly 25% of it is envisaged to
be realised by 2025 through installation of 5000 CBG plants [118].
Production of CBG is likely to reach at least 25 MTA by 2030 as per
business-as-usual scenario. If the historical fraction of 7.65% of the CBG
too is made available to the transport sector, it may be sufficient for
operation of about 0.96 million vehicles as per the existing mix of CNG
vehicles. Therefore, it may be possible to have about 34 million vehicles
propelled by CNG/CBG in India by 2030.

3.4. Methanol

Based on the present status of development of methanol production

and its utilisation in India, introduction of methanol as an automotive
Fig. 3. Use pattern of hydrogen from Chlor-Alkali Units.
fuel may at the best be in very initial stages by 2030 and therefore, it is
difficult to estimate number of vehicles that may be using methanol or
and ascending trend of import of LNG during the period. In terms of methanol blended fuel.
consumption of NG, it is observed that from FY 2011–12 to 2014–15
there was a steady decline in consumption and thereafter consumption
has been steadily increasing. Fig. 5 shows industry wise use of NG in
India during 2019–20 [113]. During 2018–19, about 17% of NG was
used in city distribution network for thermal and transport related ap­
plications and about 45% of it was used in transport sector. This works
out to consumption of about 3.5 MT of NG [114]. As per the present
policy, the demand of CNG as a vehicular fuel will be fully met. NG
contributes 6.2% of energy demand of India presently and the target is to
take it to 15% level by 2030 [115]. This would translate to consumption
of about 2,19,000 MMSCM of NG by 2030. Efforts are already underway
to further extend supply network of NG in cities to cover 70% of the
country for usage as an automotive fuel and as a domestic cooking fuel
[116]. With growth of NG network in India, 33 million vehicles are
expected to be using CNG by 2030 [59].
Disposal of paddy straw and farm stubble by burning it every year
before onset of winters is a serious environmental challenge as it causes
poor air quality in the northern part of India [117]. Such agriculture and
forest residues along with wastes collected from dairies in the form of Fig. 5. Industry wise use of NG in India during 2018–19.

Fig. 4. Installed power generation capacity in India by source.

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M.R. Nouni et al. Fuel 305 (2021) 121583

3.5. Biofuels improving transportation and storage arrangements of ethanol as pro­

duction facilities are located in certain geographical regions. Further,
Fig. 6 shows likely mix of vehicles in India in 2030 based on the fuels creation of infrastructure for augmenting production, transportation
propelling them. It takes into consideration the likely number of active and storage systems for ethanol would need infusion of funds. Moreover,
vehicles in 2030 and potential for electric, hydrogen and CNG fuelled vehicle parts and engines will have to be made E20 compliant as the
vehicles likely to be on roads based on the scenarios discussed in sections vehicles manufactured presently are only E10 compliant [48].
3.1–3.4. About 260 million vehicles (two wheelers, cars, taxis, and
jeeps) are estimated to be using petrol and about 34.6 million vehicles 4.2. Biodiesel
are likely to be propelled by diesel. While at least 260 million vehicles
would be potentially using E20, which could be realisable based on the Availability of 8 BL biodiesel for achieving B5 target by 2030 seems
present progress and commitment of the GoI to increase ethanol pro­ to be a very challenging target as procurement of biodiesel by the oil
duction through various technologies and feed stocks, realising 5% marketing companies may have to be increased by about 80 times from
blending of biodiesel in diesel may be a stiff target to achieve based on the level of 2017–18. One of the reasons attributed to poor production of
the progress achieved on this front so far and prospects for future. biodiesel is insufficient availability of the permitted feed stocks, which is
attributed to absence of proper incentives to the farmers for growing
4. Challenges non-edible seed crops [20]. Additional indigenous and imported feed
