MATH-101 Calculus and Analytical Geometry – 3-0 CHs

By

Assoc Prof Dr Safia Akram

Lec # 6

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 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

OVERVIEW

The concept of a limit is a central idea that distinguishes

calculus from algebra and trigonometry.

It is fundamental to finding the tangent to a curve or the

velocity of an object.

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 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Definition of “LIMIT”:

We write 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 and say,

“ the limit of 𝑓 𝑥 as 𝑥 approaches a, (→) equals to “L”.

Roughly speaking, this says that the values of f(x) becomes closer
and closer to the number ‘L’ as x approaches to the number ‘a’ (from
either side of a) but note equal to ‘a’ ( i.e. x ≠ a ).

An alternative notation for 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 is

𝑓 𝑥 → 𝐿 as 𝑥 → 𝑎
which is usually read 𝑓 𝑥 approaches ‘L’ as “x” approaches
‘a’.
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 DIRECT SUBSTITUTION PROPERTY

Definition of “LIMIT”:

If f is a polynomial or a rational function and ‘a’ is in the

domain of ‘f’ then 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑎 .

Note:
Functions with the direct
substitution property are called
continuous at ‘a’. However not all limits
can be evaluated by direct substitution.

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 CALCULATING LIMITS USING
“THE LIMIT LAWS”
This section presents theorems for calculating limits.

LIMITS LAWS:
1. SUM Rule.
2. Difference Rule.
3. Product Rule.
4. Constant Multiple Rule.
5. Quotient Rule.
6. Power Rule.
7. Constant Function.
8. Identity Function.
Now
Suppose that c is a constant and the limit 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 and
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑎 𝑔 𝑥 exist. Then
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 “THE LIMIT LAWS”
1. SUM Rule:
The limit of the sum of two functions is the sum of their limits.
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑎 𝑔 𝑥
2. DIFFERENCE Rule:
The limit of the difference of two functions is the difference of their
limits.
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑎 𝑔 𝑥

3. PRODUCT Rule:
The limit of a Product of two functions is the product of their limits.
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 (𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑎 𝑔 𝑥 )
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4. Constant Multiple Rule:
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑎 𝑐𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑐 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑎 𝑓 𝑥
5. Quotient Rule:
𝑓 𝑥 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑎 𝑓 𝑥
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑎 = 𝑖𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑎 𝑔 𝑥 ≠ 0
𝑔 𝑥 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑎 g 𝑥
6. Power Rule:
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑎 ( 𝑓 𝑥 )𝑛 = (𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 )𝑛
where ‘n’ is a +ve integer.
7. Constant Function:
If 𝑓 𝑥 is the constant function 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒄, then 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒙→𝒂 𝒄 = 𝒄.
where ‘c’ is any constant number.
8. Identity Function:
If 𝑓 𝑥 is the identity function 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒙, then for any value of
‘a’ 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑎.
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Remark

1. 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑎 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 , where ‘n’ is a positive integer.

2. 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑎 𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑛
𝑎, where ‘n’ is a positive integer.

3. 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑎 𝑛 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑎 𝑓(𝑥),

where ‘n’ is a positive integer

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 Examples
Example # 1 Find 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑐 (𝑥3 + 4𝑥2 – 3)
Solution
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑐 (𝑥3 + 4𝑥2 – 3) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑐 𝑥 3 + 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑐 4 𝑥2 − 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑐 3
(Using Sum and Difference Rule)
= c3 + 4𝑐2 – 3.
𝑥4 + 𝑥2 – 1
Example # 2 Find 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑐
𝑥2 +5
Solution
𝑥4 + 𝑥2 – 1 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑐 (𝑥4 + 𝑥2 – 1)
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑐 = Quotient Rule
𝑥 +5
2 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑐 (𝑥2 +5)

𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑐 (𝑥4 )+𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑐 (𝑥2 )−𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑐 (1)

