USING MATERIALS

What students should be able to get at the end of

this chapter?

 Know that materials used in our everyday life can be classified in to

natural and synthetic group, and how this affects their use in everyday
life
 Understand how the physical properties of polymers determine uses in
everyday life such as in building as fabrics, fabricating utensils used at
home.
 Know about the molecular structures of materials and relate this to
their use.
 Know that polymers are useful long chain molecules made by both
natural and synthetic processes.
 Understand how the physical properties of polymers determine uses in
everyday life such as buildings, as fabrics, fabricating utensils used
homes, etc.
 Know how common materials can pollute environment and which
materials are recycled.
 Understand that heating changes the structure and properties of some
materials.
INTRODUCTION
Look around your home or school you will see a chair or desk, a pen,
cooking oil, books, clothes, toys, water, stones, stones and many other
objects. All these objects have differe3nt shapes, coluors and uses. Are
your shoes, shirts, blouses, bottles and chairs made of the same kind
of materials? Why are the materials used for these functions they are
used?

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 In this chapter, you will learn about different kinds of materials that are
used to make various objects. You will also learn why these objects are
made of certain materials
CLASSIFYING MATERIALS
A material is a substance or a mixture of a substance that constitutes
an object. Materials can be pure or impure living or non living matter
The materials we have in everyday life have particular properties
which distinguish them from others .How can we classify them? The
materials can be natural or synthetic. They can further be classified in
to four main groups: metals, polymers, ceramics and composites they
may be solids, liquids and gases. Some examples of naturally occurring
materials and their products include sand, wood, grass and metals. The
synthetic products include alloys, plastics and artificial fibres.
Illustration in the book shows matching a material with its
property

Physical and Mechanical Properties of Polymers and Uses in

Everyday Life
The mechanical and physical properties of materials are determined by
their chemical composition and their internal structure, like grain size
or crystal structure. Mechanical properties may be greatly affected by
processing due to re-arrangement of the internal structure. A
description of some common physical and mechanical properties will
provide information that the product designers could consider in
selecting materials for a given application
A physical property is any property that is measurable; whose value
describes the state of the physical system. The change in physical
properties of the system can be used to describe its changes between
momentary states.

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 The physical properties of both natural and synthetic materials
determine their uses

Material Physical property Use

Wood  Hard  Building
 Poor absorbency  Ship/ boat
construction
 Furniture
Paper  Good absorbency Towels, napkins, filter
 Opacity/opaque paper
Plastic  Flexible  House hold
 High tensile strength equipment
 Poor absorbency  Building
 Raincoats
Cotton Good absorbency Textile
polyester Poor absorbency Used for making tents

Wool  Moderate absorbency Used for making sweaters

 Elastic
Silk  Strong  Textile
 Elastic  Making parachutes
 High a absorbency and surgical
sutures
Polythene Highly flexible  Ropes’
 Rain coats , filter
paper
Sisal Moderate tensile strength Used to make ropes
Rubber Elastic Car tyres, manufacture
rubber bands and gloves
Glass Low tensile strength Making windows and
doors
Polytetrafouroethene Low tensile strength Making frying pan

The Molecular Structure of Materials and Their Uses

All products that surround us in schools or at home are made of one
material or another. Look around you and identify the products and
materials they are made of. Why did they use these particular
materials to make the respective products? Different materials have
different strength and weakness and are used for different purposes.
Materials can be classified as metals, composites, ceramics and
polymers. All these exist in a solid state because their particles are

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 arranged in an orderly manner with strong forces of attraction in
between their particles
 Metal have a continuous structure in 3 dimensions.
 Polymer is long continuous chains. The long chains are joined
together by weak forces of attraction.
 Ceramics are prepared from powdered materials for example
clay mixed with water and hardened by heat.
 Composites are made by combining two or more materials that
have different properties that blend into each other. The
combined materials give composites unique properties

Comparison of properties of materials in relation to their molecular

structure

Material/ Metal Polymer Composite Ceramic

property e.g. iron e.g. wood for for
example example
concrete
Tensile High Relatively Low Low
Strength high
Breakage Not Breakable Not easily Breakable
breakable breakable
Porous to Not porous Not porous Not porous Not porous
water
Durability Pure iron Moderately Moderately Durable
rusts easily durable durable
Malleability Good Not malleable Not malleable Not
malleable
Ductility Good Not ductile Not ductile Not ductile

CERAMICS

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 Ceramic materials such as cups, pots, kettles are made from
clay. The clay used to make ceramics contains compounds of
silica, nitrogen and oxygen. For the production of ceramics, clay
is crushed, grinded and sieved to get fine clay. Then it is mixed
in water to make paste known as slip. The slip formed is moulded
in to different shapes and dried. The hardened shapes heated
strongly in a kiln and little salt is added to make it shiny. The
high temperature expels all the water and causes chemical
changes that make clay stronger and harder. This makes
porcelain non porous, smooth and shiny. Colours may be added
to make the ceramics objects attractive
GLASS
Glass is made from ordinary sand. You can make glass by
heating ordinary sand (which is mostly made of silicon dioxide)
and sodium carbonate until it melts and turns in to a liquid. The
molecular structure of glass makes it rigid, hard and causes it to
shatter easily

CONCRETE MATERIALS
To make concrete, sand is mixed with water, cement and stone
aggregates .A lot of construction work is done using concrete.
Concrete is made using specific ratio of stone aggregates, sand
and cement. The materials are mixed well with water and
allowed to bond with each other .This process of bonding is
called setting
Advantages and disadvantage of some building materials

Material Advantage Disadvantages

Grass  It is cheap  Easily catch fire
 Readily available  Attacked by
 Easily replaced termites
 Doesn’t last for
long.

