Tutorial 2
Su Qianqian
Shanghai University
General-Specific and Specific-General Texts
GS texts are quite common in graduate student writing, and
they are comparatively straightforward.
General-Specific Texts
GS texts typically begin
with one of the following: a
short or extended
definition, a generalization
or purpose statement, a
statement of fact, or some
interesting statistics. While
the overall movement is
from more general to
specific, these texts can
widen out again in the final
sentence. The shape is
similar to that of a glass or
funnel with a base
Opening with General Statements
Whether you begin a GS text with a general statement or a definition is
a matter of personal preference. However, sometimes one may be a
strategically better choice than the other.
Three pairs of sentences are shown, each consisting of a definition and
a generalization. When would it be better to begin a text with the first
sentence in each pair rather than the second?
Opening with General Statements
Example
A. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) technology is considered a
potential near-term approach to addressing global warming and U.S.
dependency on foreign oil in the transportation sector as the cost,
size, and weight of batteries are increasingly reduced.
B. A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) combines the propulsion
capabilities of a traditional combustion engine with an electric motor.
Opening with General Statements
Example
A. Since their discovery in the late 1970s, hydrothermal vents associated
with mid-oceanic ridges have fascinated scientists of various disciplines.
B. A hydrothermal vent is a fissure in a planet's surface from which
geothermally heated water emerges (Lal, 2008). Such vents are commonly
found near volcanically active places, areas where tectonic plates are
moving apart, and new crust is being formed.
Opening with Statistics
Statistics can be
particularly effective
openings to GS text
because they can
sometimes generate
reader interest in
the text, as
demonstrated by
this excerpt (摘录)
from a student
paper written for a
mechanical
engineering course.
Opening with Definitions
Definitions are a common way of getting started
We suggest that you offer a definition of a term or concept if one or
more of the following apply
1. the term or concept is perhaps unfamiliar to your readers
2. you need to display your understanding for a course paper or
examination
3. the origin of the term is interesting or sheds light on the meaning
4. there is a lack of agreement on at some ambiguity surrounding the
meaning
Language Focus: Verbs in Defining and Naming
a. The verb name itself is uncommon and seems restricted to a focus on the
name itself.
This new species was named Ascochyta mycoparasitica.
b. The verb denote is common but seems largely restricted to matters of
notation.
Any rotational velocity is usually denoted by f. Any vector in this paper will be
denoted by a bold letter.
c. The verb call can be used in definitions, but using it in full sentences can be
tricky. One danger in written papers is that it can give the impression of stating
the obvious, as in this example.
A book containing lists of word definitions is called a dictionary.
Language Focus: Verbs in Defining and Naming
d. With more than a million hits on Google Scholar, the phrase known as
would appear to be fairly common in definitional sentences.
Another principle source of heat is the natural increase in temperature
as the depth increases. This is known as the geothermal gradient.
e. The verb define is widely used and often represents a safe option,
especially in more elaborate explanations and for terms or concepts that
can be defined in more than one way.
For the purposes of this study, fast food is defined as food sold by a
franchised (出售…的特许经营权) restaurant chain offering both dining
and take-out facilities with no "table" service (e.g., McDon-ald's).
Language Focus: Verbs in Defining and Naming
f. Finally, the verb refer to is widely used in definition sentences in
academic writing.
The natural gas contained in coal formations is generally referred to as
coal bed methane.
Finally, remember that it is possible to simply place a short definition in
parentheses after a term, as in this example.
DNA microarrays (or gene chips) are an extremely powerful new tool in
the field of genomics-based biotechnology.
A Brief Look at the Elements of Formal Sentence Definitions
Some common superordinates, or class words, are technique, method,
process, device, and system
Annealing is a metalworking process in which a material is subjected to
elevated temperatures for a period of time to cause structural or
electrical changes in its properties.
Extended Definitions
Read the following extended definitions. Discuss with a partner the
kind of information that has been included. Does the definition mainly
discuss components, applications, history, examples, or something else?
1. A microscope is an optical instrument with which the apparent size
of an object can be enhanced. A simple microscope consists of a
double convex lens and a magnifying glass. A compound
microscope, on the other hand, will contain more than one of each
of these lenses, which are situated at the ends of a cylinder.
