CE-226 SURVEYING – I

Prof. DR. KHAN SHAHZADA

Department of Civil Engineering UET Peshawar

 Week- 8 and 9
Topics:
• Introduction to Leveling
• Important technical terms
• Components and operations/uses
• Methods of reduction of levels
• Level book
• Methods and types of levels
• Classification of Levels
• Precise leveling
 Introduction to Leveling

Leveling may be defined as the art of determining the relative heights or elevations of
points or objects on the earth’s surface. It deals with the measurements in a vertical
plane.
• It deals with angular and linear measurement in a vertical plane.
NEED:
For execution of Engineering Projects it is very necessary to determine elevations of
different points along the alignment of proposed project.
 Introduction to Leveling

APPLICATIONS:
i) Taking rail levels
ii) Initial ground levels for earthwork calculations
iii) Levels for measurement of earthwork etc.
 Important Technical Terms
(i) Level Surface: A surface parallel to the mean spheroidal surface (‫)سطح‬.

(ii) Datum Surface: It is assumed level surface from which vertical distances are
measured.

(iii) Elevation: Elevation of a point is its vertical distance above or below the
datum. It is also known as Reduced Level.

(iv) Bench Mark: It is fixed reference point of known elevation.

 Important Technical Terms
(v) Line of Collimation: Line joining the intersection of the cross hairs to the optical center
of the object glass and its continuation. It is also called line of sight.

(vi) Back Sight(B.S): It is staff reading taken on a point of known elevation(as on the bench
mark(B.M) or change point C.P). It is also called a plus sight.
(vii) Fore Sight(F.S): It is the staff reading on a point whose elevation is to be determined.
Also called as minus sight.
(viii)Intermediate Sight(I.S): Any staff reading taken on a point of unknown elevation from
the same setup of the level. All staff readings taken between B.S and F.S are I.S readings
 Important Technical Terms

(ix) Change Point (C.P): It is a point denoting the shifting of the level. It is a point at
which B.S and F.S are taken.
(x) Station: It is a point whose elevation is to be determined. It is the point where the
staff is held, not the point where level is set up.
(xi) Height of Instrument (H.I): It is the elevation or reduced level(R.L) of the plane
of collimation.
 Important Technical Terms
(xii) Focusing
It is the setting of the eye piece and the objective at the proper distance apart for the
clear view of the object to be sighted.
• To focus the eye piece, hold a sheet of white paper in front of the telescope and
move the eyepiece in and out until the cross hair appear distinct and clear.
• To focus the objective, direct the telescope to the object and turn the focusing screw
until the image appear clear.
 Important Technical Terms
(xiii)Parallax:
It is the apparent movement of the image relatively to the cross hair when the image
formed by the objective does not fall in the plane of the diaphragm. It is due to the poor
focussing of the objective. It can be tested by moving the eye up and down. If the
focussing is correct, the image appears fixed to the cross hair when eye is moved up and
down.
If the image moves in the same direction as that of the eye, it is in front of the
diaphragm, and the objective piece must, therefore, be moved inward by the focussing
screw. If the image appears to moved in the opposite direction as that of the eye, it is
beyond the diaphragm towards the eye-piece, therefore the objective has to be move
outward by focussing screw.
The parallax is a source of error in observations and must, therefore, be eliminated
entirely by focussing the objective correctly.
Components and Operations/Uses
Components and Operations/Uses
 Components and Operations/Uses

BASIC COMPONENTS OF LEVEL:

1. Telescope – to provide a line of sight

2. Level Tube – to make line of sight horizontal
3. Leveling head – to bring the bubble of tube level at the center of its run.
4. Tripod – to support the above three parts of the level.
 Components and Operations/Uses

1) TELESCOPE :
Telescope is an optical instrument used for magnifying and viewing the images of
distant objects. It consists of two lenses. The lens fitted near the eye is called the eye
piece and the other fitted at the end near to the object is called the objective lens.
The objective provides a real inverted image in front of the eye piece at a distance
lesser than its focal distance.
Two essential conditions are involved. :
i) The real image of the object, must be formed.
ii) The plane of image must coincide with that of cross hairs.
Focusing of Telescope : The operation of obtaining a clear image of the object in the
plane of cross hairs is known as focusing.
 Components and Operations/Uses