= (Sum & Difference Rule)
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑐 (𝑥2 )+𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑐 (5)
Power Rule
(𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑐 𝑥 )4 + (𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑐 𝑥 )2 − (𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑐 1) 𝑐4 + c 2 − 1
= 2
=
(𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑐 𝑥 ) + (𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑐 5) 𝑐2 +5
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Example # 3 Find 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→ −2 4𝑥2 − 3

Solution 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→ −2 4𝑥2 − 3 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→ −2 4𝑥2 − 3

= 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→ −2 4𝑥2 ) − 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→ −2 (3

= 4 (𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→−2 𝑥)2 − 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→−2 3 = 4 −2 2 −3

= 4(4) − 3 = 16 − 3 = 13

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 THEOREM
1. Limits of Polynomials can be found by Substitution
If 𝑃 𝑥 = an 𝑥n +an − 1 𝑥n −1 + ⋯ + a0
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑐 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑃 𝑐 = an 𝑐n +an − 1𝑐n−1 + ⋯ + a0
2. Limits of Rational functions can be found by substitution if
the limit of the Denominator is not zero.
If 𝑃 𝑥 and Q 𝑥 are polynomials and Q 𝑐 ≠0 then

𝑃 𝑥 𝑃 𝑐
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑐 =
𝑄 𝑥 𝑄 𝑐

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 Examples (Limit of Rational Function)
𝑥3 +4𝑥2−3
Example # 1 Find 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→−1
𝑥2 +5
Solution
𝑥3 +4𝑥2 − 3 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→−1 (𝑥3 +4𝑥2 − 3)
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→−1 =
𝑥 +5
2 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→−1 (𝑥2 +5)

(−1)3 +4(−1)2 − 3 0
= 2
= =0
(−1) +5 6
2𝑥 2 +1
Example # 2 Find 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→2 2
𝑥 +6𝑥−4
Solution
2𝑥 2 + 1 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→2 (2𝑥 2 + 1)
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→2 2 =
𝑥 + 6𝑥 − 4 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→2 (𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 4)

2(2)2+1 9 3
= = =
(2)2+6(2)−4 12 4
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 Evaluate the following Limits.
𝑥 3 +2𝑥 2 −1
Question # 1 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→−2
5−3𝑥

𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 1 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→ −2 (𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 1)
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→ −2 =
5 − 3𝑥 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→ −2 (5 − 3𝑥)

𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→ −2 𝑥 3 +𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→ −2 2𝑥 2 −𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→ −2 (−1)

=
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→ −2 5 −𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→ −2 (3𝑥)

(−2)3 +2(−2)2 −1 −1
= =
5 − 3(−2) 11

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 Eliminating Zero (Denominators Algebraically)
• If the denominator of the rational function is zero, canceling
common factors in the numerator and denominator may reduce
the fraction to one whose denominator is no longer zero at ‘c’.

• If this happens, we can find the limit by substitution in the

simplified fraction.
𝑥 2 +𝑥−2
Question # 1 Evaluate 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→1 2
𝑥 −𝑥
2
𝑥 +𝑥−2
Solution 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→1 2
𝑥 −𝑥
We can’t substitute 𝑥 = 1, because it makes the denominator zero
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2) (𝑥 + 2)
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→1 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→1
𝑥 (𝑥 − 1) 𝑥

𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→1 (𝑥 + 2) 3
= = =3
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→1 𝑥 1
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 𝑥 2 +𝑥−6
Question # 2 Evaluate 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→2
𝑥−2

𝑥 2 +𝑥−6
Solution 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→2
𝑥−2

𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→2 (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6)
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→2 =
𝑥−2 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→2 (𝑥 − 2)
(2)2+2 −6
= (Denominator vanishes)
2−2
Now consider,

𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→2 (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6) 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 → 2 (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 2)

=
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→2 (𝑥 − 2) 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 → 2 (𝑥 − 2)