2. An acrylic plastic is a polymer which can take a high polish, is clear
and transparent, and can be shaped while hot. Because of these
and other characteristics, acrylic plastic is used in situations where
glass is not suitable or desirable, for instance, in certain types of
windshields.
Variations in Definitions
Here are some skeletal phrases that you could use to present the definition that
you have chosen.
While debate exists regarding a precise definition of ... , the stance adopted in this
paper is that ....
For the purposes of this paper, ... refers to/is defined as/is considered to be ....
Here we define ... as ... In this paper I have adopted [author's] definition of ... .
This paper follows [author's] definition of ....
Specific-to-General Organization
In 2005 a study completed by the Centers for Disease
Control found that 5,800 people 65 and older died
from injuries related to unintentional falls and another
1.8 million received emergency room care. Of those
treated, 433,000 were hospitalized for long term care
[1]. Seniors who live alone may suffer from an
unintentional fall and are often not found for hours or
days. Long waits for medical care exacerbate their
injuries and increase their risk of death or permanent
hospitalization. However, fast emergency response to
a fall reduces the risk of hospitalization by 26% and
death by 80% [3]. The problem with seniors not
receiving immediate attention needs to be addressed.
Introduction
It is widely recognized that writing Introductions can be slow, difficult, and troublesome
for many writers. A very long time ago, the Greek philosopher Plato remarked, "The
beginning is half of the whole." Indeed, eventually producing a good Introduction section
always seems like a battle hard won. Writing the Introduction of an RP is particularly
troublesome. In some kinds of texts, such as term papers or shorter communications
(including case reports), it is possible to start immediately with a topic or purpose
statement, as in these examples.
• The purpose of this paper is to ....
• This paper describes and analyzes ....
• My aim in this paper is to ....
• In this case report, we discuss ....
Moves in Research Paper Introductions
• Move 1-Establishing a research territory
a. by showing that the general research area is important, central, interesting,
problematic, or relevant in some way (optional)
b. by introducing and reviewing items of previous research in the area (obligatory)
• Move 2-Establishing a niche"
by indicating a gap in the previous research or by extending previous knowledge in
some way (obligatory)
• Move 3-Occupying the niche
a. by outlining purposes or stating the nature of the present research (obligatory)
b. by listing research questions or hypotheses (PlSF“’)
c. by announcing principal findings (PlSF)
d. by stating the value of the present research (PlSF)
e. by indicating the structure of the RP (PISF) PISF = probable in some
fields, but rare in others.
Durability Monitoring for Improved Service Life Predictions
of Concrete Bridge Decks in Corrosive Environments
Cusson, D., Lounis, Z., and Daigle, L. (2011).
Computer-aided Civil and Infrastructure Engineering, 26, 524-541.
INTRODUCTION
①Many reinforced concrete (RC) bridges in Canada and the northern United States are short- and
medium-span bridges that exhibit serious deterioration due to the use of de-icing salts during winter.
②Approximately 25% of them are considered deficient in terms of structural capacity and
functionality (U.S. DOT et aI., 2007) as a result of increased traffic loads, changing environmental
conditions, and more stringent design codes.
③The widespread deterioration and some recent collapses of highway bridges (lnaudi et aI., 2009)
have highlighted the importance of developing effective bridge inspection and maintenance
strategies, including structural health and durability monitoring, which can help identify structural
and durability problems before they become critical. ④The implementation of structural health
monitoring (SHM) programs can provide useful information on the physical health of bridges and
their structural performance (Cruz and Salgado, 2009; Moaveni et aI., 2009; Soyoz and Feng, 2009;
Huang et aI., 2010). ⑤ Durability monitoring can supply valuable data that can be used to calibrate
service life prediction models.
⑥ Currently, the majority of highway bridges are inspected at regular intervals through visual
inspection, which is followed by a mapping of the observed damage to a qualitative rating scale. ⑦
More detailed and in-depth inspections using non-destructive evaluation methods are conducted
less frequently to supplement the data obtained from visual inspection, especially for critical bridge
elements, to assess the level of corrosion-induced deterioration.