stocks will need to be identified and promoted through suitable policy
Ethanol, biodiesel and CNG are matured alternative fuels in the In­ support.
dian context. The main challenges associated with them would be
making them available in accordance with the demand. Some challenges 4.3. CNG
associated with these fuels are discussed in this section.
Apart from heavy dependence on imported LNG, infrastructural
limitations for supply, distribution and dispensing of CNG have created
4.1. Ethanol roadblocks in growth of CNG vehicles in India. For augmenting supply of
NG, programmes for biogas production through agricultural, animal,
For ensuring that India achieves revised target for E20 by 2025, municipal, industrial wastes will have to be implemented more vigor­
availability of ethanol have to be increased rapidly from 1.89 BL in ously as there is a huge untapped potential for biogas production in
2018–19 to 12.8 BL in 2029–30. Supply arrangements for 3.32 BL of India. Against estimated potential of 29–48 billion m3/year, the total
ethanol during 2020–21 (corresponding to 8.85% blending) have biogas production in the country is about 2.07 billion m3/year [119].
already been tied up [48]. This has been made possible due to inclusion For increasing share of NG in the primary energy basket to 15% by 2030,
of cereals and sugar as new feed stocks for ethanol production recently. the capacity of handling LNG import, which is presently 30 MTA will
The share of cereals in ethanol production has already reached 37.7% have to be significantly enhanced. To meet this challenge, GoI has plans
during 2019–20 for total ethanol production of 6.84 BL and it is further to set up additional LNG terminals for handling import of 100 MTA
expected to grow to about 50% by 2025–26, for reaching projected 15 along with associated re-gasification facilities [20,120].
BL production capacity. However, some issues concerning feed stock
availability and setting up of new production capacities may adversely 4.4. Methanol
affect supply of ethanol in the desired quantities. Firstly, by diversifying
feed stocks, dependence on sugarcane based feed stocks has started Methanol is a new fuel and not yet used in India in the commercial
coming down and it is expected to further reach to a level of about 50% vehicles except for some demonstration project. Moreover, petrol driven
in 2025–26 from the existing level of about 62%. Although India has two wheelers and passenger vehicles may require material changes and
become self-sufficient to meet its requirement of food grains and sugar calibration for methanol blending [20]. In view of dependence on NG for
as their productions have been substantially higher than the consump­ methanol production and environmental issues related to use of coal for
tion during the recent years, yet any reduction in production due to its production, green methanol production could be the option. How­
weather related factors may impact availability of sufficient quantities ever, its economic viability would be dependent on cost of green
of cereal and sugarcane-based feed stocks on sustainable basis. Sec­ methanol production, which would be considerably influenced by cost
ondly, creation of new production facilities for ethanol may take more of inputs especially green hydrogen.
time than the envisaged period due to delays in obtaining necessary
regulatory clearances and therefore a new mechanism will have to be 4.5. Electricity and hydrogen
put in place for providing all regulatory clearance expeditiously.
Thirdly, increase in production of ethanol has to be accompanied by Electricity though matured for mobility in comparison to hydrogen,
yet both these options have to surmount many challenges before wide­
spread use of electricity and initial use of hydrogen can be made for
surface transportation especially in India. The challenges associated
with these two alternatives are discussed taking into consideration
factors like (a) technical capabilities and maturity; (b) driving range; (c)
charging/refuelling time; (d) charging/refuelling Infrastructure; (e)
GHG emissions; (f) perception of buyers; (g) upfront cost; (h) operating
cost; (i) maintenance cost; (j) safety; and (k) support provided by the
government; and (l) cost of ownership of vehicles in the following
sections.

