Building Research and Information

ISSN: 0961-3218 (Print) 1466-4321 (Online) Journal homepage: [Link]

Structural frame selection: case studies of hybrid

concrete frames

R. Soetanto , J. Glass , A. R. J. Dainty & A. D. F. Price

To cite this article: R. Soetanto , J. Glass , A. R. J. Dainty & A. D. F. Price (2007) Structural
frame selection: case studies of hybrid concrete frames, Building Research and Information, 35:2,
206-219, DOI: 10.1080/09613210600809029

To link to this article: [Link]

Published online: 20 Mar 2007.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 257

Citing articles: 6 View citing articles

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

[Link]
BUILDING RESEARCH & INFORMATION (2007) 35(2), 206 –219

Structural frame selection: case studies

of hybrid concrete frames

R. Soetanto, [Link], A. R. J. Dainty and A. D. F. Price

Department of Civil and Building Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough LE113TU, UK

E-mails: [Link]@[Link], [Link]@[Link], [Link]@[Link] and
[Link]@[Link]

Hybrid concrete construction (HCC) uses a combination of in-situ and precast concrete and is an example of ‘mixed’
construction, which is the term for an innovative combination of different materials or framing methods. Examples of
HCC exist in many countries to fulfil varying structural requirements, so it is not clear why HCC is not better used in
the UK. Research was undertaken to gain a better understanding of the selection and use of HCC. Two case study
projects were investigated to explore decision-making criteria, the roles of project participants and the challenges
particular to HCC. The findings suggest that HCC is selected when measurable cost or programme advantages are
not the most important criteria, but where other factors such as satisfying architectural requirements (finish, colour,
etc.) or operational demands (such as internal comfort or maintenance) are critical. In both cases, clients and
architects were found to be the most influential team members in the frame-selection process.

Keywords: design process, hybrid concrete construction, mixed construction, performance criteria, structural frame

La construction en béton hybride (HCC) utilise une combinaison de béton in situ et de béton précoulé; c’est un exemple
de ‘construction mixte’; cette expression définit une combinaison innovante de différents matériaux et méthodes de
coffrage. Il existe des exemples de HCC dans de nombreux pays qui répondent à différentes exigences structurales; on
peut donc difficilement expliquer pourquoi la HCC n’est pas mieux utilisée au Royaume-Uni. Des recherches ont été
entreprises pour mieux comprendre les choix et les usages de la HCC. Deux études de cas ont été engagées, l’objectif
étant d’explorer les critères décisionnels, le rôle des participants à ces projets et les défis particuliers propres à la
HCC. Les résultats laissent à penser que la HCC est retenue lorsque le coût mesurable ou les avantages du
programme ne sont pas les critères les plus importants et lorsque d’autres facteurs comme la réponse aux exigences
architecturales (finition, couleur, etc.) ou d’autres exigences opérationnelles (comme le confort intérieur ou la
maintenance) sont critiques. Dans les deux cas, les clients et les architectes sont apparus comme les membres les plus
influents des équipes lors du processus de sélection du cadre.

Mots clés: processus de conception, construction en béton hybride, construction mixte, critères de performances, cadre
structural

Introduction however, such as combinations of different materials

The selection of a structural frame appropriate to a or framing methods. These combinations are known
building’s function and its client’s needs is a key as ‘mixed’ construction. For example, hybrid concrete
decision with significant short- and long-term impli- construction (HCC) uses a combination of in-situ and
cations. Many options are available; for all but the sim- precast concrete methods and is said to offer high
plest buildings, these tend to be based on structural quality, attractive and competitive structural frames
steel or reinforced concrete construction techniques. (Goodchild, 1995). Indeed, HCC has been used for a
Some buildings may require innovative solutions variety of building types including car parks, offices
Building Research & Information ISSN 0961-3218 print ⁄ISSN 1466-4321 online # 2007 Taylor & Francis
http: ⁄ ⁄[Link] ⁄journals
DOI: 10.1080/09613210600809029
 Structural frame selection

and stadia. Examples exist throughout the world, but often regarded as the least expensive solution,
HCC’s penetration of the UK market has, to date, whereas precast concrete promotes speed and high
been relatively limited. quality. The combined solution therefore provides
greater speed, quality and overall economy. HCC is
The present paper uses two HCC projects to gain an also used for its thermal mass (Goodchild and Glass,
understanding of the decision-making process for 2004). Figures 1 and 2 illustrate typical HCC
selecting the most appropriate structural frame. buildings.
These are presented in the context of related research
into design decision-making and research evidence on Goodchild (1995), Elliott (2002) and Goodchild and
why HCC is not selected for UK building projects, Glass (2004) provide further detailed examples of
rather than as a technical exposition of HCC. As the HCC applications throughout the world, which are
case studies represent different building types, they presented in Table 1 using a matrix of building types
highlight the factors that practitioners consider when and range of complexity, as defined by the Royal Insti-
selecting structural frames and provide generic tute of British Architects (RIBA) (2004). The matrix
lessons for practitioners using HCC in other regions/ puts the applications of HCC into context, so that com-
countries. parisons between HCC projects in different regions can
be undertaken. The matrix shows that HCC has been
used for a range of building types with varying
degrees of complexity, from car parks to laboratory
About hybrid concrete construction (HCC) buildings.
HCC is defined as the deliberate combination of in-situ
and precast concrete to form a structural frame of Elliott (2002) notes that the use of mixed construction
building (Goodchild, 1995; Glass and Baiche, 2001; worldwide varied in several key attributes, namely:
Glass, 2005). It is not common practice to characterize sector (i.e. domestic, commercial, retail), the number
HCC by the proportion of various construction of storeys, the percentage of the market, and the indica-
methods (e.g. 20% in situ, 75% precast and 5% tive proportion of precast concrete in a project. Elliott
steel). Rather, the final combination should be based suggests that the availability of local resources,
on the most effective way in which the client’s require- materials, skills and design know-how determined
ments can be met. Indeed, HCC aims to offer the popular forms of mixed construction applications.
benefits of using each individual element, hence com- For example, most UK steel frames are designed as
pensating for individual weaknesses, so many possible composites of structural steel and in-situ concrete,
combinations exist. For example, Goodchild (1995) using technology originally imported from the US
argues that an in-situ reinforced concrete frame is (Goodchild, 1995).