Sentences 1-2 establish the research territory. They do this by providing information about the seriousness of
the problem, largely without references.
Move la
Sentence 1: Many reinforced concrete (RC) bridges … exhibit serious. . . deterioration …
Sentence 2: …25% are considered deficient…
The next five sentences establish the niche.
Move 2
Sentence 3: The widespread deterioration and some recent collapses of highway bridges ... highlighted the
importance of effective ... inspection and maintenance
Sentence 4: SHM programs can provide useful information
Sentence 5: Durability monitoring can supply valuable data
Sentence 6: Current visual inspection procedures
Sentence 7: Rarer, more in-depth on-site inspections
Implications (not explicitly stated in Move 2)
1. SHM and durability monitoring could be improved
2. Inspection procedures could be improved (especially when we learn that this article appeared in a journal
called Computer-aided Civil and Infrastructure Engineering).
Claiming Centrality in Move 1a
Certain fixed phrases (or small variants of them) tend to recur
Phrase Hits Spring 2012
…has been extensively studied… 214,000
… there has been growing interest in… 17,800
Recent studies have focused on . 17,400
… has become a major issue ... 7,290
… remains a serious problem… 7,280
… there has been increasing concern … 4,680
… has been investigated by many researchers. 4,270
… has become an important aspect of … 2,470
Language Focus:-ing Clauses to indicate Cause and Effect
Language Focus: Introducing the Solution
Language Focus: Tense
Tense choice in reviewing previous research is subtle and somewhat flexible. (It is also not
very much like the "rules" you may have been taught in English classes.) The following,
therefore, are only general guidelines for tense usage. Several studies have shown that at
least two-thirds of all citing statements fall into one of these three major patterns.
Pattern 1 Past-researcher activity as agent
Huang (2007) investigated the causes of airport delays.
The causes of airport delays were investigated by Huang (2007).
Pattern 2 Present Perfect-researcher activity not as agent
The causes of airport delays have been widely investigated (Hyon, 2004; Huang, 2007; Martinez et aI.,
2010).
There have been several investigations into the causes of airport delays (Hyon 2004; Huang, 2007).
Several researchers have studied the causes of airport delays.1-3
Pattern 3 Present-no reference to researcher activity
The causes of airport delays are complex (Hyon, 2004; Huang, 2007, Martinez et aI., 2010).
Airport delays appear to have a complex set of causes.1-3
Language Focus: Tense
Note the common uses of these patterns.
Pattern 1-reference to single studies-past
Pattern 2-reference to areas of inquiry-present perfect
Pattern 3-reference to state of current knowledge-present
Language Focus: Citation
According to Suarez et al. (2010), the causes of business failure are closely
related to the ratio of working capital, retained earnings, and sales.
Fang's research shows that reduced working capital and retained earnings
are interrelated (Fang, 2007).
Several researchers have studied the causes of airport delays.1-3
Move 2: Establishing a Niche
In many ways, Move 2 is the key move in Introductions to longer research papers.
(However, this move may not be needed in shorter communications.) It is the hinge that
connects Move 1 (what has been done) to Move 3 (what the present research is about).
Move 2 thus establishes the motivation for the study. By the end of Move 2, the reader
should have a good idea of what is coming in Move 3.
Most Move 2s establish a niche by indicating a gap-by showing that the research story so
far is not yet complete. Move 2s then function as a mini-critique. Usually Move 2s are
quite short, often consisting of no more than a sentence or two. Let us examine the Move
2s in the first three Introductions we have seen so far.
Thomas Eakins
Apart from a chapter in Foster (1997), this series has been little discussed by
critics or art historians. For example, these pictures were ignored by Johns in
her ....
Durability Monitoring (bridges)
The widespread deterioration and recent collapses of highway bridges ...
have highlighted the importance of developing effective bridge inspection
and maintenance strategies.
University-Community Agency Collaboration
Little is, however, known about participants' views of university-community
collaborations.
Options for Establishing a Niche
Language Focus: Negative Openings in Move 2
Probably the most common way to indicate a gap is to use a "quasi-negative“ subject.