4.5.1. Specific energy of Li-ion batteries and hydrogen

The principal components of EV are the energy storage system
(battery), the electric motor that propels the vehicle, the power elec­
tronics, and a suitable battery charging mechanism. Electric motor
Fig. 6. Likely mix of vehicles in India in 2030 based on fuel. responsible for powering the vehicle, using a power converter connected

10
M.R. Nouni et al. Fuel 305 (2021) 121583

in between the battery and the motor, is a mature technology with ef­ about 450 km (Table 5). Some new and forthcoming models of EV to be
ficiency of more than 90% [121,122]. The battery plays a crucial part in launched globally and in India have substantially higher range, about
assessing technical capabilities like performance and driving range. 600 km per recharge. However, one such model is equipped with battery
Specific energy, life cycle, power density, safety issues, usable capacity pack of 100 kWh capacity [131]. Range is a function of battery capacity
(depth-of-discharge) and overall system cost are to be considered care­ and vehicle weight. Increasing battery capacity affects the cost of EV as
fully while selecting battery for EV [122]. The battery should have high well as its weight and therefore, vehicle manufacturers have to keep a
specific energy with fast charging capabilities and long life [123]. Sec­ balance between the two. For better understanding, impact of range on
ondary Lithium-ion Battery (LIB) is the best performing and matured battery capacity and ex-showroom cost of the EV available in the Indian
battery technology presently. LIB has higher specific energy and long market are depicted in Fig. 7. As expected, the battery capacity as well as
lifespan, which make it suitable for use in EV. The specific energy of LIB price of the EV increases with increase in the range of the vehicles. In
has been steadily increasing over the years. Currently, lithium-ion cells comparison, hydrogen does not pose any difficulty on account of range
have achieved specific energy up to 300 Wh/kg compared to 13,000 as there is no range anxiety as long as HRS is located nearby. However,
Wh/kg of petrol [124,125]. Typically, specific energy of the LIB pack is infrastructure development is equally important for HRS as well as
30–40% lower and accordingly, its value would be about 200 Wh/kg for battery recharging and on this count battery recharging infrastructure is
battery pack [125]. Details of battery capacity, driving range and ex- relatively better off. Moreover, for providing a given driving range to a
showroom price of the models of EV being made and sold in India are vehicle, hydrogen storage system will be lighter than LIB [132].
given Table 5. Capacities of LIB for these models are in the range of
10.8–80 kWh and therefore the weight of the battery packs for these 4.5.3. Charging/refuelling time and charging/refuelling infrastructure
models would be in the range of about 72–652 kg, if effective specific For most of the international EV, normal charging time at 240 V is in
energy of battery pack being used in India is considered as 150 Wh/kg. the range of 9–12 h [131]. Charging time is dependent on the type of
Thus, weight fraction of battery pack of total empty weight of the EV charger and battery capacity. In India, three different types of charging
varies in the range of 7–20% for different models as listed in Table 5. For facilities are being developed. Level 1 (120 V AC, standard house outlet)
improving the range of EV, its battery pack capacity will have to be is meant for overnight charging at home. Level 2 (240 V AC, household
increased. For long range EV, battery pack weight is a significant portion appliances) can be installed either at personal house or workplace and it
of the vehicle weight and could be in the range of 25 – 33%. A study would take 4 to 6 h for charging a typical EV in India. Level 3 (500 V-
indicated that there is about a 5% reduction in energy consumption for 1000 V DC charging) is fast charger that would be normally available at
every 10% vehicle weight reduction [126]. Though LIB cell specific a commercial charging station and would require 20 to 30 min for
energy has improved from 100 Wh/kg to 300 Wh/kg during 2010–2020, reaching 80% of charging capacity [133]. However, fast chargers are
yet further improvement in specific energy is necessary to extend vehicle expensive. Impact of charging by EV on power grid compatibility and
range [127]. R&D efforts in terms of finding new materials for anode, safe operation especially with high utilisation by EV may be a factor that
cathode and electrolyte are underway to further improve both specific needs to be considered carefully. While globally the numbers of charging
energy and volumetric energy density of battery packs to levels of 230 points were estimated to be around 6.4 million at the end of 2019, in
Wh/kg and 500 Wh/l to achieve driving range of about 500 km [128]. India there were only 927 charging stations as on 30 June 2020
Ageing of LIB is another major disadvantage. Capacity of LIB de­ [76,134]. Infrastructure required for charging of EV do require heavy
teriorates not only with time but also with the number of char­ investments. Another related risk is that of EV charging may lead to a
ge–discharge cycles. Storage in cool place (288 K) can slow down the sudden increase in electricity demand which may have adverse impact
ageing process [129]. In comparison, specific energy of hydrogen is 1.9 on India’s already stressed electricity distribution networks. This will
kWh/kg at storage pressure of 700 bar and is about 6 times more than necessitate augmentation of the existing basic electric network for
LIB [130]. Hence for storing same amount of energy on-board, hydrogen transmission and distribution along with associated investment. HFV
system will be much lighter compared to LIB storage. can be refuelled as quickly as similar petrol/diesel vehicles with
hydrogen filling time of about 50–100 s for one kg of hydrogen [135].
4.5.2. Driving range Similar to EV recharging infrastructure, numbers of public HRS avail­
Most current models of EV available in India are not equipped with able globally and also in India are relatively limited in numbers pres­
batteries having enough storage capacity to provide “normal” driving ently and have to be increased, which may involve huge fresh
range and the same are restricted up to 350 km per recharge with ex­ investment [136].
ceptions of Hyundai Kona and Mercedes-Benz EQC, which have range of
4.5.4. Upfront cost
In spite of rapidly falling trend in the cost of LIB and that of EV during
Table 5 the last one decade, the cost of EV to the buyer is still higher in
Details about Electric Vehicles available in India.
Manufacturer Model LIB Driving Empty Price range (US
Capacity Range weight $*) 50 25
Ex-showroom price (Rs. in Lakhs)

(kWh) (km) of
vehicle y = 20.454ln(x) - 83.495
Battery capacity (kWh)

40 20
(kg)

Hyundai Kona 39.2 452 1685 31,970–32,240 30 15

Mahindra & e20 10.8 100 990 10,250–11,200
Mahindra Plus y = 10.478ln(x) - 42.683
eKUV 15.9 140 1100 11,200 20 10
100
E 21.2 140 1265 13,625–14,160
10 5
Verito
MG ZS EV 44.5 340 1491 28,200–31,835
Mercedes- EQC 80 455–471 652 1,43,460 0 0
Benz 70 120 170 220 270 320 370 420 470
Tata Motors Tigor 21.5 213 1156 13,355–13,625
Ltd. Nexon 30.2 312 1400 18,750–21,450
Range (km)
*1 US$ = ₹ 74.13 (2020 average)
Fig. 7. Impact of battery capacity on EV range and price.