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 Soil  Readily available  Requires periodic
 Cheap  Easily weakened
by water
Burnt clay bricks  They stay longer  It is expensive
 They are easy to  Requires skilled
construct with labour to make
 They are hard
 They are strong
 Resistant to fire
Wood  It is cheap  Weak in long run
 Readily available  Easily catch fire
 Easily replaced  Attacked by
termites
Glass  Strong  Can easily break
 Resistant to fire  Expensive
 Enough lighting in
the house
 Little material
required

Plastic bottles  They are cheap  Not readily

 Requiring available.
relatively little  Can easily be
material attacked by fire

Concrete  Very strong and  Very expensive

hard  Requires a lot of
 Cannot be material.
attacked by fire  Requires skilled
 Easy to construct labour to make
with

POLYMERS

Natural polymers Artificial polymers

Protein Polythene
Silk Poly propene
Cellulose Nylon
Rubber Artificial Rubber

The word polymer comes from two Greek words: ‘poly’ meaning many and
‘mer’ meaning part / unit. Polymers are therefore, long chains of small units
joined together. Therefore, a polymer is made of many repeating units called
monomers. Each small unit is actually a chemical substance. Polymers can
be either natural or synthetic. Our bodies are naturally built by large protein

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molecules from small units called amino acids. Our hair, nails etc are made
up of proteins. Other examples of natural polymers are cellulose, which
includes cotton, sisal, wool etc. These are polymers which exist on their own
and man has no influence on their existence. Synthetic polymers include
polythene, synthetic rubber, polyester, nylon etc. These are polymers which
are manufactured in industries.

Monomers and uses of polymers

Monomer Polymer Uses

PVC Choroethene Making water pipes, lighting

e.g. sockets, plugs and bulb
holders
Polythene Ethene Manufacture of packaging
materials like crates,
polythene, bags , toys water
pipes, electric cable, pipes
Starch Glucose Energy giving
Rubber Isoprene Making car tyres, footwear
such as soles. Gumboots
Protein Amino acids Body building
Silk Amino acids Clothe making
Glass Silica Insulation, windows, drinking
glasses
Wool Amino acids(alanine and Clothing , blanket, carpet
glycine) manufacture
Polyster Ethylene glycol and Used for making electrical
terphthalic wires, window gutters, pipes
Polytetratburoetyhene Tetrafloroethene Non –stick coating for pans,
containers for laboratory
substances.
Polystyrene Styrene Making food packing
materials, laboratory ware,
electrical appliances,
automobile parts

Polymers are classified into two major groups: Thermoplastics and

thermosets. Thermoplastics are materials which soften on heating, harden
on cooling and can be moulded in to different shapes, e.g. polythene. On the
other hand, thermosets are plastic materials which are hard on heating and

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cannot be softened or remoulded but instead decompose on heating for
example Bakelite and melamine.

Plastics

Plastics are manmade (synthetic) materials. They can be moulded into

shapes while hot in to desired shapes and harden on cooling to give durable
products. They are manmade polymers derive from petroleum. Today
plastics are used in almost every phase of modern living. Plastics are very
popular materials in everyday situations .This is because they are easy to
manufacture, cheap to make and can easily be made in to different shapes.

Fibres

Fibres, like plastics, are made from polymers. They are extremely long hair
like strands compared to their width. The fibres are strong, flexible and can
be spun in to yearn. They are used to make thread that can be made in to
cloth. Fibres can be classified in to main groups: natural fibres and synthetic
fibers.

Natural fibres can be classified further in to three categories , those from

animals and those from plants and also those made out of minerals such as
asbestos that are dug out of the ground in quarries. The mineral fibres are
long thin crystals that cannot be spun in a thread.

Uses of each fibre

Fibre Use
Sisal Ropes, bags
Cotton Clothing
Wool Clothing, warming
Silk Clothing
Nylon Ropes, Garments, Carpets

RECYCLING OF COMMON MATERIALS THAT CAN POLUTE THE

ENVIRONMENT.

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When we go to the market, we usually get items wrapped or packed in
plastic or polythene bags .This is one reason why plastic waste keeps
accumulating in our homes. Disposal of plastics is a major problem to the
environment. Some materials decompose through natural processes such as
action by bacteria, these are called biodegradable. However others that
cannot decompose by natural processes are called non biodegradable

The appropriate time taken by some materials to decompose or

degenerate

Type of waste Appropriate time Nature of material

taken to degenerate
Peels of vegetable and fruits `1 to 2 weeks Biodegradable
Paper 10to30days Biodegradable
Cotton cloth 2 to 5 months Biodegradable
Wood 10 to 15 years Biodegradable
Woolen clothes About a year Biodegradable
Tin , aluminum and other 100 to 500 years Non biodegradable
metal cans
Plastic bags 10 to 20 years Non biodegradable
Plastic bottles 450 years Non biodegradable

Effect of heat on the structure of different materials

The arrangement of atoms, primarily affects the chemical, physical,

electrical, magnetic and thermal properties. Depending on the arrangement
of atoms the materials can be reshaped in to new ones when they are
heated or may not soften on heating

Effect of Heat on Materials

Material Effect of heat on the material

Polythene Melts in to a liquid which harden on cooling
Polyster Melts very fast
Cellulose Changes colour to dark or brown
Produces vapor at high temperature
Paper Burns in to ash

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 Melamine Partially burns to blacken the surface
Glass Expands and breaks
Plastic place Melts in to a liquid which hardens on cooling
PRPERTIES OF DIFFERENT GBUILDING MATERIALS