= 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→ 2 𝑥 + 3 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→ 2 2 + 3 = 5

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 Examples

𝑥2−1
Question # 1 Find 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→ 𝟏 Try Yourself Ans = 2
𝑥−1

𝑥2−6𝑥+9
Question # 2 Find 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→ 3 Try Yourself Ans = 0
𝑥−3

2𝑥+8
Question # 3 Find 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→ −4 Try Yourself Ans = 0
𝑥2+4𝑥−12

𝑥2−3𝑥−10
Question # 4 Find 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→ 5 2 Try Yourself
𝑥 −10𝑥+25

Answer = doesn’t exist (after simplification)

3+ℎ 2−9
Question # 5 Find 𝑙𝑖𝑚ℎ→ 0 Try Yourself Ans = 6
ℎ
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 Creating & Canceling Common Factor / Limits Involving Radicals

2+ℎ − 2
Example: Find 𝑙𝑖𝑚ℎ→ 0
ℎ
Solution We cannot find the limit by substituting ℎ = 0 and the numerator
and denominator don’t have obvious factors. However, we can create a
common factor in the numerator by multiplying it (and the denominator) by
the so-called conjugate expression.
2 + ℎ − 2 obtained by changing the sign b/w the square roots.

2+ℎ − 2 2+ℎ − 2 2+ℎ + 2 2+ℎ−2

Now =( ) ( )=
ℎ ℎ 2+ℎ + 2 ℎ ( 2+ℎ + 2 )

ℎ 1
= =
ℎ ( 2+ℎ + 2 ) 2+ℎ + 2

2+ℎ − 2 1 1 1
𝑙𝑖𝑚ℎ→ 0 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚ℎ→ 0 = =
ℎ 2+ℎ + 2 2 + 2 2 2
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 Examples

𝑥−1
Question # 1: Find 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥→1 Try Yourself Ans = 2
𝑥 −1

𝑡2+9 −3 1
Question # 2: Find lim 𝑡→0 Try Yourself Ans =
𝑡2 6

𝑥2+100 −10 1
Question # 3: Find 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥→0 Try Yourself Ans =
𝑥2 20

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 Left-Hand Limit & Right-Hand Limit
or
Limits of a Piece-wise Defined Functions
For functions that are defined piece-wise, a two-sided limit at a point
where the formula changes is best obtained by first finding the one-
sided limits at that point.
Theorem
A function 𝑓 𝑥 has a limit as 𝑥 approaches ‘𝑐’ if and only if it has left
hand and right-hand limits there and these one-sided limits are equal:

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥→ 𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿
⟺
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥 → a+ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 and 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥→𝑎− 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿

RIGHT HAND LIMIT LEFT HAND LIMIT

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 Example:
Evaluate 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥→ 0 | 𝑥 | = 0
Solution Since according to the definition of | 𝑥 | we have

𝑥 𝑥≥0
𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| =
−𝑥 𝑥<0

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥→ 0− 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥→ 0− 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥→ 0− −𝑥 = 0

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥 → 0+ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥 → 0+ 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥 → 0+ 𝑥 = 0

⇒ 𝐿. 𝐻. 𝐿 = 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝐿
so
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥→0 | 𝑥 | = 0 exist.
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 𝑥
Example: Proof that 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥→ 0 = 0 doesn’t exist
𝑥
Solution: Since according to the definition of | 𝑥 | we have
𝑥 𝑥≥0
|𝑥| =
−𝑥 𝑥<0
(−𝑥)
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥→ 0 −
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥→ 0− −1 = −1
𝑥

(𝑥)
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥 → 0+ = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥 → 0+ 1 = 1
𝑥

⇒ 𝐿. 𝐻. 𝐿 ≠ 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝐿
𝑥
So 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥→ 0 = 0 doesn’t exist
𝑥