Figure 1 Car park at Lakeside Thurrock shopping centre, West Thurrock, Essex; from Charlesworth et al. (1995). Courtesy: Reinforced
Concrete Council (nowThe Concrete Centre)/Trevor Jones

207
Soetanto et al.

Figure 2 Toyota GB Headquarters corporate of¢ces in Epsom, [Link]: Trent Concrete Ltd/Barry R. Bulley

In the UK, HCC is nevertheless under-utilized (Good- Stages B–D of the RIBA Plan of Work (Phillips,
child, 1995; Glass and Baiche, 2001), particularly in 2000). This section outlines some key problems
buildings other than offices and multi-storey car within design decision-making.
parks. Glass (2003) finds that a lack of measurable
advantage on cost and/or programme, a lack of under- Lawson (1997) offers an overview of the RIBA Plan of
standing of design, technical and production issues, Work and related building design processes, citing
and poor familiarity with HCC in general resulted in leading authors such as Geoffrey Broadbent. Lawson
lessened confidence and credibility, which was suffi- presents a model that suggests that designers typically
cient for it to be rejected. Table 2 shows the various draw from a reservoir of ideas and use their abilities
RIBA stages during which these issues arose. Neverthe- to extract, critically evaluate, interpret and apply
less, further clarification of these findings through an those ideas (Lawson, 1997, p. 160). Laseau (2003,
investigation of the design decision-making process is pp. 180–181) proposes a more generic model for
needed. design decision-making consisting of five stages:
problem definition, develop alternatives, evaluation,
Goodchild and Glass (2004) seek to redress these selection, and communication. However, Laseau goes
problems by identifying best practice using four case on to challenge these simplistic interpretations with
studies of HCC projects, which are complementary to the caveat that:
the two case studies described in the present paper.
Additionally, Glass (2005) develops a best-practice Most designers will agree that designing is not a
process model to inform project team members about clear process . . ., it is not automatic, even paced,
their roles and responsibilities throughout design and directional, orderly or totally rational, . . . it is
construction as well as equipping them to deliver an highly personal, discrete while holistic,
HCC building to the client’s satisfaction. Indeed, the sometimes very clear and sometimes quite
importance of effective design decision-making is dis- obscure . . . , in short it is very human rather
cussed in the next section. than mechanistic.
(Laseau, 2003, p. 85)

Lawson (1997) acknowledges this subjectivity in a

Improvements in design decision-making further model, which covers design development
As shown in Table 2 (Glass, 2003), the under-utiliz- between RIBA Stages C and D, by suggesting that
ation of HCC can be linked to decision-making pro- analysis, synthesis, appraisal and decision-making are
cesses during the early, strategic design stages, i.e. the main, identifiable activities involved. In sum, the
208
 Table 1 Classi¢cation of buildings using a hybrid concrete frame based on Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) (2004)

Building type Simple Average Complex

Of¢ces † Australia Square, Sydney; Capelec Centre, Rockhampton; Napp Laboratories,Cambridge, UK (G)
Australis Centre, Adelaide; Trade Group of¢ces, Canberra;
World Trade Centre, Melbourne, Australia (G)
† Centre Point; Broadwalk House; Bracken House; Lloyds, Institute of Hydrology,Wallingford, UK (G)
Chatham; Lloyd’s of London; Vauxhall Cross; Exchange
Tower, London, UK (G)
† Citycorp Centre, Sao Paulo, Brazil (G)
† Commercial building, Novara, Italy (G)
† Delftse Poort of¢ce complex, Rotterdam, the Netherlands (G)
† First Deposit National Corp., Pleasanton,California, US (G)
† Inland Revenue Building, Nottingham, UK (E)
† Le Rotunda, Mestre, Italy (G)
† Lloyd’s Register of Shipping, London, UK (E)
† Of¢ce buildings, Japan (G)
† Of¢ce buildings, Kentucky and Illinois, US (G)
† RMC Ltd Headquarters,Thorpe, UK (G)
† The Messetu«rm, Frankfurt,Germany (G)
† Toyota (GB) headquarters, Epsom, UK (GG)
† VNO building,The Hague, the Netherlands (E)
Industrial † Munich Mint, Munich,Germany (G)
† Clinker silo, Pordonone, Italy (G)
† Factory, Honduras (G)
Retail † Whitefriars Shopping Centre,Canterbury,
UK (GG)
Community buildings † Pre-trial Detention Facility, Jacksonville, Florida, US (G) † Glyndebourne Opera House,Glynde, UK (G)
† Islamic Cultural Centre, Rome, Italy (G)
† Justice Centre, Portland,Oregon, US (G)