Material Property
Iron sheet  High tensile  Not breakable  Not porous
strength
Grass  Relatively  Breakable  porous
durable
Tiles  Low tensile  Easily  Not porous
strength breakable
 Durable
Glass  Low tensile  Easily Not porous
strength breakable

Bricks  Moderately Not easily breakable Not porous

durable

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TEMPORARY AND PERMANENT
CHANGES
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

 Understand that many substances undergo permanent changes when

they are heated or burnt, forming new materials while other
substances change temporally.
 Recognize temporally(reversible) changes to matter under different
conditions
INTRODUCTION
We observe a lot of changes around us in our everyday life. Change is
a process causing a function, practice, or thing to become different
somehow compared to what is present or what it was in the past. We
observe changes everywhere. For example
 Calf grows in to cow a period of time.
 Egg changes to birds in due course of time.
 Wood shaped in to table.
CHANGES IN MATERIALS
Are changes in materials permanent or temporary? We observe
sunset and sunrise every day, plants growing to trees with
passing years, human beings growing from children to adults.
Some of these changes are temporary while some are
permanent

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 Temporary and permanent changes may be periodic in some
cases and reversible or irreversible in others.

Classifying changes around us

Change Classify(Permanent or
temporary)
Fermentation of sugar Permanent
Boiling an egg Permanent
Rotting of tomatoes Permanent
Ripening of bananas Permanent
Melting of ice Temporary
Rusting of iron Permanent
Dissolving salt in water Temporary

TEMPORARY &PERMANENT CHANGES

Temporary changes are the changes which occur only for a short period of
time. Generally, temporary changes are reversible. On the other hand, the
permanent changes which remain for a longer time and are not reversible

All the changes in the world are one of two types namely for a longer time
and are not reversible.

A change which can happen forward and backward both, that is, it can be reversed is called
a reversible

For example, when water is kept in the freezer for some time, it transforms
into ice .But as soon as it is taken out of the freezer, it turns in to water
again. This is a reversible change.

Water Ice Water

Similarly, when water is boiled, it evaporates and becomes water vapour

(steam) .When the vapours are cooled down, water is formed again.

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Changes which cannot be reversed are called irreversible changes. When a
piece of paper is burnt, it turns in to ash. It cannot become paper again. Your
height cannot be decreased. These are irreversible changes and such
changes cannot be reversed at all. For example burning wood in ash and
baking of cake.

Reversible change Irreversible change

A substance can return to its original state A substance cannot return to its original
state
The chemical properties of the substance do The chemical properties of the substance
not change change
Most physical changes are reversible All chemical changes are irreversible
changes changes

QUESTION: What are external factors involved in changes around us?

CHANGE FACTOR(Answers)
Burning charcoal Heat
Boiling an egg Heat
Rusting of iron Air and water
Setting of cement Water

REVERSIBLE CHANGES AND IRREVERSIBLE CHANGES

To understand reversible and irreversible changes better, we need to know

what physical changes and chemical changes are. These changes are
interrelated with each other

Chemical changes are changes that occur in the chemical properties of the
substances like it as flammability, reactivity, stability etc. Most of the
chemical changes are irreversible changes. Once the chemical properties of
a substance are changed, it becomes another substance. Thus, it cannot
return to its original state e.g. mixing chemicals, cooking, burning of woods.

Characteristics of chemical changes

- Great heat changes occur i.e. heat is either absorbed or released.

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- Changes in mass occur i.e. there is increase or decrease in the mass of the
product formed.

- New substances are formed during chemical changes.

- The reaction is not reversible (irreversible).

Physical (non permanent) change this is a change in which no new substance

is formed and the change is reversible .i.e. the substance formed can be
converted back to its original form.

Characteristics of physical changes

- The reaction is not accompanied by great heat changes (except latent heat
changes accompanying the reaction)

- No new substance is formed

- No changes in mass occurs i.e. the mass of the product is the same as that
of the reactant.

- The reaction is reversible.

Examples of physical changes include: melting of ice; vaporization of a

liquid; magnetization of iron; sublimation of iodine.

Differences between physical and chemical changes

Chemical change Physical change

- A new substance is formed No new substance is formed
- The reaction is not reversible The reaction is reversible
- Changes in mass occur No changes in mass occur -
Considerable heat changes occur No considerable heat changes occur

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MIXTURES, ELEMENTS AND
COMPOUNDS
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

 Know the criteria for determining whether a substance is pure or not

 Understand that substances are elements, mixtures or compounds.
 Identify different mixtures and devise ways of separating pure
substances from them
 Know that , when added together , some liquids mix while others form
two layers
INTRODUCTION
The materials we use in everyday be can be classified as pure of
impure. However, based on chemical composition, substances can be
classified as elements e, compounds or mixtures, the mixtures are
impure substances. They can be in liquid or solid form. In this chapter,
we will explore these different substances and I identify the differences
and similarities between them.
PURE AND IMPURE SUBSTANCES
Apure substance is a type of matter that contains only one kind of
particles. Example common saltwater from the tap is not a pure
substance. It contains water molecules along with a number of other
dissolved salts. Hot dissolved water, however, has had all of the other
substances removed; so it is pure water.
An wanted substance, mixed with desired substance, is called an
impurity. Many impurities are harmful but others may be harmless.
Some impurities can be seen but others cannot be seen.