11
M.R. Nouni et al. Fuel 305 (2021) 121583

comparison to an ICE vehicle as battery, which is still expensive, con­ performance, operation of LIB in their safe operating limits is to be
tributes to about 75% of an EVs power train cost and about 40% of the ensured [154]. This could be achieved using a protection circuit. LIB
cost of EV. This constrains the manufacturers from opting for a higher recycling is hazardous because of the highly reactive nature of lithium
capacity battery as it would significantly impact the overall cost of the ions. India will have to put in place a policy for safe disposal of used
vehicle and also make it difficult to accommodate a bigger battery in batteries, which will not only alleviate possible environmental concerns
typical city car, which has space limitations [127,137,138]. The but will also act as an enabler to locally available source of chemical
downward trend in prices of LIB is likely to continue and prices are set to elements of the batteries and thereby increasing the cost-effectiveness of
fall below US$ 140/kWh by 2023, thereby making them much more the supply chain [155]. On the other side, FCV have necessary in-built
cost-competitive [139]. The US DOE predicts that once battery cost falls safety features to keep the occupants and others safe in case of any
below US$ 125/kWh, owning and operating EV will be economical than mishap. Safety features of FCV take into consideration presence of the
petrol car in most parts of the world [140]. LIB is not manufactured in FC stack and battery pack—two sources of high-voltage electricity –
India currently. Moreover, import of LIB in India attracted basic custom along with on-board storage of high-pressure hydrogen gas. To prevent
duty of 5% during 2020–21 and it has increased to 10% on cells and 15% possible high voltage hazards, sufficient safety provisions are incorpo­
on packs, effective from 1 April 2021 [141]. Therefore, the cost of LIB in rated in the vehicle. Hydrogen fuel storage tanks, wherein hydrogen
India is in the range of US$ 245–290/kWh, which is about 25% to 45% pressures are as high as 700 bar, have higher strength compared to
higher than global market [142]. GoI under its phased manufacturing typical petrol/diesel fuel tanks. These tanks are designed to withstand
programme proposes to set up manufacturing capacity of 50 GWh for twice the maximum pressure of the stored gas to avoid any failure. The
LIB by 2024 [143]. It is estimated that requirement for LIB in 2030 for vehicle is equipped with sensors at different locations along with other
transport sector based on the projected sales of vehicles, penetration of safety provisions for protecting the occupants and the vehicles in the
EV for each type of vehicle and average capacity of the LIB would be event of any incidence of leakage of hydrogen [156].
about 170 GWh. Many Indian and international companies have
announced their plans to establish manufacturing facilities for LIB in 4.5.8. GHG emissions
India. These efforts are expected to ensure availability of LIB at inter­ For both EV and FCV, GHG emissions primarily resulting from well to
nationally competitive prices in India for use in EV [144]. However, tank and tank to wheel emissions are almost zero (negligible). EV using
Indian manufacturers of LIB will have to contend with the issue of electricity from renewable source generates on an average 1% of the
securing sustainable supplies of raw materials on long term basis as GHG emissions produced by a conventional ICE driven vehicle. In
critical materials like lithium, cobalt, nickel etc. are required to be im­ comparison, a typical FCV that uses hydrogen produced using electricity
ported. It is envisaged that prices of these materials would go up in the from wind results in a life cycle GHG emission that is 16.4% of that from
international market with increase in their demand due to upswing in a conventional ICE vehicle. This value would be close to 50% if
global EV demand [145]. In this context, it must be recognised that the hydrogen were to be sourced from NG or coal [157].
global over-capacity to produce around 320 GWh/year for use in electric
cars against the demand of about 100 GWh of batteries for the 2.1 4.5.9. Support provided by the Government
million electric cars that were sold in 2019 may pose a challenge to In comparison to ICE based vehicles that are propelled by ethanol,
Indian manufacturers to produce and sell LIB at competitive prices biodiesel and CNG, the initial cost of EV and HFV are relatively higher
[146]. In comparison to EV, upfront costs of similar HFV are higher due and therefore, the Governments of the different countries are providing
to absence of economies of scale, current manufacturing practices and financial support for acquisition of these environmental friendly vehicle
also relatively higher number of components used for making HFV technologies and also for establishing refuelling/recharging infrastruc­
[147]. It is expected that cost of HFV may reduce significantly due to ture. Details of the financial incentives provided for acquisition of EV in
increase in their demand and reduction in the cost of FC stacks on ac­ India have been provided in Section 2.4.1. Financial incentives for
count of economies of scale in production volumes with increase in acquisition of EV are also being provided by other countries and their
demand. It is projected that the cost of fuel cell stack may fall below US$ details can be found in Global EV Outlook 2020 of IEA [76]. Whereas
100/kW at production volume of 150,000 systems/annum [148]. China, South Korea and Japan are providing financial assistance for
buying FCV, financial support, if any, for buying HFV in India would be
4.5.5. Perception of buyers known after announcement of the National Hydrogen Mission in India,
Globally, customers rate high price, lack of charging infrastructure which is under formulation currently.
and vehicle range as the top three issues that prevent them from buying
EV. Other issues, though minor include uncertainty about technological 4.5.10. Cost of ownership
developments in the future and suitability of EV for daily use [149].
High price and lack of refuelling infrastructure are also main entry (a) Energy consumption and fuel cost for operation of different
barriers for HFV. In addition, hydrogen is also costly and EV has more vehicles
efficient power train in comparison to HFV [150]. All these factors
impact cost of ownership of vehicles in Indian context, use of hydrogen Table 6 indicates the values for energy consumption and fuel cost for
in FCV has been allowed by GoI in September 2020 in view of higher
performance and environmental benefits associated with them [151].
Table 6
4.5.6. O&M cost Energy consumption and fuel cost for operation of different vehicles for 1 km.
Higher energy conversion efficiency of the power train, considerably S. Type of Vehicle Energy Consumption (MJ/ Fuel Cost (cents/
fewer numbers of moving parts and less wear on the brakes due to en­ No. km) km)
ergy regeneration in EV make them attractive from O&M cost viewpoint 1 3 Wheeler–H2 ICE 1.84 4.15–17.65
[152]. In comparison, operation cost due to high cost of hydrogen and 2. 3 wheeler– 0.18 0.47
also maintenance cost due to relatively more number of components for electric
3. Electric car 0.33 0.86
HFV will be higher [153]. 4. Mini Bus- H2 ICE 4.80 10.80–45.86
5. FC Bus 8.0 18–76.4
4.5.7. Safety 6. Large Bus – CNG 26.32 28.82
LIB is not as robust as other batteries. They should be protected from 7. 9 m Electric Bus 3.6 9.44
8. 12 m Electric Bus 4.86 12.76
being over charged and discharged beyond a limit. For better