Structural frame selection

(Table continued)
209
210

Soetanto et al.
Table 1 Continued
Building type Simple Average Complex

† London Planetarium, London, UK (G)

† Royal Concert Hall,Glasgow, UK(G)
† Sagrada Familia, Barcelona, Spain (G)
† St John’s College,Oxford, UK(G)
† Sultan Qaboos University,Oman (G)
† Leicester University Library, Leicester, UK(G)
Medical † Bangor District General Hospital, Bangor,
UK (G)
Private housing † Accommodation block, University of Aston, Birmingham, UK
(G)
† St George Wharf, London, UK (E)
Leisure † Bari Stadium, Bari, Italy (G)
† Jupiters Hotel, Surfer’s Paradise, Australia (G)
† Melbourne Cricket Ground, Southern Stand,
Melbourne, Australia (G)
† North Stand, Ipswich Football Club, Ipswich, UK
(GG)
† Rugby Football Stadium, Murray¢eld,
Edinburgh, UK (G)
† East Stand,Twickenham Rugby Football
Stadium,Twickenham, UK (G)
Other (non-RIBA † Underground car park, Parma, Italy
classi¢ed) (E)
† British Rail car park, Reading, UK (G)
† Multi-storey car parks,Citta di Torino
International Airport,Turin, Italy (G)
† Multi-storey car parks,Crawley
Shopping Centre, Crawley, UK (G)
† Multi-storey car parks, Lakeside
Shopping Centre,Thurrock, UK (G)
† West car park,West Quay Shopping
Centre, Southampton, UK (GG)

Notes: Examples of hybrid concrete construction (HCC) buildings were compiled from (G) Goodchild (1995), (E) Elliott (2002) and (GG) Goodchild and Glass (2004).
 Table 2 Summary of the reasons given for not using hybrid concrete construction (HCC) mapped against the Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) plan of work when particular project
teams rejected HCC

Stage B: Strategic brie¢ng Stage C: Outline proposals Stage D: Detailed proposals Stages E and G/H: Final
proposals and Tender
documentation/tender action

Capital cost: pricing on a m2 basis can make HCC Image: concrete is not perceived Late changes: HCC seen as less able to cope Note: in this example, HCC was
appear expensive because whole-life bene¢ts are as ‘sexy’ enough to make a with last-minute changes to the design, cost or chosen:
not factored in. Also, a lack of understanding that good impression programme
increases in mould use can halve costs and double
output

Lead time: both precast and hybrid solutions are Measurable advantage: HCC Pressure on time: construction managers Overcoming preconceptions:
perceived as taking too long to procure/build may not appear to offer a perceive steel to be more favourable on the HCC was selected because
suf¢cient advantage to justify programme, which may be under severe the contractor presented it as
its use over conventional pressure at Stage D a credible solution to the
methods client’s concerns about
inclement weather, poor
surface ¢nish and possible
delays to the programme

Risk: a lack of familiarity with HCC can result in lower Credibility: although HCC may Having to compromise: if precasters are not
con¢dence on the part of architects and clients offer an apparent time saving, approached until this stage, it is often too late
traditional techniques are for them to offer good advice and the best
seen as more likely to achieve package
the programme on-site

Weight: concrete frames are seen as heavier than Contract negotiation: a lack of awareness that
steel and require more substantial foundations HCC projects can be negotiated on an ‘open
book’ basis to enhance value to client

Considerate construction: using concrete on site is

associated with noise and mess

Structural frame selection

Sources: Glass (2003); RIBA (2004)
211
Soetanto et al.

literature on building design decision-making points clients and other stakeholders can see that the best-
towards an unsystematic process, grounded in subjec- value solution has been adopted. There is a comparable
tive reasoning. Furthermore, this heuristic process lack of clarity regarding various aspects of the struc-
also commonly characterizes the selection of an appro- tural frame selection process, such as the criteria that
priate structural frame for building project (Ballal and should be used to inform the decision, the problems
Sher, 2003). envisaged and their effective remedies.

