ER2631 - Elementary gemmology

GEM TESTING INSTRUMENTS

The nature of light is very important when studying the properties of gemstones.
It relates to the optical qualities of gemstones.
Gemstones can be identified when testing these optical qualities with following instruments.

1. Refractometer
2. Polariscope
3. Conoscope
4. Spectroscope
5. Dicroscope

Refractometer
This instrument is used to determine the refractive indices of gemstones.

It is based on the principle of the critical angle when a ray of light enters from a denser medium
to a rarer medium. It is mainly used for fashioned stones with a flat polished surface.
It can be used to test cabochons , carvings and gem materials having polished surfaces. Setting
stones in a jewelry can be tested with some limitations.

Refraction of light
Snell’s law

1. When a ray of light passes from one medium into

another, the ratio between the sines of the incident
angle and the refractive angle is constant for the
relevant these two medium.
The sine of the incident angle = constant = Sin ION
The sine of the refractive angle Sin MOR

2. The incident ray , the refracted ray and the normal to

the plane are all in the same plane.

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Total Internal Reflection
As the angle of incidence increases the angle of refraction also increases, until at a certain angle
0
of incidence, the angle of refraction is 90 .

At this, angle of incidence is called ‘critical angle’.

When that point, the refracted ray travels along the surface itself. At here, these rays will not
obey laws of reflection or refraction.
As the angle of incidence continues to increase beyond the critical angle, the ray of light is
totally reflected back into the material.
This phenomenon is called ‘Total internal reflection’.

The principle of the Refractometer

• It is based on the principle of the critical angle when a ray of light enters from a denser
medium to a rarer medium.
• At the critical angle (I ON ), I incident ray comes from the denser medium and its
3 d 3
refraction ray R travels along the inter-surface.
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• At incident angles less than critical angle all rays will be refracted.
• At the critical angle(C) ,
0
Refractive Index = Sin r = Sin 90 = 1
Sin I Sin C Sin C

The critical angle is directly related to the RI. Therefore the critical angle gives a measure
of the RI of the gem stone.

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Scale of the Refractometer
The scale is graduated from 1.40 to 1.81.
The RI can be directly read up to two decimal places but often it is required to estimate the third
decimal place.

The light source of the Refractometer

When white light is used as the source of illumination of the shadow edge or the separation of
dark and bright parts will not be sharp.
This is due to the dispersion of the dense glass prism.
So that the recommended light source for the refractometer is the yellow monochromatic light.
Sodium light (589.3 nm) or yellow filters for the white light source or yellow light emitting
diodes can be used.

The contact fluid

• The contact fluid is used to establish a good optical contact between the refractometer
prism and the facet of the gemstone being tested.
• A small drop about 2 mm diameter of the fluid is placed in the center of the glass prism
and when the gemstone is placed over it, air from the interface gets displaced.
• RI of the liquid should always be higher than that of the gemstone.
• The most commonly used contact liquid, known as Anderson liquid which is a saturated
solution of Sulphur in di-iodomethane and tetra-ido ethylene.
• Its RI is 1.81 and a faint edge can be seen on the scale corresponding to that.

Testing procedure

1. Clean the stone to be tested and the refractometer prism with a soft cloth or tissue paper.
2. Place a small drop about 2 mm diameter of contact fluid in the center of the glass prism.
3. Place the stone, usually table facet over the drop of contact fluid.
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 4. Close the lid and observe the scale through the eye piece.
5. Focus if necessary and a shadow edge will be seen separating dark and bright sections.
6. If a shadow edge is seen, slowly turn the polarizing filter and observe if the edge moves.
7. Take the reading to the third decimal points.
0
8. Open the lid and rotate the stone 45 and take the reading again.
0
9. Follow the same manner in four times rotating the stone in 45 .

Single Refraction
• When light passes through some materials such as glass , amber or gemstones of the
cubic crystal system ,it produces only one refracted ray.
• They are called singly refractive or isotropic gems.
• These have one refractive index.

Double Refraction
• The light passing through some gemstones produce two refracted rays and it is called
double refraction.
• These two refracted rays are polarized and their planes of polarizations are perpendicular
to each other.
• These gems are called doubly refractive or anisotropic gems.
• These give two refractive indices.

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Isotropic Stones
• Only one shadow edge is visible and it remains unchanged when the stone or the
polarizing filter is turned.
• Take Readings to the third decimal points in four times at four position and get the
average.

Anisotropic Stones
• Sometimes two shadow edges can be seen when slowly turn the polarizing filter.
• These stones are anisotropic.
• Note two readings at each edge by rotating the polarizing filter at one position.
• Take two readings, four times regarding at four positions and record these in two
columns.
• Larger readings is recorded Right Hand Side and smaller readings at Left Hand Side.

Birefringence
Anisotropic gems produce two refracted rays and they have two refractive [Link] difference
between these two values is called birefringence.
This value is also characteristic of a particular gemstone.