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 Examples
Question #1 Evaluate left- and right-hand limit of the function
defined by
𝑥−3
𝑓 𝑥 =൝ 𝑥 ≠ 3 at 𝑥 = 3
𝑥−3
0 𝑥=3
Solution: Try yourself
Question # 2 Let
1
𝑥+2
𝑥 < −2
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 5 −2 < 𝑥 ≤ 3
𝑥 + 13 𝑥>3
Find
a) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 x→ −2 𝑓 𝑥
b) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥→ 0 𝑓 𝑥
c) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥→ 3 𝑓 𝑥
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 Solution: 2(a)
We will determine the stated two-sided limit by first considering the
corresponding one-sided limits. For each one-sided limit, we must
use that part of the formula that is applicable on the interval over
with 𝑥 −varies.
For example, as x approaches −2 from the left, the applicable part of
the formula is
1
𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥+2
and as 𝑥 approaches −2 from the right, the applicable part of the
formula near −2 is
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥2 − 5
1
Thus 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥→ −2− 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥→ −2− = −∞
𝑥+2

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥→ −2+ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥→ −2+ 𝑥2 − 5 = −1

Thus it follows that 𝑙𝑖𝑚 x→ −2 𝑓 𝑥 doesn’t exist.
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 Solution: 2(b)

The applicable part of the formula is 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 5 on both

sides of 0, so there is no need to consider one-sided limits
here.
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥→ 0 𝑓 𝑥 = lim 𝑥 → 0 𝑥2 − 5 = 0 − 5 = −5

Solution: 2(c)

Using the applicable parts of the formula for 𝑓 𝑥 We obtain

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥→ 3− 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥→ 3− 𝑥2 − 5 = 9 − 5 = 4

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥→ 3+ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥→ 3+ 𝑥 + 13 = 3 + 13 = 4
Since the one-sided limits are equal so we have
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥→ 3 𝑓 𝑥 =4
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 Theorem
If 𝑓 𝑥 and 𝑔 𝑥 are two functions. If 𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 𝑔 𝑥 when x
is near a (except possibly at a) and the limit of ‘𝑓 ′ and ‘𝑔’
both exist as 𝑥 approaches ‘𝑎’ then

𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑎 𝑔 𝑥

SQUEEZE THEOREM
(Sandwich or Pinching Theorem)

If 𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 𝑔 𝑥 ≤ ℎ 𝑥 when x is near a (except possibly at a)

and
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑎 ℎ 𝑥 = 𝐿
then
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑎 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝐿
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 1
Example: Show that 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥→ 0 𝑥2 sin( )=0
𝑥
Solution: First note that we cannot use
1 1
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥→ 0 𝑥2 sin( ) = (𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥→ 0 𝑥 )(𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥→ 0 sin( ))
2
𝑥 𝑥
Because
1
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥→ 0 sin( ) doesn’t exist. However
𝑥
−1 ≤ sin 𝑥 ≤ 1
1
−1 ≤ sin( ) ≤ 1
𝑥
1
−𝑥2 ≤ 𝑥2 sin( ) ≤ 𝑥2
𝑥
We know that
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥→ 0 𝑥2 = 0 and 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥→ 0 (−𝑥2) = 0
1
Taking 𝑓 𝑥 = −𝑥 , 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 sin( ) and ℎ 𝑥 = 𝑥2
2 2
𝑥
So using SQUEEZE THEOREM
1
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥→ 0 𝑥 sin( ) = 0
2
𝑥 26
 𝑥2 𝑥2
Example: Given that 1 − ≤ u 𝑥 ≤ 1 +
4 2
for all 𝑥 ≠ 0. Find 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥→ 0 𝑢 𝑥 , no matter how
complicated 𝑢 is.

Solution:
𝑥2
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥→ 0 1− =1−0=1
4

𝑥2
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥→ 0 1+ =1+0=1
2
The sandwich theorem implies that

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥→ 0 𝑢 𝑥 = 1
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Exercises

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