Presumably, such subjects are chosen because they signal immediately to the reader
that Move 1 has come to an end. Note the uses of little and few.
Non-count Count
However, little information ... However, few studies .. .
Little attention ... Few investigations .. .
Little work .. . Few researchers .. .
Little data .. . Few attempts .. .
Little research ...
Note the differences in the following pairs.
There is little research. (negative, i.e., not enough) The department has few computers. (negative, i.e.,
There is a little research. (neutral, i.e., maybe not enough)
enough) The department has a few computers. (neutral, i.e.,
maybe
enough)
Note also the use of no/none of
No studies/data/calculations to date have ....
None of these studies/findings/calculations have ....
Use no when your conclusion is based on (but does not directly refer to) the cited literature. If you
want to refer directly to the previous research, use none of. However, you may want to avoid using a
full negative like no studies; chances are that somebody will find an exception to your strong statement.
Alternatively, you could add To the best of our knowledge, ...
Here are some "negative' verbs and adjectives that tend to cluster in Move 2. Work
with a partner and decide how "negative" they are. Mark them as seeming definitely or
strongly negative (- -) or only slightly negative (-).
Verbs
However, previous research on deforestation has ____
a. concentrated on g. neglected to consider
b. disregarded h. overestimated
c. failed to consider i. overlooked
d. ignored j. been restricted to
e. been limited to k. suffered from
f. misinterpreted I. underestimated
Adjectives
Nevertheless, these attempts to establish a link between dental fillings and disease
are at present ________
a. controversial e. qnestionable
b. incomplete f. unconvincing
c. inconclusive g. unsatisfactory
d. misguided h. ambivalent
Of course, not all RP Introductions express Move 2 by indicating an
obvious gap. You may prefer, for various reasons, to avoid negative or
quasi-negative comment altogether. In such cases, a useful alternative is
to use a contrastive statement.
Research has tended to focus on .. , rather than on ... .
These studies have emphasized .. , as opposed to ... .
Although considerable research has been devoted to .. , rather less
attention has been paid to ....
Occupying the Niche
The third and final step in the typical RP Introduction is to make an offer to
fill the gap (or extend the tradition) that has been created in Move 2. The
first element in Move 3 is obligatory. It has two main variants:
Purposive (P) The author or authors indicate their main purpose or purposes.
or
Descriptive (D) The author or authors describe the main feature of their
research.
Here are the beginnings of ten opening Move 3 sentences. Decide in each case whether
they are purposive (P) or descriptive (D). The first two have been done for you. Complete
at least three of the sentences.
P 1. The aim of the present paper is to give ...
D 2. This paper reports on the results obtained ...
3. In this paper we give preliminary results for ...
4. The main purpose of the experiment reported here was to …
5. This study was designed to evaluate ....
6. The present work extends the use of the last model ....
7. We now report the interaction between ...
8. The primary focus of this paper is on ...
9. The aim of this investigation was to test ...
10. Our primary objective in this paper is to provide ...
Note that Move 3 is typically signaled by some reference to the present text, such as
the uses of this, the present, reported, and here. If the conventions of the field or
journal allow, it is also common for the authors to switch from the impersonal to the
personal by using we or, more rarely, I Also note that metadiscoursal references come
early in the sentence. It is more common to find
In this paper we present the results of three experiments.
rather than
We present the results of three experiments in this paper.
Listing Research Questions Move 3-Occupying the niche
Here is Move 3 from the article entitled "Keeping Up One's a. by outlining purposes or stating the nature of the
Appearance," which includes this element. The present research (obligatory)
authors'Move 3 includes both 3a and 3b. b. by listing research questions or hypotheses (PlSF“’)
c. by announcing principal findings (PlSF)
Move 3a d. by stating the value of the present research (PlSF)
This paper uses a sample to investigate whether one’s (a) e. by indicating the structure of the RP (PISF)
occupational status influences the importance one attributes
to maintaining overall appearance, and (b) occupation
influences one's choice of type of hairgrooming
establishment.
Move 3b
Specifically, we test two hypotheses:
Hypothesis 1…
Hypothesis 2 ....