Examples of research on the impact of design decisions Frame selection criteria often focus on achieving cost
can be found throughout the building performance lit- and time requirements (e.g. Idrus and Newman,
erature, usually in the context of a particular issue, 2003). These aspects are important, but they do not
such as environmental design. For example, Andreu always relate to user needs and requirements pertain-
and Oreszczyn (2004) find that the eventual effect of ing to the service life of a building. Furthermore,
design decisions is not necessarily considered fully project teams often disperse after project completion
during design development, which results in missed and thus they miss out on opportunities to learn
opportunities or design changes in completed build- useful lessons that could be used to improve future
ings. They propose that architects should record the structural frame selections.
decisions they make clearly and be willing to know
the consequences of such decisions in practice Cumulatively, this is likely to hamper performance
(Andreu and Oreszczyn, 2004, p. 326). In a study of improvement and better value delivery by precluding
building design in Singapore, Ofori and Kien (2004) the use of high-quality frame solutions, such as HCC,
find that awareness and knowledge of good practice which will therefore remain under exploited. Drasti-
is not always reflected in architects’ decision-making. cally changing current practice with regard to the struc-
It is understandable, therefore, that the industry has tural frame selection process is very difficult to achieve,
attempted to improve its management of the if not impossible. However, by identifying the key
decision-making process to capture better client HCC selection criteria and problems/challenges
needs, for example through improved briefing. associated with HCC take-up, as well as devising effec-
Hansen and Vanegas (2003) propose a web-based tive remedies, may help the industry to realize the
tool to automate the briefing process and provide benefits of this technology and hence broaden their
clear statements of client requirements to streamline choice of structural frame solutions.
information gathering and retain knowledge. Yang
et al. (2003) and Seo et al. (2004) develop techniques,
such as fuzzy logic and quality function deployment, to
enhance the process. Methodology
The methodology adopted for this research was to
In the UK, Green (1992) develops a SMART method- explore the application of HCC in case study projects.
ology for value management; Green and Moss (1998) The rationale, case study selection and analytical pro-
suggest the need to link value management and post- cesses are discussed below.
occupancy evaluation for continuous performance
improvement and organizational learning. In Hong
Kong, Liu and Leung (2002) develop a conceptual Case study method
model of value management from a psychological This research sought knowledge about why a hybrid
perspective. structural frame is preferred to its alternatives and
how it is selected, designed, constructed and main-
A more recent and influential development, the Design tained to meet the needs of building occupiers.
Quality Indicators (DQI), was launched as a tool to Hence, a significant depth and breadth of information
improve building design (Construction Industry was required in the research that led to the use of the
Council (CIC), 2002). A DQI is essentially a tool to case study as a research strategy in this investigation.
measure the design quality of a building and has been A case study strategy is used when a phenomenon
used by thousands of design teams since its inception. under study is not distinguishable from its context
The tool can be used at any stage of a building’s life, (Yin, 1993). Hence, there is a complex interaction
and was developed to inform design decision-making between the phenomenon and its context, and the
and provide a basis for continuous improvement study should cover both. As a result, a fundamental
(Gann et al., 2003). In a similar vein, Housing challenge with the use of a case study approach is
Quality Indicators (BRE, 2000) consider the design that the study is likely to have more variables than
quality of housing projects within the context of their data points, which makes statistical techniques
environment and performance in use. unfavourable. For example, many factors (e.g. per-
formance consideration, project/execution-related
Such tools essentially help to make the design decision- factors, stakeholders involved) may influence the selec-
making process more transparent and ensure that tion of an appropriate structural frame.
212
 Structural frame selection

The criteria for selecting cases are different from those was conducted within time and resource constraints
for quantitative statistical analysis (i.e. cases are and the aim was not to achieve saturation, but to
selected for theoretical reasons, not statistical provide an exploratory study to present findings from
reasons; Glaser and Strauss, 1967). Here, random two differing case projects to enhance understanding
selection is neither necessary, nor even preferable of the decision-making surrounding the selection and
(Eisenhardt, 1989). For this reason, Yin (1993) use of a hybrid concrete frame for a particular building.
argues that the findings of a case study are not to be Whether or not the findings are replicated by others,
generalized to a population, but rather to some theor- this represents a contribution to the HCC literature
etical propositions. Hence, the goal of a case study is by stimulating debate and further HCC research. The
not statistical generalization, but analytic generaliz- selection of two case projects for which HCC was the
ation (Yin, 2003). final and successful choice for the structural frame
was deliberate. Although it may also have been appro-
Although a phenomenon that occurs in a case is priate to examine cases in which HCC was not used,
context dependent, and hence so is the theory devel- some research on this already exists (Glass, 2003), in
oped from it, this does not mean that findings and which engineers and contractors identified key
theory cannot be confirmed or refuted by another reasons why they or their clients had not selected
case. The case study can be described as analogous to HCC for particular projects (Table 2). A prompt
an experiment, where a case can be replicated with sheet of these reasons was retained for use in the case
other case(s) to support the theory developed (Yin, project interviews, which are described below.
2003). Here, replication logic would mean conducting
another case study under certain (i.e. similar or
otherwise) contextual conditions (i.e. analogous to Interviews and their analysis
experiment under controlled conditions) to see if the Interviews were held with clients or their representa-
findings confirm or refute those of previous case(s). A tives, architects, structural engineers, main contractors
literal replication is achieved if a careful selection of and precast manufacturers. These were arranged either
cases would allow an investigator to predict similar individually or in a group depending on the intervie-
findings. In contrast, theoretical replication means wees’ preferences. Although these two methods might
that the selection of cases would allow the investigator have provided different results, due to the nature of
to predict contrasting findings, but for predictable the interaction between researchers and the informants,
reasons. Replication would confirm the robustness of most topics were technical in nature and there was little
the theory developed. Thus, the findings from this reason, if any, to withhold any information. Further-
research should be interpreted within the context of more, both projects were considered successful and
the case study project because they are broad enough participants were happy to work with each other and
(i.e. at conceptual level) to be applicable to a range of talk openly about their experiences. Interviews with
projects and contexts. the key project team members were considered the
most appropriate way to gain a thorough understanding
of each interviewee’s experience and opinions on issues
Two case study projects related to the structural frame selection process.
Two building projects were selected due to their differ-
ing characteristics. The aim was to provide case In the first instance, the interviewees were asked to
examples of polar types (i.e. one is bespoke and the describe their company and the nature of projects
other is more standardized), which would extend the undertaken. The main issues discussed included: the
applicability of findings into a wider range of HCC pro- criteria used for selecting the most appropriate frame;
jects (Eisenhardt, 1989). Project A was an award- why it was preferred; when it was selected; how the
winning art gallery building in a city centre, representing decision was made; who was involved, influential or
a ‘complex’ building type (Table 1). Project B was an responsible for the decision; what tool/procedure
office building and three car park buildings, representing was used to inform the selection process; and finally
‘simple’ or ‘average’ building types (i.e. more typical for how well the selection process went. As noted, the
HCC). Although both projects do not represent all poss- researcher also had access to possible reasons not to
ible uses for HCC, they are typical HCC applications, use HCC (i.e. a lack of measurable advantage, a lack
ranging from simple to complex buildings. of understanding of design, technical and production
aspects of HCC, and a poor familiarity with it in
Some may suggest that a study using two case projects general) as a further prompt to explore decision-
would not be sufficient to achieve theoretical satur- making criteria. The interviewees were also asked to
ation (a point where additional cases do not add signifi- reflect on their practical experience in design and con-
cant new findings). However, it is common practice to struction of their hybrid concrete frames.
combine theoretical saturation with pragmatic con-
siderations to dictate the point at which the study Each interview lasted about an hour, was tape-
should end (Eisenhardt, 1989). Indeed, this research recorded and transcribed verbatim, and then coded
213
Soetanto et al.