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 Many impurities are harmful but others may be harmless. Some
impurities can be seen but others cannot be easily seen.
When a substance contains an impurity, its melting point decreased
and its boiling point rises. Also, it melts and boils over arrange of
temperatures, not sharply. Higher impurity leads to larger change in
melting and boiling points and sea wider temperature range over
which melting and boiling can occur. Pure water melts at about 0 oC.

Substances Characteristics Category

Carbon dioxide  Cannot be separated by  Compound
physical means
 Made of carbon and oxygen
chemically combined
Aluminium foil  Cannot be separated in to  Element
two more substance
Air  Can be separated by  Mixture
physical means.
 Made of two or more
elements
Hydrochloric acid  Cannot be separated by  Compound
physical means.
 Made of hydrogen and
chlorine chemically
combined
Sugar  Cannot be separated by  Compound
physical means
 Made of carbon, oxygen and
hydrogen.
 Chemically combined
Chlorine  Cannot be divided into two  Element
or more substances
Gold  Cannot be divided in to two  Element
or more substances
Oxygen  Cannot be divided in to two  Element
or more substances
Salt  Cannot be separated by  Compound
physical means
Water  Cannot be separated by  Compound
physical means
Charcoal  Cannot be divided in to two  Element
or substances
Soil  Can be separated by  Compound
physical means
Iron  Cannot be divided in to two  Element
more substances
Milk  Cannot be separated by  Mixture
physical means
Diamond  Cannot be divided in to two  Element

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 or more substances
Copper (ii)  Cannot be separated by  Compound
Sulphate physical means
Muddy water  Can be separated by  Mixture
physical means
Potassium  Cannot be separated by  Compound
permanganate physical means
Cake  Can be separated by  Mixture
physical means

But the simplest method used in the laboratory is to test the purity by
determining the melting or boiling of a substance
A pure substance has a definite, sharp, melting point and boiling point.
Melting points and boiling points are different of each substance
which can be compared with data given in the book.
ELEMENTS.
An element is a pure substance that cannot be split or divided in to two
or more simpler forms by any known chemical means
It is made up of atoms of the same kind. Element s is divided into
metals and nonmetals. Metals are elements which are good conductors
of electricity are hard, ductile, lustrous, and malleable. Elements are
used in manufacturing material we cusec in our daily life for example
building, and roofing materials , medicine, jewelry, currency, kitchen
equipment and many others
Elements and their symbols
In chemistry, a symbol of an element is generally a letter (s) that
represents atoms of that element. Atoms of elements are represented
by symbols. The first letter is always capital letter. The second is
always small letter
The symbols originate from the original Greek of Latin names of the
elements. Thus they may not rhyme with the actual name of the
element.
When an element is represented by a single letter, it must be a capital
letter.
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 For example
Nitrogen N
Oxygen O
Sulphur S
When a symbol is represented by two letters, the first is capital and the
other is a small letter. For example

Atomic Name of Symbol Atomic Name of Symbol

number element number element
1 Hydrogen H 11 Sodium Na
2 Helium He 12 Magnesium Mg
3 Lithium Li 13 Aluminium Al
4 Beryllium Be 14 Silicon Si
5 Boron B 15 Phosphorus P
6 Carbon C 16 Sulphur S
7 Nitrogen N 17 Chlorine Cl
8 Oxygen O 18 Argon Ar
9 Fluorine F 19 Potassium K
10 Neon Ne 20 Calcium Ca

Other elements and Symbols of elements derived from Latin

their symbols names
Element Symbols Element Latin Symbol
name
Copper Cu Sodium Natrim Na
Zinc Zn Potassium Kalium K
Iron Fe Copper Caprum Cu
Mercury Hg Mercury Ferrum Fe
Lead Pb Lead Plumbum Pb
Bromine Br Gold Aurum Au
Cobalt Co Silver Argentum Ag
Manganese Mn Mercury Hydratgyrum Hg

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COMPOUNDS

The word 1compound is scientifically used to mean complex or more than

one. Think of a compound microscope with more than one lens or a
compound leaf with more than one leaflet. In chemistry, a compound is
therefore c a substance made up of two or more elements chemically
combined together in a fixed ratio.

The expression ‘’chemically combined’’ is used to emphasize the fact that

compounds are as a result of chemical reaction/change. Properties of
compounds are different from those of the original elements that make
them. A chemical reaction is either accompanied by evolution of heat pr
absorption of heat. The compound may be described using a formula made
by the symbols of the atoms in it (the plural of formula is formulae).

How do we know that a compound has been formed?

A compound is formed as a result of a chemical reaction. The elements must

react to form a compound. Energy in the form of light o re heat may be
involved in the process of compound formulation.

Examples of compounds

Compound Common name Chemical Elements

giving(if any) formula present
Sodium chloride Table salt/ NaCl Sodium, chlorine
common salt
Silicon(IV) oxide Silica/Sand SiO2 Silicon, Oxygen
Dihydrogen oxide Water H2O Hydrogen,
Oxygen
Sodium Caustic soda NaOH Sodium, Oxygen,
hydroxide Hydrogen
Calcium oxide Quick lime CaO Calcium, Oxygen
Calcium Limewater Ca(OH)2 Calcium ,

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 hydroxide Oxygen,
Hydrogen
Potassium Caustic potash KOH Potassium,
hydroxide oxygen and
hydrogen
Calcium Limestone CaCO3 Calcium , Carbon,
carbonate Oxygen

MIXTURES

Most substances are found mixed in nature. The air that surrounds us is a
mixture of gases, the water we use contains dissolved substances, the soil
we grow food on is a mixture of various minerals and the juice we drink and
blood in our bodies are made up of different components which are
physically combined. Such substances are referred to as mixtures. We found
out that a mixture is made up of two or more components which are
physically combined such as ; food , are present in any proportion , can be
easily be separated by physical method and do not require any change in
energy to take place

Mixtures can be broadly classified as homogeneous mixtures and

heterogeneous mixtures.