2) Level Tube : Also known as Bubble Tube consists of a glass tube placed in a brass
tube which is sealed with plaster of paris. Level tube is filled with either or alcohol,
the remaining space is occupied by an air bubble. The centre of air bubble always
rest at the highest point of the tube.
• Outer surface of the bubble tube is graduated in both the directions from the
centre.
• The line tangential to the circular are at its highest point i.e. the middle of tube is
called the axis of bubble tube. When the bubble is central the axis of bubble
becomes Horizontal.
• The level tube is attached on the top of telescope by means of capstan headed nuts.
 Components and Operations/Uses
3) Levelling head : Levelling head generally consists of two parallel plates with 3 foot
screws. Upper plate is known as Tribrach and lower plate is trivet which can be
screwed on to the tripod. Levelling head has to perform 3 distant functions :
i) To support the telescope
ii) To attach the level to the tripod
iii) To provide a means for level (foot screws)
 Reduction of Levels
The system of working out the reduced level of the points from staff reading taken in
the field is called as reduced level(R.L) of a point is the elevation of the point with
reference to the same datum.
There are two systems of reduced levels.

1) The plane of collimation system (H.I method)

2) The Rise and Fall system
 Reduction of Levels
1) The plane of collimation system (H.I method)
In this system, the R.L of plane of collimation (H.I) is found out for every set-up of
the level and then the reduced levels of the points are worked out with the respective
plane of collimation as described below.
1) Determine the R.L of plane of collimation for the first set up of the level by
adding B.S to the R.L of B.M. i.e.(R.L of plane of collimation = R.L of B.M + B.S)
2) Obtained the R.L of the intermediate points and first change point by subtracting
the staff readings (I.S and F.S from the reduced level of plane of collimation (H.I).
(R.L of a point = R.L of plane of collimation (H.I) – I.S or F.S.
 Reduction of Levels
3) When the instrument is shifted and set up at new position, a new plane of
collimation is determined by addition of B.S to the R.L of change point. Thus the
levels from two set-ups of the instruments can be correlated by means of B.S and
F.S taken on C.P.
4) Find out the [Link] of the successive points and the second C.P by subtracting their
staff readings from this plane of collimation R.L
5) Repeat the procedure until all the [Link] are worked out.
 Reduction of Levels
Observation Table:
Station Readings R.L of plane of Reduced Remarks
B.S I.S F.S collimation(H.I) Level

Arithmetical check: the difference between the sum of the back sights and
the sum of the fore sights should be equal to the difference between the last
and first reduced levels.
i.e. ∑B.S - ∑F.S = Last R.L – First R.L
 Reduction of Levels
2) The Rise and Fall System:
In this system, there is no need to determine R.L of plane of collimation. The
difference of level between consecutive points are obtained as described below.
1) Determine the difference in staff readings between the consecutive point,
comparing each point after the first with that immediately proceeding it.
2) Obtained the rise or fall from the difference of their staff reading according to
the staff reading at the point is smaller or greater than that of proceeding point.
3) Find out the reduced level of each point by adding the rise to or subtracting fall
from the R.L of a proceeding point.
 Reduction of Levels
Observation Table:
Station Readings Rise Fall Reduced Remarks
B.S I.S F.S Level

Arithmetic check: the difference between the sum of back sight and the sum
of fore sight = difference between the sum of rise and the sum of fall = the
difference between the last R.L and the first R.L
∑B.S - ∑F.S = ∑Rise - ∑Fall = last R.L – first R.L
 Reduction of Levels
Example: H.I Method.
The following staff readings were observed successively with a level. The
instrument is moved by third, sixth and eighth readings. 2.228, 1.606, 0.988,
2.090, 2.864, 1.262, 0.602, 1.982, 1.044, 2.684m
Calculate the reduced level if the first reading was taken at a B.M of
432.383m.
 Reduction of Levels
Example: H.I Method.
Solution:
Station Readings R.L of plane of collimation(H.I) Reduced Level Remar
B.S I.S F.S ks