12
M.R. Nouni et al. Fuel 305 (2021) 121583

running the vehicle for one km, depending on the calorific value of fuel, be 0.08. R1 and R2 are determined using the Eq. (2) and (3), respectively:
prevailing fuel cost and fuel economy of the vehicles that are commer­
(1 + d)n − 1
cially available or have been developed as prototypes in India. It R1 = (2)
d(1 + d)n
emerges very clearly from the Table 6 that EV has distinct advantages
both in terms of energy consumption per km (due to higher efficiency of
1
electric drive trains) and minimum fuel cost per km. For some niche R2 = (3)
(1 + d)n
areas, where hydrogen may be available easily in India and at a
competitive rate of about 2.7 US$/kg, FC bus may be competitive to The annual operation and maintenance cost has been worked out
CNG bus in terms of fuel running cost. In terms of energy consumption considering the fuel cost and maintenance cost. Annual Fuel cost (Cf) can
per km of vehicle operation, electric bus is the best option and FC bus is a be worked out using the Eq. (4).
better option compared to CNG buses.
X*p
Cf = (4)
u
(b) Life cycle cost of ownership of different vehicles
Where X is the average distance covered in km in a year (assumed as
In order to compare HFV and EV that are available in India especially 60,000 km); p is the unit rate of fuel in (US$/kg or US$/L or US$/kWh);
for public transport with similar fossil fuelled vehicles, an attempt has and u is the fuel economy of the vehicle (km/L or km/kg or km/kWh).
been made to estimate the cost of ownership of the vehicles by deter­ For ICE vehicles maintenance cost has been considered as per data
mining the present value of operation and maintenance costs over useful provided by the vehicle manufacturer and for FC bus it has been
life of eight years using the Eq. (1). assumed to be about 7% of vehicle cost. For EV, it has been considered as
C = Co + R1 *Ci − R2 *Cn (1) 4% of vehicle cost.
Since FC cars are not available in India presently, cost of ownership
where C is the life cycle cost of the vehicle for its useful life of n years; Co of cars has not been attempted. While doing so, different scenarios have
is the initial investment made for acquiring the vehicle; Ci is the uniform been developed based on the cost of hydrogen and initial cost of
annual operation and maintenance cost of the vehicle; Cn is the salvage acquisition of vehicle. In Table 7, for different initial cost of acquisition
value of the vehicle at the end of n years; R1 is a factor for estimating considering different order sizes on the vehicle manufacturer to take the
present value of recurring uniform yearly expenditure; and R2 is a factor benefit of economies of scale; varying hydrogen cost and different levels
used for determining the present value of the cash flow that may occur in of financial assistance, cost of ownership of HFV and EV have been
future. Term d denotes discount rate and its value has been assumed to presented and are compared with similar vehicles fuelled by diesel or

Table 7
Cost of ownership of different vehicles (Amount in thousand US$#).
Type of vehicle Order size for vehicles Unit cost of vehicle Scenario-I Scenario-II Scenario-III Scenario-IV Scenario-V Scenario-VI