and analysed using the qualitative analysis software material choices: concrete and steel. The architect
QSR NVivo. This software tool was used principally worked closely with the engineer from a very early
to identify the main issues as described previously. stage (i.e. during competition). However, the engineer
Coding was assigned based on key themes that had no apparent influence on the selection of the struc-
emerged from the interviews, for example ‘criteria’, tural frame type. The client had rather less influence on
‘people responsible’ and ‘constraints’. This was also frame choice: it stood by the architect’s decision. As a
useful to locate the passages within the transcript that constraint, the client stipulated a fixed total project
referred to a particular theme. Overall, the coding cost to represent the total funding available. The archi-
system employed allowed a collation of key issues for tect, however, considered the requirements of the user
each theme, which generally helps in the analysis of (the management team of the gallery) through various
transcribed interviews. consultations. These requirements focused mainly on
the long-term effect of the material used (i.e. concrete),
The investigation of the coded data was conducted the paintings (conservation of important artworks),
using two steps of analysis, that is within and cross- functionality and, to some extent, aesthetics.
case analyses (Eisenhardt, 1989). Although there is
no standard format for within-case analysis, it involves The requirements for the precast elements were per-
detailed case study descriptions that are central to the formance-based (e.g. a required level of reflectivity,
generation of insight (Gersick, 1988; cf. Eisenhardt, colour consistency and very strict dimensional toler-
1989). The important requirement is for the researcher ance: +3 mm). The architect developed a bespoke con-
to be familiar with each case to understand its unique crete finish and appropriate mix with the precast
characteristics. This initial step is key for cross-case manufacturer. The precast manufacturer was also
analysis, which compares and verifies that the findings responsible for resolving connections between precast
fit with evidence from both cases. This analysis con- elements. A quote from an interview with the architect:
clusively converges the findings from both cases. The
findings from these two steps are presented below. We went with the local contractor [precast man-
ufacturer] who had not done this kind of project
before, but we had faith in them and they offered
a lower price. It paid off – the best concrete I’ve
Case study project A: the art gallery ever seen.
Project A involved the refurbishment of a historic
gallery/listed building and a new build project adjacent The construction manager provided practical advice on
to another listed building. These three buildings needed buildability and the manufacture of precast com-
to be integrated into a single structure. The project ponents, specifically in terms of size, joints and connec-
commenced in 1995 and was completed in 2002. The tions. Although using precast components, this project
budget was £25 million and the construction period did not take full advantage of repeatability for
was 4 years. The design was let by open competition, economy as the number of components cast from
won by an architect renowned for his prowess and each mould was few and the concrete mix bespoke.
reputation in designing concrete buildings using Nevertheless, the building benefited from the high-
precast components. The architect was also involved quality concrete finishes made possible by factory-
in the process of financing the project, which was controlled conditions.
funded largely by the Heritage Lottery Fund. The
City Council (the client) provided matched funding
and European Regional Development Funding, and Reasons for using the hybrid concrete structural
the project was procured under a construction manage- frame
ment route. The structural frame of the new building The reasons for using the hybrid concrete structural
was mainly precast concrete, although some elements frame can be classified into four principal factors:
such as the atrium and circulation spaces used struc- internal functionality and aesthetics; execution; exter-
tural steelwork. Due to the budget being exceeded in nal aesthetics; and weathering/maintenance. Internal
the initial tender for the hybrid concrete frame, in- functionality and aesthetics can be described as
situ and steel frame solutions were also considered to follows.
reduce first cost, but after changing some of the
details to bring it back within budget, a hybrid concrete . Concrete’s thermal mass is useful for the tightly
frame was eventually selected, particularly to achieve controlled environmental conditions of gallery
the architectural requirements. spaces, which require a stable temperature and
humidity level. This facilitates preservation of the
artwork. The architect explained that ‘a building
Roles of the participants that has heavier thermal mass, would be better in
The choice of structural frame was governed princi- this respect [steady, controlled environmental
pally by the architect. Initially there were two main conditions]’.
214
 Structural frame selection