1 2.228 434.611 =(432.383+2.228) 432.383 B.M

2 1.606 433.005 = (434.611-1.606)
3 2.090 0.988 435.713 = (434.611 + 2.090 – 0.988) 433.623 = (435.713 – 2.090) 3rd C.P
4 2.864 432.849 = (435.713 – 2.864)
5 0.602 1.262 435.053 = (435.713 + 0.602 -1.262) 434.451 = (435.053 -0.602) 6th C.P
6 1.044 1.982 434.115 = (435.053 + 1.044 – 1.982) 433.071 = ( 434.115 – 8th C.P
1.044)
7 2.684 431.431 = (434.115 – 2.684)
5.964 6.916
 Reduction of Levels
Example: H.I Method.
Solution:
Check: ∑B.S - ∑F.S =
5.964 – 6.916 = -0.952
Last R.L – First R.L = 431.431 – 432.383 = -0.952
 Reduction of Levels
Example: Rise and Fall Method: Solution:
Station Readings Rise(+) Fall(-) Reduced Level Remark
B.S I.S F.S s

1 2.228 432.383 B.M

2 1.606 0.622 = (2.228 – 433.005 = (432.383
1.606) +0.622)
3 2.090 0.988 0.618 = 1.606- 433.623 = (433.005 + 0.618) 3rd C.P
0.988
4 2.864 0.774 = (2.090 – 432.849 = (433.623 – 0.774)
2.864)
5 0.602 1.262 1.602 =( 2.864 - 434.451 = (432.849 + 1.602) 6th C.P
1.262)
6 1.044 1.982 1.38 = (0.602- 433.071 = (434.451 – 1.38) 8th C.P
1.982)
7 2.684 1.64 = ( 1.044- 431.431 = ( 433.071 -1.64)
2.684)
5.964 6.916
 Reduction of Levels
Example: Rise and Fall Method:
Solution:
Check:
∑B.S - ∑F.S =
5.964 – 6.916 = -0.952 = Last R.L – First R.L = 431.432 – 432.384 = -0.952
∑Rise - ∑Fall = 2.842 – 3.794 = -0.952
 Types of Levels

i) Dumpy level
ii) Tilting level
iii) Automatic level
iv) Digital Auto level
 Types of Levels
i) Dumpy Level
These are the basic levels used in construction work.
The telescope is attached to a single bubble and the assembly is adjusted either by means
of a screwed ball-joint or by foot screws which are adjusted first in one direction then at 90
degrees.
 Types of Levels
i) Dumpy Level
 Types of Levels
i) Dumpy Level
 Types of Levels
i) Dumpy Level
ADVANTAGES:
• It is simple compact and stable.
• Fewer adjustments to be made.
• Simple construction with fewer movable parts.
• Longer life of the adjustments.
DISADVANTAGE:
• The telescope is rigidly fixed to its support therefore cannot be rotated about
its longitudinal axis
 Types of Levels
ii) Tilting Level:
It consists of a telescope attached with a level tube which can be tilted within
few degrees in vertical plane by a tilting screw.
The main peculiarity of this level is that the vertical axis need not be truly
vertical, since the line of collimation is not perpendicular to it. The line of
collimation, is, however, made horizontal for each pointing of telescope by
means of tilting screw. It is mainly designed for precise levelling work.
 Types of Levels
ii) Tilting Level:
 Types of Levels
ii) Tilting Level:
 Types of Levels
ii) Tilting Level:

ADVANTAGES :
• Helpful in quick levelling.
• Ball and socket arrangement permits the head to be tilted and quickly
locked nearly level.
 Types of Levels
iii) Automatic Level:
Also termed as self aligning level. It has an compensator which consists of an
arrangement of three prisms. The two outer ones are attached to the barrel of
the telescope. The middle prism is suspended by fine wiring and reacts to
gravity .The instrument is first leveled approximately by the circular bubble
,the compensator then deviate the line of sight by the amount that the
telescope is out of sight.
 Types of Levels
iii) Automatic Level:
 Types of Levels
iii) Automatic Level:
 Types of Levels
iii) Automatic Level:
ADVANTAGES:
i) Much simpler to use
ii) High precision – Mean elevation error on staff graduated to 5mm division
varies between +0.5 to 0.8 mm per km of forward and backward levelling.
iii) High speed : The speed of Dumpy level is about 25% lower than tilting
level.
iv) Freedom from errors – Accuracy is increased by an errect telescope
image.
v) Range of application – level can be used on medium and large sized
projects and setting bench marks.
 Types of Levels
iv) Digital Level:
It uses digital-electronic image processor using a charged-coupled
device(CCD) for determining heights and distances.
Its accuracy in rod reading is .5mm and the maximum range is 100m.
 Types of Levels
iv) Digital Level:
 Types of Levels
iv) Digital Level:
ADVANTAGES :
• Data can be transferred to computer directly.
• Error in writing of data and calculations can be minimized.
DISADVANTAGE:
• It needs clear and better illuminated area for levelling hence not useful in
cloudy area.
 Classification of Levelling
(i) Differential levelling
(ii) Profile levelling( also called longitudinal level)
(iii) Check levelling
(iv) Cross sectioning
(v) Reciprocal leveling
(vi) Barometric levelling
(vii)Trigonometrical levelling
(viii)hypsometry
 Classification of Levelling
(i) Differential levelling:
It is the operation of levelling to determine the elevation of points some
distance apart or to establish bench marks.
• Purpose is to determine the difference in elevation between two (or more)
points on the Earth’s surface.
 Classification of Levelling
Why Differential levelling is Used?