3W- ICE Hydrogen 10 16.86 81.33 34.81 45.10 36.15 42.60 33.66
100 10.11 74.58 28.07 40.71 31.76 39.22 30.28
500 8.43 72.88 26.38 39.62 30.67 38.39 29.43
3W-Diesel – 3.23 20.03 20.03 20.03 20.03 20.03 20.03
3W-Electric – 3.00 5.27 5.27 5.27 5.27 5.27 5.27
SUV-Dual Fuel 10 132.76 203.35 169.51 135.02 128.51 115.23 108.71
100 56.15 126.20 92.33 84.86 78.34 76.63 70.13
500 49.30 119.33 85.48 80.40 73.89 73.21 66.69
SUV-Diesel – 20.37 60.01 60.01 60.01 60.01 60.01 60.01
Electric car – 18.88 26.20 26.20 26.20 26.20 26.20 26.20
Mini Bus-Hydrogen 10 200.35 363.55 242.61 215.30 191.88 185.64 162.39
100 108.15 271.34 150.41 155.36 132.10 139.53 116.30
500 99.95 263.14 142.21 150.04 126.77 135.45 112.19
Mini Bus-D – 21.58 59.38 59.38 59.38 59.38 59.38 59.38
FC Bus 1–5 506.01 1033.10 730.77 612.20 554.06 516.55 458.41
5–10 488.52 1011.04 708.71 597.88 539.74 505.53 447.38
10–25 469.60 987.20 684.86 582.36 524.22 493.59 435.45
30–50 407.47 908.90 606.57 531.47 473.33 454.44 396.30
50–100 375.31 868.36 566.04 505.14 447.00 434.18 376.04
100–200 357.30 845.65 543.31 490.36 432.22 423.40 364.68
>200 299.58 772.92 470.60 443.10 384.95 386.45 328.32
Bus-Diesel 1–25 133.64 384.97 384.97 384.97 384.97 384.97 384.97
30–200 118.80 364.54 364.54 364.54 364.54 364.54 364.54
200–500 115.08 359.43 359.43 359.43 359.43 359.43 359.43
>500 111.37 354.33 354.33 354.33 354.33 354.33 354.33
Bus-CNG 1–25 148.80 304.05 304.05 304.05 304.05 304.05 304.05
30–200 132.26 281.32 281.32 281.32 281.32 281.32 281.32
200–500 128.14 275.63 275.63 275.63 275.63 275.63 275.64
>500 124.00 269.94 269.94 269.94 269.94 269.94 269.94
E Bus 9 m – 101.03 156.82 156.82 156.82 156.82 156.82 156.82
E Bus 12 m – 118.71 190.00 190.00 190.00 190.00 190.00 190.00

# 1 US$ = ₹ 74.13.
Scenario-I: No subsidy on hydrogen vehicle; Hydrogen cost –US$ 11.46 /kg.
Scenario-II: No subsidy on hydrogen vehicle; Hydrogen cost –US$ 2.70 /kg.
Scenario-III: Subsidy on hydrogen vehicle – 35%; Hydrogen cost – US$ 5.73 /kg.
Scenario-IV: Subsidy on hydrogen vehicle – 35%; Hydrogen cost – US$ 4.04 /kg.
Scenario-V: Subsidy on hydrogen vehicle – 50%; Hydrogen cost – US$ 5.73 /kg.
Scenario-VI: Subsidy on hydrogen vehicle – 50%; Hydrogen cost – US$ 4.04 /kg.

13
M.R. Nouni et al. Fuel 305 (2021) 121583

CNG. Table 9
In terms of life cycle cost of ownership, EV has advantage over other Savings and CO2 avoided in 2030 by alternative fuel vehicles in India.
options considered, even without any kind of incentives either for Alternative Estimated no. of vehicles Fuel saved CO2 avoided
acquisition of vehicle or supply of electricity. HFV are not competitive Fuel in use (in millions) (Mtoe) in 2030 during 2030 (MT)
with other options based on the present cost of acquisition of vehicle and Electric 80.04 31.6 51.54
cost of hydrogen, which have to reduce substantially from the current Hydrogen 0.139 1.6 2.61
level. Considering the different factors discussed above, Table 8 presents CNG 34.0 14.5 23.67
a snapshot summary of strength and weaknesses of ICE (ethanol / bio­ E20 260.1 10.1 16.54
B5 34.6 4.6 7.54
diesel / CNG / methanol driven), HFV and EV [84].