Negative stones
If there is no shadow edge, the whole scale is bright, it is probable that the RI of the stone is
above the range of the scale.
It is called a negative reading and stones are called negative stones.

Optic Axis
Anisotropic gems/double refractive gems posses either one or two directions parallel to which
the light ray refracts without splitting two rays. Such directions are called optic axes.
In the other words, an optic axis is a direction of single refraction in a doubly refractive
gemstones.
According to the behavior of optic axis, anisotropic gems are divided in to two groups.
Uniaxial gems
Biaxial gems

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Uniaxial gems
• Have one optic axis.
• It is parallel to the vertical crystallographic axis.
• Tetragonal ,hexagonal and trigonal crystal systems belong to this category.
• In uniaxial stones, RI readings in one column remain constant and the others are vary.

Refraction in uniaxial gems

• In uniaxial stones, in any direction except for the optic axis there are two refracted rays,
which are polarized mutually at right angles.
• One of these rays has a constant velocity in whatever direction it travels in the stone.
• It gives constant RI value at whole rotation it is called as the ordinary ray.
• It is denoted by omega (w).
• The other ray varies according to its direction and it is called extra-ordinary ray denoted
by epsilon(e).

Optic sign
• All uniaxial gems can be sub-divided into two groups based on the optic sign.
• When the extra ordinary index is grater than the ordinary index , the mineral is said
to be optically positive.
• Minerals which have the extra-ordinary index is less than the that of ordinary ray,
they are optically negative.

Uniaxial positive gems

If one of those columns is constant, while the readings of the other varying, then the stone is said
to be Uniaxial.
Denote the constant reading n and the variable reading n
0 e

Birefringence = n - n
e 0
If n > n ,
e 0,

the Birefringence is Positive and the stone called Uniaxial positive

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1.544 1.546
1.544 1.547
1.544 1.553
1.544 1.551
no ne

ne = 1.553

no = 1.544

Δ = ne – no = + 0.009

Quartz

Uniaxial negative gems

Denote,

the constant reading n the variable reading n

0 e

Birefringence = n - n
e 0

If n < n ,
e 0,

the Birefringence is negative and the stone is called Uniaxial negative

1.622 1.641
1.624 1.641
1.621 1.641
1.626 1.641
ne no

ne = 1.621 no = 1.641 Δ = ne – no = - 0.020

Tourmaline

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Biaxial gems
• Have two optic axes.
• These are inclined on either side of the vertical crystallographic axis.
• The RI readings of the both columns vary.
• Stones belong to orthorhombic , monoclinic and triclinic crystal systems are in this
group.

Refraction in biaxial gems

• This behavior is more complicated.
• The velocity of these two polarized rays varies with the direction.
• But there are three refractive indices knowing as a for the lowest value, b for the
intermediate and g for the highest value.

Biaxial negative gems

1.620 1.630 n = 1.614 Underline the lowest reading on LHS
α
(n ) and highest on RHS (n ).
=0.014 α r

1.614 1.634 n = 1.628 Calculate the intermediate reading

β
(n ).i.e. average of all 8 readings.
β
= 0.012
1.623 1.640 n = 1.640 Birefringence ( Δ) = n – n
α r
r

If n is close to n . the
β r
1.632 1.631 stone is said to biaxial
( Δ) = n – n =.026 negative
α r

R.I = 1.614 – 1.640

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N is close to n ,
β r

therefore, negative.
The stone is Ambligonite

Biaxial positive gems

1.608 1.618 n = 1.602

α

=0.008
1.610 1.620 n = 1.610
β

= 0.010
Underline the lowest reading on LHS
1.602 1.610 n = 1.620 (n ) and highest on RHS (n ).
r
α r

Calculate the intermediate reading

1.604 1.608 , (n ).i.e. average of all 8 readings.
β

Birefringence ( Δ) = n – n
α
Δ = n – n =.018 r
α r
If n is close to n .
R.I = 1.614 – 1.640 β α

N is close to n ,Therefore ,biaxial positive. The stone is said to biaxial

β α
positive.
The stone is Brazilinite

Distance vision method

A flat polished surface is essential to obtain the refractive index accurately.
However, the stone cut in cabochon or as a bead which has a curved surface used a method to
obtain the RI value is called ‘distance vision method’.

Testing procedure
• The curved surface to be tested is placed on the prism of the refractometer.
• Observe the circle from the distance about 30-40 cm.
• The head is moved up and down in a vertical direction while observing.

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 • The position where remains the exactly half dark and half bright, the reading corresponds
•
to the approximate value of refractive index or indices.

Usages of the Refractometer

It is used to measure RI and Birefringence.
From the results one can determine the Optical character, Optical sign, Dispersion.
RI at two different in red and blue waves of light, is the value of dispersion.

Exceptions
A false indication may be obtained with certain doubly refractive materials in which one reading
falls within the scale of the refractometer, whilst the other is above the normal limit of 1.81.
Eg.

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