The word homogenous means uniform while heterogeneous means non

uniform. When two liquids dissolve in to each other they form a mixture
which is referred to as a solution. In a solution, a component which dissolves
the other is called a solvent and the one which is being dissolved is a solute.
A solute and a solvent can either be a solid, liquid or gas. The most common
solvent in the laboratory is water.

Activity, Experiment explaining the formation of homogeneous and

heterogeneous mixture (in the learners guide)

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How do mixtures differ from Compounds?

For compounds to form, heat or light is required. The compound has

completely different properties from the elements forming. However, with
mixtures no heating or light is necessary.

Activity; Differentiating mixtures and compounds

Miscible and immiscible Liquids

When two liquids are mixed together and they dissolve in to each other to
form a uniform layer, such liquids are called miscible liquids. When they
form two distinct layers such liquids are called immiscible liquids.
Immiscible liquids from liquid junctions which separate the two layers and
less dense liquid form the upper layer.

Activity; investigating what happens when different liquids are mixed.

Separating Miscible Liquids

Fractional distillation

This is a technique of separation of components / fraction of a solution

mixture which slightly differ in their boiling point s by heating the mixture to
a temperature at which one of the components or fraction vaporizes. The
fraction is separated further in to pure components in the fractionating
column

Experiment: To separate a mixture of water and ethanol (local) by

fractional distillation.

When the solution mixture is heated the vapour rises up the fractionating
column, which is packed with beads or glass plates? The vapour condenses
where and trickles down. They continue until the whole fractionating column
gains the temperature of the most component.

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Separation of Immiscible Liquids

When some liquids are mixed, they do not dissolve in one another. They are
completely insoluble in each other. Immiscible liquids are liquids which
separation into layers when they are mixed .An example of this type is a
mixture of oil and water

Activity, to separate cooking foil from water cooking oil mixture

Separation of a mixture of solids by sublimation

This method is used to separate two solids where one of them sublimes
when heated. On heating, the component which sublimes / vaporizes and is
deposited on a surface where wit solidifies again

Activity; separating ammonium chloride from d a mixture of

ammonium chloride and common salt.

Separation using a magnet

A magnet is suitable for separating mixtures of solids where one can be

attracted by a magnet. A magnet is brought close to the mixture and the
magnetic material is attracted leaving the one that is not magnetic.

Activity; separating a mixture of iron and sulphur using a magnet.

OXIDES

What do you observe when you burn a piece of paper? One of the products
observed is smoke, when substances burn in oxygen; they form products which may
be gases, liquids or solids. The gaseous products may not be visible and disappear
leaving no trace behind. The formation of some other products is accompanied by
changes in appearance, color and texture.

The nature of the oxide formed depends on the element that has been burned in
oxygen.

Reaction of oxygen with metals

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Metal + oxygen metallic oxide (most of which are basic)

Metals burn in oxygen forming basic oxides which when dissolved in water forms
basic or alkaline solution i.e. solutions the turn red litmus paper blue and have
effect on blue litmus paper.

Magnesium burns in air (oxygen) with a brilliant white flame forming white ash
(powder) of magnesium oxide.

Magnesium + oxygen magnesium oxide

2Mg(s) + O2 (g) 2MgO(s)

Sodium burns in excess oxygen with a bright yellow flame to form a yellow powder
of sodium peroxide.

2Na(s) + O2 (g) Na 2O2(s)

Reaction of non metals with oxygen

Non-metals burn in air to form acidic oxides (acid andydride). These oxides dissolve
in water to form acidic solutions that turn blue litmus paper red and have no effect
on red litmus paper.

An acid anhydride is an oxide of a non metal that dissolves in water to form an acid.
Examples include:

Acid andydride Acid formed

Carbon dioxide Carbonic acid

Sulphur trioxide Sulphuric acid

Sulphur dioxide Sulphurous acid
Phosphorus (V) Phosphoric acid
oxide

Phosphorus(III) Phosphorus acid

oxide

RUSTING

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This is the process by which iron combines with oxygen in the presence of water to
form brown solids of hydrated iron (III) oxide called rust.

Rust is a brown solid of hydrated iron (III) oxide formed when iron combines with
oxygen in the presence of water. The chemical name of rust is hydrated iron (III)
oxide and its chemical formula is Fe 2O3.xH2O. Conditions necessary for rusting

The conditions necessary for rusting are

 Air/oxygen
 Moisture/water.

Experiment from the book to find out conditions necessary for rusting to
take place

THE EFFECTS OF RUSTING ON EQUIPMENT

Materials containing irons, such as any kind of steel, will rust if exposed to air and
water. Rust is an iron oxide, which usually takes the form of an orange brown on the
surface of the metal. Other metals form on the surface in a similar way, although we
usually say they corrode.