4.6. Fuel savings and CO2 avoided in 2030 by alternative fuel vehicles have been initiated by the GoI in the recent years to increase its pro­
duction by widening the net of feed stocks that can be used for ethanol
The estimation of fuel saved and CO2 avoided in 2030 by alternative production by 1G and 2G technologies. This has helped in improving
fuel based vehicles in India based on the potential for such vehicles are supply of ethanol for the road transport sector, which has grown from
presented in Table 9. The total fuel saved and CO2 avoided during 2030 1.8% in 2011 to 5% in 2019 [48,160]. Based on the international ex­
by the alternative fuel vehicles are 62.5 Mtoe and 101.91 MT, respec­ periences, India may also consider growing “energy cane” for increasing
tively. While estimating CO2 emissions avoided in 2030, emission factor ethanol production as energy cane yield per unit area of land and
for Indian economy (CO2 emitted per unit of total primary energy sup­ ethanol yield are higher in case of energy cane in comparison to sugar
plied) and reduction in this by 35% up to 2030 have been taken into cane [161,162]. Recent developments in India, auger well for ethanol
consideration. sector and there is high probability of improvement in ethanol avail­
ability. However, it would require improving transportation of ethanol
to the storage depots and also creation of additional storage capacity at
5. Discussions
the depots, which is important as ethanol is produced in certain
geographical regions of the country. So far as compatibility of the ve­
India is estimated to have 411.8 million vehicles in use by 2030, of
hicles with E10 is concerned, vehicles produced after 2008 are E10
which the respective shares of petrol and diesel driven vehicles are likely
compliant and therefore vehicles built prior to 2008 will continue to
to be 260.1 million and 34.6 million. Sheer increase in number of petrol
need E0 fuel dispensing facilities. Achieving E20 target by 2025 neces­
and diesel driven vehicles in 2030 from the present level will push up
sitates development of vehicle and engine related technologies and
demand for these fuels and India will have to face the associated issues.
establishing their feasibility [20]. Biodiesel blending has been hovering
The actual demand for these fuels could be reduced by improving the
from around 0.09% in 2011 to 0.14% in 2019 as non-edible oil seeds
fuel economy of the vehicles, the efforts for which are already in prog­
have failed to meet the required demand and virgin animal fats and
ress and also by substituting these fuels by the alternative fuels. In
vegetable oils are not available for biodiesel production in India [160]. It
respect of biofuels like ethanol and biodiesel, it is necessary to find so­
looks, there is not much scope for widening the net of feed stocks for
lutions to supply side constraints through R&D that would enable use of
biodiesel production except for recent inclusion of UCO due to com­
agro residues and development of new high yielding feed stocks; infu­
pulsions of not adversely impacting arable land for cultivation of non-
sion of investment necessary for expanding production, create addi­
edible oil seeds or food supply chain [160]. Therefore, making signifi­
tional transportation and storage infrastructure; and policy support for
cant progress in improving biodiesel production and meeting B5 target
debottlenecking production and supply constraints. Apart from shortage
by 2030 looks really challenging. So far as diesel vehicles being pro­
of ethanol for blending caused by competing uses, other reasons for
duced in the country are concerned, they can make use of B5 fuel as they
scarcity include lower availability of molasses from sugar mills which is
are B5 compliant.
a by-product of sugar production and any reduction in sugar production
The policies of the GoI and the state governments for promotion of
impacts availability of molasses negatively; price of ethanol procured for
EVs are directed at creating demand by: (a) favourable policy support;
blending and production capacity of ethanol in the country [158]. Wide
(b) encouraging the domestic industry to produce EVs and also the an­
fluctuations up to 50% have been observed in molasses production from
cillaries by providing production linked incentives on advanced chem­
year to year during the last one decade [159]. So far as augmenting
istry cell batteries; (c) reducing the cost of EVs by providing incentives
availability of ethanol for blending is concerned, a lot of policy measures
for purchase; (d) development of charging infrastructure; (e) creating
awareness etc. Cost of the battery has significant impact on the cost of
Table 8
EV. On one side, with increase in basic custom duty on lithium-ion cells
Comparison of strengths and weaknesses of ICE (ethanol / biodiesel / CNG /
and stacks in India, the cost of battery pack would go up, on other side,
methanol driven), FCV and EV for different attributes ([84] – Reproduced by
Permission of The Royal Society of Chemistry). the domestic LIB manufacturing is in infancy. Therefore, Indian LIB
manufacturers are unlikely to be benefited due to their high production
Attribute ICE FCV EV
cost. Further, not only the Indian manufacturers have to compete with
Lower is better Upfront capital cost $ $$ $ $$ established international manufacturers but are hugely dependent upon
Fuel cost $$ $$ $ $
import of critical materials like, lithium, nickel, and cobalt. In addition,
Maintenance cost $$$ $ $
Infrastructure needs $ $$ $ $$ there is huge global manufacturing capacity against far lower demand of
Lifetime cost of ownership $ $$ $ $$ LIB in the international market and the Indian manufactures will have to
Emissions be ready for outcomes of such a scenario. Therefore, it would be highly
Higher is better Specific energy of stored fuel challenging to reduce cost of LIB in India and it is bound to have impact
Efficiency
Range
on the cost of EV and demand for it. To address these concerns, GoI has
Refuelling speed launched National Programme on Advanced Cell Battery Storage under
Refuelling infrastructure its production linked incentive scheme. The programme envisages
availability establishing 50 GWh of advanced chemistry cell manufacturing capacity
Lifetime
[163].
Safety
Perception of buyer India is committed to improve the share of NG in its power mix in
Acceleration view of the associated environmental benefits, which will help in