. The quality of finish to the concrete creates a . The market was buoyant when construction com-
calming, neutral aesthetic to display and emphasize menced, which increased construction costs.
the artwork better.
. Communication between the design team and the
. A specific concrete mix was used to achieve the construction manager was hindered by the location
level of reflectivity required for lighting without of the design team (i.e. the architect and the engin-
the need to apply finishes (e.g. paint, varnish). eer), being based some 200 miles away from the site.
The requirement for lighting (to achieve 200 lux)
determined the colour of the concrete. The archi- . Getting the right concrete mix/quality and resol-
tect and precast manufacturer worked together to ving connection details of the precast components
achieve a balance between artificial lighting and was very challenging and specific to the project.
the concrete colour to give a diffuse 200-lux level In addition, the complex design, limited space on
suitable for viewing the artwork (too much lighting site and significant temporary works made con-
also results in an increase in air temperature, which struction very difficult.
may degrade the artwork).
. The light-coloured concrete floor and having glass
. The ‘mouldability’ of precast allowed the floor slab blocks inset in the floor posed cleaning and mainten-
to be shaped to accommodate lighting gondolas, ance problems. The user noted that there was a need
sensors, speakers, spot lighting, cameras, etc. for ‘patching the areas around the glass panel, where
These were located in the space created by vaults/ we were not able to get the mix quite right. Also in
coffers. The smooth surface of the concrete diffused terms of cleaning . . . If we use spaces for entertain-
light into the space. This resulted in an integrated ing, for corporate hospitality, they [the concrete
approach to structure and services systems. floors] are not very easy to clean’.
Logistical factors were also of concern because the project Nevertheless, all interviewees expressed satisfaction
site was located in a major city centre. Precast concrete towards the building and learnt valuable lessons from
was used instead of in-situ concrete to reduce on-site erec- the project. For example, the architect learnt how to
tion time. Furthermore, only precast components, pro- improve its current precast design from previous pro-
duced in a controlled environment, could have achieved jects by using precast elements bolted together on
the tight tolerances required for this project. The external site. The precast manufacturer invented new systems
aesthetics of the building were considered because the to bring those precast elements together and choose
new building was to be built adjacent to two listed build- the right mix. The engineer acquired new knowledge
ings, both constructed of sandstone. Therefore, the new about connections and joints. The user was proud of
building had to be made from stone or a cementitious the bespoke, unique landmark building. The user
type of material. Concrete was also a favourable material judged that the new gallery is ‘a good building that is
in terms of its ability to withstand weathering with sympathetic to the historic building’.
minimum maintenance. The art gallery is a landmark
building that was designed for a minimum life span of
60 years. In terms of cost, a hybrid concrete frame may
have appeared to be more expensive initially, but it Case study project B: of¢ce headquarters
required no finishing and only minimal maintenance. Project B was a private finance initiative (PFI) project
The architect explained the decision: aimed at providing a new accommodation for approxi-
mately 1600 employees with facilities management
In situ will take too long to build, steel will cost a provision for the next 30 years. Generally, the project
lot of money to maintain . . . precast may be more comprised office buildings and car parks. The total
expensive, but requires no finishing and building area was 48 000 m2. The site was originally
maintenance. three car parks, a Victorian building, a school and a
number of trees. The total project budget was
£57.42 million, equivalent to £1195/m2. The overall
Practical considerations and problems encountered
planned project duration was 76 weeks. The project
Interviewees expressed the problems and challenges
was 6 months into its programme when the interviews
encountered from the early design stages through to
were conducted.
facilities management. Several are fairly generic and
could be applicable to any project:

. A construction management route was considered Roles of the participants

to be inappropriate for refurbishment works due The consortium was selected after three stages of evalu-
to the uncertainties involved. This caused interface ation by the client’s project team and its advisors. The
problems due to contract scope changes with some consortium was invited to submit a pre-qualification
of the subcontractors/suppliers. questionnaire for evaluation by the client. This
215
Soetanto et al.

evaluation resulted in a list of potential suppliers who characteristics. This reduces the mechanical and
were asked to submit outline proposals for the electrical costs, which amount to about 20 –30%
project. The proposal included outline design and of the total construction costs. As a PFI project,
details about how the facility would be constructed the building had to be naturally ventilated (a gov-
and managed during the 30-year operational life of ernment requirement to reduce operational
the building. The pre-qualified consortia were then energy/running costs of public buildings).
asked to price their proposals. One consortium was
The end-user steered the choice of structural frame
awarded preferred bidder status and asked to develop
material. The contractor described:
a full proposal where contracts could be exchanged.
There is a big stake from the end-user, in light of
The consortium comprised the developer, who acted as
what happens around the world . . . terror attacks
a ‘client’ undertaking the development project, setting
on life. The view from [the end-user] is, a con-
project brief and specifications; the contractor (design
crete building, should it be bombed will be
and build contractor and planning supervisor); and the
safer to the surrounding area than a steel build-
facilities manager. The contractor appointed the archi-
ing. We had a steer from [the end-user] that
tect and the structural engineer. The project involved
this was going to be a concrete building.
two precast manufacturers: one for the office buildings
and the other for the multi-storey car parks. Apart
Considering the other benefits of using concrete and in
from these, the contractor had a range of potential
comparison with other materials, the consortium
suppliers/subcontractors who had worked for them
agreed to use hybrid concrete. As a PFI and design–
previously, based on negotiation. This reflected the con-
build project, the structural engineer and architect
tractor’s emphasis on supply chain partnership for
were employed by the consortium, and therefore had
better project delivery. The contractor stated:
less influence on the choice of structural frame material
than they might have had in more common, traditional
We have a strong belief in supply chain involve-
forms of procurement.
ment. We are backed by an army of suppliers
and sub-contractors that we generally use in
every job. The suppliers gain so much comfort
since they have been involved over such a long Practical considerations and problems encountered
period of time. That when it came to pricing For this project, several attempts were made to
[this building], they won’t price risk, they are improve performance, detailed as follows:
pricing what it’s going to be.
. The precast coffers were made using steel moulds
to reduce costs and produce a consistent surface
finish.
Reasons for selecting a hybrid concrete structural
frame . No in-situ topping was necessary on the precast
Several considerations led the consortium to use a slabs.
hybrid concrete structural frame:
. In-situ primary and edge beams were designed to
. The end-user specifically requested a concrete enhance buildability and speed of construction.
building that was considered better able to with-
stand a bomb blast/terrorist attack. Concrete was . Reinforcement of the connection at the column
considered more robust than steel and better in head was rationalized and minimized to enhance
terms of fire resistance. speed of construction. Significant design effort
was required to achieve this.
. In comparison with a steel frame, it was not
thought that the selection of a concrete frame . Significant effort went into the design of the precast
would result in a significantly different cost or coffer unit to achieve optimum handling by the
speed of construction. tower crane. In addition, the largest component
weighed 8 tonnes, which meant that three units
. The concrete finishes enhanced the building’s aes- could be transported on a single lorry.
thetics. The contractor stated: ‘The reason [to
choose precast] is the actual finish that we are
trying to achieve . . . I think that’s one of the big Discussion: a cross-case analysis
factors’. The implications of the case studies are considered in
two respects, first, as a general indication of the
. Concrete contributes positively to the internal nature of design decision-making and, second, in
office space through its ‘thermal mass’ relation to their use of HCC.
216
 Structural frame selection