Rusting usually has a number of effects on metal objects;

o It makes them looks orange-brown and rough

o It makes them weaker , by replacing the strong iron or steel with flaky
powder
o Rust is an insulator, meaning that it doesn’t conduct electricity easily, unlike
iron, which is a metallic conductor. So if some electrical connection is made
with iron , it’s likely not to conduct when the iron surface rusts
o Also , rust is much less magnetic than iron

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCES RUSTING

Rusting Is Influenced by;

 nature of the metal
 Surface state of the metals
 Nature of the protective films

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  pH
 Temperature
 Humidity
How rusting can be prevented
Rusting has a negative effect on the materials when exposed to the
conditions you have stated before. For this reason methods of
preventing rusting are very important. In order to prevent rusting, we
must prevent these conditions from getting in to contact with iron
containing material. It can be minimized by
 Galvanizing the material
 Painting the metal
 Electroplating
 Greasing or oiling the metal

Method How it works

1. Plating Electricity is used to coat the metal with one
that does not rust
2. Galvanizing Smearing the metal with Zinc
3. Oiling / greasing Smearing the metal with oil or grease
4. painting Covering the metal with paint

WATER

Water is an important natural resource. All living things need water to remain alive.
For example, water forms about two thirds of the human body and helps it to
function normally. Earth is known as the blue planet because 71% of the earth’s,
surface is covered by water. Water also exists below the surface and as water
vapour in the atmosphere

The earth has an abundance of water, but unfortunately, only a small percentage
(about 0.3%), is available for use by humans. The other 99.7% is in the oceans, soils
icecaps and floating in the atmosphere. Still, much of the 0.3% that is useable is un
attainable

Most of the water used by humans come from rivers and bore halls.

SOURCES OF NATURAL WATER

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There are many sources of natural water that we use in our everyday life. The
common sources of natural water include; well, spring water, bore hall water.
However the water from different sources differs in purity. Ordinary water comes
from any sources may contain dissolved mineral salts, suspended solids, plants,
animals of different sizes and sometimes oily materials.

Question

Can you name any other water sources? Name the impurities likely to be present in
the water from different sources

Water source Impurities likely to be present

Spring Mineral salts , algae , bacterial,
suspended particles , dissolved
gases
Lake Mineral salts , algae, bacteria,
suspended particles , dissolved gases
Rain Dissolved gases such as carbon
dioxide , sulphur dioxide
Sea Mineral salts bacterial , suspended
particles , dissolved gases
Borehole Mineral salts

WATER IN LIVING THINGS

Do living things contain water? Plants take in water through their roots and utilize it
to make their own food. Through transpiration, Plants lose water to the atmosphere.
Animals also need water to keep their cells turgid and also to carry out many body
metabolic activities that require water. Without water all organisms would be dead.
Question

How can we investigate the presence of water in living things?

IMPORTANCE OF WATER IN OUR EVERYDAY LIFE

Imagine, you wake up in the morning and there is no water at home. Will your
mother be able to cook, clean utensils, wash clothes or bathe?

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What other activities you would not be in position to-do?

THE WATER CYCLE

Water cycle play important role in the recycling of water and maintaining the water
balance on earth.

The water cycle is a description of the movement of water on the earth

The continuous processes by which water circulated throughout the earth

and the atmosphere through evaporation, condensation, precipitation and
the transpiration of plants and animals, is called water cycle

Because of the different conditions and activities on earth, water is always moving
and being converted from one state to another reversibly. This process of water
movement is driven by the sun as the source of energy

When the sun shines, liquid water is converted to vapour. The vapour is easily
blown away by the wind across water bodies towards high mountains. As it rises it
cools and finally condenses again to liquid water droplets which float in the sky to
form clouds. The drops may join together and fall as rain. The rain water passes in
to the springs, rivers and seas. Once again it evaporates and the cycle is repeated.
Water on the earth’s surface is continuously changing in to vapour, going in to the
atmosphere and falling as rain

COMPOSITION OF WATER

What is the nature of water? Water is an oxide of hydrogen. It is made up of two

atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. This chemical composition is
responsible for its various properties

PROPERTIES OF WATER

Physical properties of water

1. Pure water is a clear, colorless and tasteless liquid.

2. It boils at 100˚C and melts at 0˚C.

3. It has a density of 1g/cm3 at 4˚C.

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4. Pure water is neutral to litmus i.e. has no effect on litmus.

5. Water expands on freezing. 6. It is a universal solvent.

The properties of water make it suitable for organisms to survive in during differing
weather conditions. Ice freezes as it expands, which explains why ice is able to float
on liquid water. During the winter when lakes begin to freeze and then moves down
toward deeper water this explains why people can skat5e on or fall through a frozen
lake.

Experiments investigating the physical properties of water

Chemical properties of water

Water undergoes chemical changes when it is added to some other substances .It is
a good solvent and it is often referred to as the universal solvent. Many of
substances such as salts, sugars, acids, alkalis and some gases (especially oxygen,
carbon dioxide) dissolve in water.

Example of Reaction of water with metals

Water reacts with some metals and the vigour depends on the position of the metal
in the electrochemical series.

Potassium and, Sodium reacts with cold water.

Calcium Magnesium Aluminium reacts with steam

Zinc Iron Tin Lead (Hydrogen) Copper Silver Mercury Platinum Gold do not react
with water in any form

Water has the ability to act as both an acid as well as the base c. It acts as a base. It
acts as a base to acids stronger than itself, and acts as an acid to bases stronger
than itself.

Water reacts with other substances to form products with different chemical
properties. Thus the presence of water can be shown chemically using anhydrous

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copper sulphate or cobalt chloride paper. These chemical substances give specific
changes in colour when water is added to them.

TEST FOR WATER

Water is chemically tested for using anhydrous copper (II) sulphate of cobalt
chloride paper. When water is added to anhydrous copper (II) sulphate, it changes
colour from white to blue. Or when water is added to cobalt chloride paper, it
changes color from blue to pink.

WATER PURIFICATION AND TREATMENT

Have you ever wondered why you are advised not to drink un boiled water
from natural sources?