14
M.R. Nouni et al. Fuel 305 (2021) 121583

reducing GHG emissions. CNG and LPG are major alternative fuels for NG from Krishna Godavari basin area from December 2020. Import
road transport in India. While the CNG vehicles are manufactured within dependence of NG could be effectively addressed by improving the
the country, the spread of CNG vehicles in the country was constrained domestic production on one side and achieving significant progress in
by availability of refuelling infrastructure only in certain geographical installation and production of CBG by using locally available feed
regions across the country. The objectives of achieving energy security stocks. So far as utilisation of NG and its allocation is concerned, the
with promotion of alternative fuels in the road transport sector, gets transport sector is covered in the priorities of the GoI. In comparison to
defeated with increasing dependence on imported LNG. Therefore, the ethanol and CNG, more concerted efforts would be needed for
availability of NG would be positively impacted by the success of CBG deployment of EV even though significant progress has been achieved
programme in India, which also focuses on utilisation of agro-residues in deployment of e-2 Wheelers and e-3 Wheelers (predominantly e-
like paddy straw, besides other feed stocks. The domestic production rickshaws using lead acid batteries). For making noteworthy break­
of NG may see an upward trend with commencement of NG production through in electric cars, the prices will have to come down, which is
from some new fields in Krishna-Godavari basin from December 2020 possible with reduction in the prices of domestically produced LIB for
onwards [164]. which some policy support by way of extending production linked
Availability of methanol for road transport sector is a challenge incentives has been initiated recently. With the trend of higher custom
presently. Efforts for methanol production using Indian coal may have duties, the prices of imported LIB are expected to increase in the
environmental issues. Production of methanol by utilising CO2 emitted coming years in India. Therefore, the domestic industry has to quickly
by thermal power plants and hydrogen produced by utilising either mobilise its resources for local manufacturing of LIB at the earliest at
renewable electricity or fossil fuel-based electricity would not only internationally competitive prices. With the demand of EV increasing
reduce dependence on the imported NG for this purpose, but also in­ globally in the coming years, the supply options and costs of the raw
crease the availability of methanol including for the road transport materials required for manufacture of LIB are likely to witness price
sector, provided it is economical to produce methanol in this manner hardening trend. Keeping this in view, Indian LIB manufacturers will
due to high cost of inputs. Besides, use of methanol in the transport have to put in place long term supply contracts for critical raw mate­
sector pose another challenges as the passenger vehicles manufactured rials to ensure sustained supplies at affordable prices. Electric buses
in India are not compatible with methanol blended fuel and may require based on batteries and FC cost more compared to diesel buses and
material changes in engine and vehicle. In addition, for methanol stor­ therefore are likely to get financial assistance from the Central and
age separate arrangement will need to be created as it is more corrosive State Governments in India as they offer considerable societal benefits
compared to petrol [20]. by way of reducing congestion on roads and air pollution, improving
The launch of hydrogen mission for green hydrogen production in mobility and a lot of other benefits to individual commuters. HFV are
2021 in India is expected to play a catalytic role in bringing down the yet to make initial entry in the Indian market and their success would
cost of green hydrogen. Hydrogen mission is expected to put in place a largely depend on the regulatory, financial and policy support pro­
favourable policy mechanism that may incentivise manufacturing of key vided by the Government and regulatory agencies. In this context, role
electrolyser technology in India and utilisation of green hydrogen by played by regulatory agencies and judiciary in mandating initial
industry for production of ammonia, in petroleum refining and for iron introduction of CNG vehicles in India from the early 1990s is well
and steel production. These efforts would help in creating demand for recognised. The Government agencies have played very important role
electrolysers thereby bringing down the cost of electrolysers. Further, in creation of refuelling infrastructure for CNG and more recently for
with reducing trend of solar electricity in India, cost of energy, which is EV charging. Financial incentives available for acquisition of EV and
the most significant input, will also come down. All these factors would creation of charging infrastructure should also be extended to FCV and
help in reducing the cost of producing green hydrogen. Consequently, HRS in view of their high initial costs. Industry is more likely to
the cost of ownership of HFV would become attractive and pave the way commit to development of HFV, if availability of less costly hydrogen
for introduction of HFV for community applications in cities which face on sustained basis is ensured. Development and deployment of alter­
poor air quality issues. nate fuels in the road transport sector certainly provides a very good
opportunity in India for decarbonisation along with added advantages
6. Conclusions of achieving energy security, improving air quality and health of its
people.
Among the different alternative fuels discussed in this paper, CNG
and ethanol are low hanging fruits and these have been the preferred Author contribution
options for the road transport sector in India so far. Moreover, the
vehicle technologies for use of E10 and CNG are fairly well developed Study conception and design: MRN; Acquisition of data: MRN, JM,
in India along with expanding city gas distribution network for making PJ, RS; Analysis and interpretation of data: MRN, JM, PJ; Drafting of
CNG available across broader geographical spread of the country to the manuscript: MRN, JM, PJ, Critical revision: CB, AKT.
transport sector. While domestic availability of ethanol to achieve
target of E10 initially and thereafter E20 by 2025 has been a serious Declaration of Competing Interest
constraint so far. This issue is being addressed aggressively by pro­
moting 1G and 2G technologies for production of ethanol and also The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
widening the net of easily available domestic feed stocks for ethanol interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
production, especially through 1G technology in the past two years. the work reported in this paper.
Allowing use of some kinds of cereals and sugar for ethanol production
is expected to quickly improve production and availability of ethanol Acknowledgements
in the country. Availability of biodiesel has been a critical issue so far
and for achieving target of B5 by 2030, sincere efforts by all the The authors are thankful to the MNRE, GoI for supporting a project
stakeholders would be required. This would also call for some imagi­ entitled “Setting Up of a Centre of Excellence on Hydrogen Energy at
native policy initiatives by the GoI for increasing the supply of bio­ National Institute of Solar Energy (NISE), Gwal Pahari, Haryana” to
diesel. Availability of domestically produced NG is a constraint for NISE under which a part of this study was undertaken. The authors also
applications requiring it in spite of the fact that the GoI is committed to thank M&M, TML, Tata Chemicals, Alkali Manufacturers Association
increase domestic production by 75% to 50 MMSCM by 2024. Some of India, R&D Centre of IOCL and Ministry of Petroleum and Natural
progress on this front has also been achieved with commencement of Gas, GoI for providing some data that has been used in this study.

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