First, these case projects have offered typical examples whole life-cycle costing (required in PFI projects)
of current practice with regard to the decision-making were cited as more important considerations. In par-
process for selecting an appropriate structural frame ticular, owing to the high quality of finish required,
for a building. They support the general notion that hybrid concrete frames may be used successfully in
the selection of an appropriate structural frame is prestigious/landmark buildings for the better architec-
part of a heuristic decision-making process based on tural appearance of exposed surfaces. Special require-
subjectivity and qualitative reasoning (e.g. Ballal and ments (e.g. to withstand a bomb blast) may also
Sher, 2003). The project teams went through a selec- favour the use of hybrid concrete frames due to the
tion process that was non-linear, unsystematic and characteristics of concrete as a material, but the case
reactive rather than proactive (i.e. based on a prede- projects did not provide substantial evidence whether
fined list of criteria and a structured discussion invol- HCC would perform better or worse than conventional
ving relevant team members). This aligns with in-situ concrete structures in this respect.
comments on the subjective nature of design made by
Laseau (2003) and others. However, more impor- The choice of a hybrid concrete frame results in some
tantly, it suggests that the choice of an appropriate specific challenges that may not commonly be encoun-
frame is dependent on both the intended purpose of tered when using other conventional frame options.
the building and the specific parties who are the most Hybrid concrete solutions can increase complexity in
influential in the decision-making process. This design and construction, but these case studies did
concept was also mentioned by Ofori and Kien not provide any conclusive evidence of a cost or time
(2004), where architects had been influenced, perhaps premium or discount arising directly from the use of
unduly, by their clients’ personal attitudes towards HCC. All participants in the project should be involved
environmental issues. In the two case projects the dom- from early design stages to deal with this complexity.
inance of both the clients and the architects was The early inputs from these participants are essential
notable. for a robust design and smooth project delivery,
which supports evidence in Glass (2003) that the
Second, a number of specific findings relating to typical knowledge held by the precast manufacturer is very
applications for hybrid concrete frames are described important. This will expedite the project and solve pro-
below and compared with the relevant literature. blems before on-site activities commence. Getting the
precast manufacturer’s expertise and price earlier will
The decision to use a hybrid concrete frame was made minimize problems later on and improve cost certainty.
at a very early design stage (RIBA Stage C or earlier) This finding aligns with Andreu and Oreszczyn’s
and was more likely to be supported by an architect (2004) conclusion that insufficient consideration
and/or client. The structural engineer and contractor of the impact of design can compromise building
appeared less likely to recommend this solution. The performance in use.
contractor may have preferred to employ faster and,
maybe, cheaper solutions, such as steel and in-situ con- Interviewees discussed the need for participants to
crete frames. This aligns with several comments in possess and demonstrate a cooperative attitude
Table 2, for example construction managers preferring throughout the project’s development. The project
conventional solutions due to pressure of time (Glass, leader/coordinator should continuously stimulate
2003). When project teams commented on the pro- these participants’ interest, particularly during the
gramme for HCC solutions in comparison with the early design stage where the integration of project
possible alternatives, they did not find HCC measur- team effort is crucial to the success of the project –
ably better or worse due to differences in procurement with HCC this would include the involvement of the
(i.e. lead-time to design and manufacture precast com- precaster. This suggests that relationship-based pro-
ponents). However, it was thought that construction curement routes, such as partnering and strategic alli-
time could be reduced due to shorter erection time by ances, would better support projects using hybrid
using precast units, having fewer activities on site – concrete frames as participants are more concerned
these would produce a cleaner site and better health with (and have more time to deal with) longer-term
and safety performance, again responding to concerns issues rather than first cost and speed of construction.
set out in Glass (2003). These procurement routes would nurture the essential
ingredients of a harmonious working relationship,
Further to this, cost per se did not appear to be the such as familiarity, confidence and trust, which were
main driver in the decision-making process for these cited by Glass (2005) as key attributes for the HCC
cases. As with programme time, project teams reported project team.
that any differences in construction cost between HCC
and conventional frame solutions were not considered Goodchild and Glass (2004) also explain how these
to be sufficiently significant to affect their decision- ingredients played a major role in four detailed case
making. Physical appearance, aesthetics and long- studies on a range of HCC projects from a simple
term issues such as maintenance, thermal mass and building (car park) to a complex facility (football
217
Soetanto et al.