Natural sources of water are found in many parts of Uganda as Lakes, Rivers and
springs which never dry up most of the year. This means that almost all the water
that we need for drinking, farming and industry come from the rivers or from
underground water sources.

Underground water usually contains minerals from the rocks it passes through
because water is a good solvent. Thus there is a danger that it can also contain
harmful substances to humans and animals. Natural water may also contains micro
organisms and industrial waste that has not been treated properly, such as the
waste from the factories

SEWAGE AND SEWAGE TREATMENT

Wastewater is generated from many sources. Waste water from shower, bathtub,
washing machines, dishwasher, kitchen sink and toilet is all considered sewage.
Once water is used for any activity, its discharge becomes waste. Most of the water
is discharged as waste water

Sewage is primarily a mixture of organic and inorganic components along with biological
organisms (bacteria and viruses); together, this makes a very complex mixture. Thus
sewage is a mixture of waste materials from the home mixed with water

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There is always requirement of sewage treatment to avoid water pollution. Sewage
treatment is the process of removing contaminants from waste water containing
mainly household sewage plus some industrial waste water

The stages involved in the sewage treatment are as follows

a) Screening: Screening is the first stage of the waste water treatment

process. Screening removes large objects like nappies, diapers, sanitary
items, cotton buds, face wipes, and even broken bottles, bottle tops, plastics
and rags that may block or damage equipment. Special equipment is also
used to remove grit that gets washed fin to the sewer.
b) Primary treatment: this involves the separation of organic solid matter (or
human sewage) from waste water. This is done by putting the waste water
into large settlement tanks for the solids to sink to the bottom of the tank.
The settled solids are called ‘sludge’. At the bottom of these circular tanks ,
large scrappers continuously scrape the floor of the tank and push the sludge
towards the centre where is then moved to the secondary treatment.
c) Secondary treatment: The water at this stage is put in to large rectangular
tanks. These are called aeration tanks. Air is pumped in to the water to
encourage bacteria to break down the tiny bits of sludge that escaped the
sludge scrapping process
d) Final treatment: Finally, the almost treated waste watery is passed through
the settlement tank. Here, more sludge is formed at the bottom of the tank
from the settling bacterial action. Again , the sludge is almost free from
harmful impurities

A bi product of sewage treatment is a semi-solid waste or slurry, called sewage

sludge. The sludge has to undergo further treatment before being suitable for
disposal or application to land

ROCKS AND MINERALS

The earth is a rocky planet, compared with, for example Jupiter, which is a
gas giant. This means that the earth is composed of a very dense material
mainly because the core consists of iron surrounded by a mantle of rock and
minerals. This chapter discusses how the rocks on the surface of the earth

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 are formed, their composition ‘physical properties and how they are
weathered to form soil
FORMATION OF ROCKS
The planet earth was formed about 4.5 billion years ago. The force of gravity
pulled the heavier element s together first, forming the core . The lighter
elements then formed the earth’s crust about 3-4 billion years ago. The
mantle developed as a layer between the dense core and the light crust. This
structure still exists today.
Figure showing in the book showing the mantle of the earth

CLASSSIFICATION OF ROCKS

Classification of rocks

Igneous
Igneous Rocks
Metamorphic
Sedimentary
Igneous rocks are formed as a result of the cooling of molten rock from the crust
and upper mantle. The molten rock is called magma when it is still below the
surface and lava when it reaches the surface

Magma is found in the outer mantle; it is hot, liquid rock that is under
pressure from the rocks above it. When it cools it turns to solid rock

When liquid magma rises to the surface from the volcanoes the cooling occurs
quickly and forms lava. Thus igneous rocks are made of material that was once
molten. Their structure usually contains crystals that are formed as the molten
material cools

Rocks form crystals when solutions of minerals cannot absorb any more dissolved
minerals. Some of each mineral type precipitates out of solution to form the centre
of the crystal. This then provides a surface for more mineral ions to precipitate. The
crystal becomes larger until the solution disappears. Examples of indigenous rocks
are granite and basalt

Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks are formed by the weathering of existing rocks at the earth’s
surface. They can also be formed when dead plants and animals accumulate and
form fossils or dissolved materials precipitate out of water. Weathering processes

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release small mineral particles that accumulate to form sediment. Over a period of
time, layers of sediment build up to form sedimentary rock.

The sediments include different sized mineral particles

The smallest particles are clays, followed by silt and then sand, these particles are important
in the formation of soils. Large particles of gravel s and small boulders can also be found in
sediments

The particles are transported by streams and rivers and then deposited as
sediment. Each layer of sediment becomes more com pact and harder because of
the pressure created by the newer deposits above them. Examples of sedimentary
rocks are limestone, Sand stone and shale

Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic rocks are formed from existing rocks when the temperature is above
150oC or pressure is above 1480 atmospheres or both. The heat and pressure,
causes changes in the rock crystal structure without melting the existing rock. The
existing rock therefore becomes metamorphic rocks, and a metamorphic rock
becomes another metamorphic rock. Metamorphic rocks are usually harder then
sedimentary rocks

Examples of metamorphic rocks are marble and slate

CHARACTERISTIC DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE ROCKS

Why the rocks look different? From the origin and process of formation, the different
rocks differ in their characteristics.