① The objectives of this article are twofold: Move 3-Occupying the niche
(i) to present a probabilistic mechanistic a. by outlining purposes or stating the nature of the
present research (obligatory)
modeling approach based on durability b. by listing research questions or hypotheses (PlSF“’)
monitoring to assess the life cycle c. by announcing principal findings (PlSF)
performance of concrete bridge decks in d. by stating the value of the present research (PlSF)
e. by indicating the structure of the RP (PISF)
corrosive environments; ② and (ii) to
demonstrate the effective use of selected
data obtained from field monitoring to
update and improve the accuracy of
mechanistic service life prediction models.
③ A case study of the monitoring of a
concrete highway bridge barrier wall is
presented and used to illustrate the
approach and its benefits.
① In this work, we describe the synthesis and Move 3-Occupying the niche
characterization of a series of Gd-based core−shell a. by outlining purposes or stating the nature of the present
nanoparticles coated with an optically inert layer of research (obligatory)
NaYF4. ② We correlate optical measurements from b. by listing research questions or hypotheses (PlSF“’)
c. by announcing principal findings (PlSF)
diverse experiments within activator types (Dy , d. by stating the value of the present research (PlSF)
3+
Sm3+, Tb3+, and Eu3+), related experiments involving e. by indicating the structure of the RP (PISF)
different dopant concentrations, and all data
obtained with a varied thickness of Y3+ layer. ③
Together, these efforts reveal the mechanism that
dictates the energy migration from the lanthanide
sensitizers to the activators. ④ By developing the
core−shell process, we found that surface quenching
of the migrating energy can be largely suppressed
(Scheme 1). ⑤ This process allows for maximized
energy trapping by the activators and thus permits
enhanced upconversion emissions even for
activators at very low concentrations.
Language Focus: Purpose Statements and Tense
The aim of this paper was to ...
The aim of this paper is to ...
If you choose to refer to the type of text, present tense is quite common. If you
write The aim of this paper was to ... in some fields, this would mean that you are
referring to an original aim that has now changed. In other fields, such as
Biomedical Research, was is typical and simply refers to the aim when the research
was conducted.
If you choose to refer to the type of investigation, you can use either was or is.
However, there is an increasing tendency to choose the present, perhaps because it
makes the research seem relevant and fresh and new. A safe rule here is to check
the journal in which you want to publish your paper to determine the tendency.
Announcing Principal Findings
There is some confusion as to whether RP Introductions should dose with a statement of
the principal results. One early investigation (Swales and Najjar, 1987) found that
physicists do this about half the time but that educational researchers hardly ever include
such statements. One useful guideline is to ask yourself whether the RP will open with an
abstract. If there is an abstract, do you need to give the main findings three times: in the
abstract, in the Introduction, and in the Results section? We think not. If there is no
abstract, you may wish to reconsider. Another suggestion would be to follow standard
practice in your field—or ask your advisor.
Finally, we need to remember that as the number of research papers continues to
increase, so does the competition for readers. As a result, the need for promotion has
tended to increase this feature, perhaps especially in Engineering papers. Further
evidence for this comes from a recent requirement by a major publisher of scientific
journals that all articles now list 4-5 highlights following the abstract.
Stating Value
You may also want to consider whether to mention at this stage anything about the
contribution your research will make. Of course, you will do this in the Discussion
section in any case. Note that, as is typical of many biomedical papers, the authors of a
paper on vaccine monitoring squeeze a value statement into the Introduction.
We show how this classification system might permit more accurate
evaluation of safety concerns for rare immune-mediated adverse
events that may occur following vaccination, thus enhancing our
ability to properly identify and analyze associations in clinical trials and
post-licensure surveillance.
Outlining the Structure of the Text
A final option is to consider whether you need to explain how your text is organized.
This element is obligatory in dissertations and theses but is only included in RPs
under certain circumstances.
The plan of this paper is as follows. Section II describes the current
arrangements for regulating business mergers within the EEC. In
Section Ill a theoretical model is constructed which is designed to
capture these arrangements. Experimental parameters are then tested in
Section IV. Finally, Section V offers some suggestions for the
modification of the current mechanisms.
Pierre Martin, minor editing