• Determining field slope (conservation plans, soil loss prediction, etc.).

• Laying out and checking drainage ditches, waterways, tile drainage
systems, etc.
• “Cut-and-fill” requirements for building foundations.
• Establish new “benchmarks” that have elevations tied in with existing
benchmarks
 Classification of Levelling
(ii) Profile levelling( also called longitudinal level):
It is the operation in which the object is to determine the elevations of points
at known distance apart along a given line, and thus to obtain the accurate
outline of the surface of the ground.

• Is it also called longitudinal levelling or sectioning.

• Purpose is to describe the elevation at selected points on the Earth’s surface.
 Classification of Levelling
(ii) Profile levelling:
 Classification of Levelling
(ii) Where Profile levelling is Used:

• Developing field “contour maps.”

• Designing and checking grade for drainage ditches and waterways.
• Laying out farm ponds.
• Road and highway construction.
 Classification of Levelling
(iii) Check Levelling:
It is the operation of running levels for the purpose of checking a series of
levels, which have been previously fixed. At the en of each days work, a line
of levels is run , running to the starting point on that day with a view to
checking the work on that day

(iv) Cross Sectioning:

It is the operation of levelling to determine the surface undulations or the
outline of the ground traverse to the given line and on either side of it.
 Classification of Levelling
(v) Reciprocal Levelling:
It is the method of levelling in which the difference in elevation between two
points is accurately determined by two sets of observations when it is not
possible to set up the level midway between the two points.

(vi) Barometric Levelling:

It is the method of levelling in which the altitudes of points are determined by
means of a barometer, which measures atmospheric pressure.
 Classification of Levelling
(vii)Trignometrical Levelling:
It is the process of levelling in which the elevations of points are computed
from the vertical angles and horizontal distances measured in the field.

(viii)Hypsometry:
It is the method of levelling in which the heights of mountains are found by
observing the temperature at which water boils.
 Precise Levelling
It is a special system of levelling chiefly employed for establishing bench
marks with high precision at widely distributed point. It is principally
conducted by the state agency such as the survey of India department. It
requires highly refined instruments and methods and greatest care in the field.
Instrument:
A high grade level equipped with tilting screw, stadia wires, coincidence level
and optical micrometer is used. Levels manufactured by Zeiss or wild are
mostly used. An invar (precision levelling rod is invariably used. With the
parallel plate micrometer readings up to 1/1000 cm can be taken.
 Precise Levelling
Field Precautions:
1) The adjustment of the level are carefully tested.
2) The bubble is very carefully centred and kept under observation at the
time of reading the staff.
3) The level is protected from the sun or wind by a screen or umbrella.
4) The staff is plumbed with a staff level and stays provided to the staff.
5) The level is secured on hard firm ground and backsights and foresights are
exactly balanced between bench marks by stadia readings.
6) Length of sight are limited to about 100m.
7) Change points are taken on a steel pin or foot plate.
 Precise Levelling
Field Precautions(Contd..):
8) The backsights and the following foresights are taken in quick succession,
to eliminate errors due to settlement of the tripod and the staff. The order
of taking reading is interchanged at alternate set up i.e. at the first setup
the backsight is taken first, and then foresight, while at the second set up
the foresight is observed first and then backsight and so on.
9) The levelling is carried during favorable atmospheric conditions of light
and temperature. Rainy and windy days are avoided.
10) Check levels are taken in opposite direction by a different surveyor on
different days and with different change points.
 Precise Levelling
Office Work:
Field observations are adjusted by the method of least squares. If the possible
error of observation exceeds permissible limits, the work is repeated.