Question

Identify the characteristic differences between the rocks

THE ROCK CYCLE

All the rocks on earth keep on changing, but these changes normally happen very
slowly. Some changes happen below the earth’s surface. Some changes happen
above the ground .All these changes are part of the rock cycle. The rock cycle
describes each of the main types of rocks, how they form and how they change

Several processes can turn one type of rock. The key processes of the rock cycle
are crystallization, erosion, sedimentation and metamorphism

Activity: Modeling the rock cycle

MINERALS

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Minerals can be defined a ‘homogeneous’ naturally occurring substance with a
definable internal structure. Minerals are building blocks for rocks

‘’All rocks are made of minerals ‘’Minerals are natural substances in which the
particles are arranged in patterns, and often occur in beautiful shapes called
crystals. Metals, gems and industrial materials of many kinds are made of minerals.
Examples of minerals are quartz, mica, and feldspar

Only eight elements oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium,
and magnesium make up 99%. For example, quartz is made up of silicon and
oxygen, which are the two most common elements that make up the earth

Some minerals are made up of only one metal element, such as gold, silver or platinum, are
called native metals.

Characteristics of Minerals

Minerals have different properties and characteristics.

Hardness is an important property of minerals. A mineral is harder than other if it

can scratch it, without getting scratched itself. The scale for hardness of minerals
was invented in 1812 by an Australian named Frederic Mohs.

The scale ranges from 1 -10 points. Ten (10) on the point scale is the hardest, and
one (1) on the scale is the softest. If a mineral is higher on the Mohs scale than
another, it can scratch the one which is lower

THE PROCESSS OF WEATHRING

How do larger rocks turn in to small rocks? Large rocks are continually turning in to
smaller pieces by the process of weathering. Weathering is the process that
changes solid rock in to sediments. Sediments are small rock particles; with
weathering the rock is disintegrated. It breaks in to pieces. These changes usually
occur where the rock is located but can continue even when the sediments are
transported to another place

Types of weathering

There are two types of weathering: physical (mechanical) weathering and chemical
weathering. Physical (mechanical) weathering happens when rocks are broken into
pieces by physical means. There are many agents, or caused of mechanical
weathering

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PHYSICAL WEATHERING OF ROCKS BY ICE

Ice is an agent of physical weathering. Cycles of freezing and thawing can cause ice
wedging, which can break into pieces. The cycle of ice wedging starts when water
seeps in to cracks in a rock. When the water freezes, it expands. The ice pushes
against the cracks. This causes the cracks to widen. When the ice melts, the water
seeps further in to cracks. As the cycle repeats, the crack get bigger, finally the rock
breaks apart. These changes can be demonstrated in the figure in the
learner as guide

Physical Weathering by wind, Water, Gravity

When the large block of chalk is scratched against the board, tiny pieces of the
chalk rub off the aboard. The larger pieces of chalk wear down and become smaller.
The same process happens with rocks

Abrasion is a kind of mechanical weathering that happens when rocks are worn
away by contact with other rocks

Abrasion happens whenever one rock hits another. Water, wind, and gravity can
cause abrasion. Water can cause abrasion by moving rocks and making them hit
each other

Weathering of Rocks by animals and Organisms

Did you know that earthworms cause a lot of weathering? The tunnel through the
soil and move pieces of rocks around. This motion breaks some of the rocks in to
smaller particles. This also exposes more rock particles to the agents of weathering.

Any animal that burrows in the soil causes mechanical weathering .Ants worms ,
mice , coyotes and rabbits are just a few of the animals that can cause weathering.
The mixing and digging by animals can also cause chemical weathering, another
kind of weathering

CHEMICAL WEATHERING

Activity: Demonstrating weathering by water

Weathering Due To Acid Rain

Precipitation such as rain and snow always contains a little bit of acid. However,
sometimes precipitation contains more acid than normal. Rain, sleet or snow that
contains more acid than normal is called precipitation,

Acid precipitation forms when small amounts of certain gases such as sulphur
dioxide and oxides of nitrogen, mix with water in the atmosphere. The gases may
come from natural sources, such as active volcanoes. They are also produced when
people burn fossil fuels such as coal and oil.

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The acids in the atmosphere fall back to the ground in the form of acid rain and
snow. Acids can dissolve materials faster than plain water can. Therefore acids
precipitation can causes rapid weathering of the rock

Weathering Due To Air

Have you ever noticed an old rusted car or a building? Rusty metal is an example of
chemical weathering. Metals react with air and moisture to produce rust. What
metal did it react with? In most cases, the answer is air. The oxygen in the air can
react with many metals. These reactions are a kind of chemical weathering called
oxidation. Rust is a common example of oxidation. Rocks can also rust if they have
a lot of iron in them. Many of the people think that rust forms only when water is
present, Oxidation happens more quickly. Oxidation can cause rocks to weaken.
Oxidation changes the metals in rocks in to different chemicals. These chemicals
can be broken down more easily than the metals that were there before

SOIL FORMATION

Where does soil come from? What do you think of when you see soil? Most of the
people relate soil to dirt that makes our clothes and utensils dirty

Soil is a lose mixture of small mineral pieces v, organic material , water and air , All
these materials help to make soil a good place for plants to grow . Do you recall the
process of weathering in the previous chapter?

Soil is made up weathered rocks. The rocks that break down to form soil are called
the parent rocks. Different parent rocks are made up of different chemicals hence
producing different types of soil

LAYERS OF SOIL

Soil comes in many colours and textures; some soils are dense, or packed together
tightly. Other soils are packed loosely. Like rocks, soil can change and. It changes
most near surface. So soil often has different layers .The thin layer on most of the
earth’s land is top soil. It is often soft and reaches in humus. It contains more air
and mater than the deeper layers. The middle layer is subsoil. It is drier and harder
than topsoil. It has more rocks

Bedrock is often below the surface. Here, not much has changed the rock. Bedrock
is soften very hard and dry

Figure showing soil profile

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