stadium). They conclude that early involvement of HCC designs are known potentially to increase com-
specialist contractors, use of a lead frame contractor, plexity in design and construction. Due to the increased
adopting a programme of project workshops and complexity of HCC projects, team members need to be
adopting the principles of best value are all necessary, involved early and, most importantly, adopt a coopera-
together with the use of a clear and transparent tive attitude that should be nurtured throughout the
process to make decisions and guide the project team duration of the project. Essential to achieving this is
to achieve the desired results. All of their findings are the selection of an appropriate project leader and pro-
congruent with the case studies discussed in this paper. curement route. The project leader should possess per-
sonality qualities (such as good communication, team-
Of course, other issues may influence the selection of building and interpersonal skills) that can continuously
an appropriate structural frame and hence the use of stimulate participants’ interest and bring them together
HCC, such as availability of materials and local code to agree and pursue project objectives. This would be
requirements, which were not significant in the two enhanced by the use of relationship-based procurement
case projects studied. In comparison with other routes, such as partnering and strategic alliances,
countries, these case projects can be described as some- which would nurture the essential ingredients of a har-
what more prestigious and architecturally demanding monious working relationship, such as familiarity,
than typical HCC projects. Many of the buildings illus- confidence and trust.
trated in Goodchild (1995) and Elliott (2002) are very
repetitive and generally plainer in their finishes than Furthermore, it is plausible that UK practitioners who
these cases. However, the per-capita use of concrete have not had previous experience of designing and con-
in the UK is considerably lower than countries else- structing an HCC building would not necessarily
where in Europe (e.g. Italy, the Netherlands and Scan- appreciate the particular importance of such attributes.
dinavia), so it is much more likely that UK examples The link to these and the structural frame is, however,
would come from exceptional, bespoke projects. not an obvious connection to make. While there is little
Indeed, further research (e.g. case studies of HCC pro- evidence of such an explicit link in the literature, it was
jects in different contextual conditions and cost model clear from the case project teams that they themselves
studies to measure HCC’s position in relation to other acknowledged the importance of human factors. It is
frame solutions) would bring these findings to more also plausible that the presence of these attributes
robust conclusions. goes some way to reducing the level of risk that newco-
mers associate with HCC. A credible conclusion can,
therefore, be reached that such qualities within the
team may be key to the success of an innovative
Conclusions frame solution. Indeed, for hybrid concrete
This paper has revealed the nature of the structural frames, these attributes may in fact be a necessary
frame decision-making process in relation to two condition and one which differentiates teams that
HCC projects in the UK. The findings suggest several succeed in using HCC and those that do not and
lessons that can be learnt by practitioners and could cannot do so.
help to explain why HCC is relatively under-utilized
in the UK at present. ‘Mixed’ construction and HCC permit structural
frames to be effectively and efficiently designed to
The two case studies appear to confirm that the struc- take advantage of local materials, although their appli-
tural frame for a particular building is selected based cations should be adapted to local practices and codes.
on a non-linear, unsystematic and reactive rather The potential number of applications is considerable,
than a proactive process (i.e. based on a predefined and this represents a challenge for practitioners to
list of criteria and a discussion involving relevant explore the best possible solution for meeting a
team members). Furthermore, certain parties were client’s needs and expectations. Although the two
found to be more dominant than others. In the case case studies may not exemplify the decision-making
of hybrid concrete frame buildings, clients and archi- process with regards the frame selection in every
tects were found to be the most influential decision- similar project, as they encompass buildings with
makers. This suggests that an appropriate frame is different complexity (Table 1), they provide relevant
dependent on the intended purpose of the building implications for practitioners worldwide. For
and parties who are the most influential in the example, the need for greater integration and coordi-
decision-making process. The findings also indicate nation between the participants involved should be
that HCC is used for buildings where construction applicable to any HCC project. Hence, further research
cost and/or the programme are not the most important is needed to confirm/replicate these findings. Indeed,
criteria. Instead, architectural aesthetics and longer- practitioners should be able to draw useful lessons pro-
term issues such as security and maintenance prevail. vided in the present paper by exploring the benefits and
The knowledge of the precast manufacturer was also possible applications for HCC and other forms of
seen as crucial to the success of HCC projects. mixed construction in their future projects.
218
 Structural frame selection

Acknowledgements Glass, J. (2005) A best practice process model for hybrid concrete
construction. Construction Management and Economics,
The ‘Simulating the Performance of Hybrid Concrete 23, 169 –184.
Structures Using Virtual Prototyping Techniques’ Glass, J. and Baiche, B. (2001) Perceptions of hybrid concrete
project was funded by the EPSRC, and this support is construction in the UK construction industry. Engineering,
gratefully acknowledged. The academic team consisted Construction and Architectural Management, 8(1), 67–77.
Goodchild, C.H. (1995) Hybrid Concrete Construction: Combin-
of the University of Salford, Loughborough University ing Structural Materials for Speed, Quality and Economy in
and the University of Wolverhampton. The nine collabor- Buildings. British Cement Association, Crowthorne.
ating firms were: ABC Structures, the British Precast Con- Goodchild, C.H. and Glass, J. (2004) Best Practice Guidance for
crete Federation, the Computer Sciences Corporation Hybrid Concrete Construction: A Guide to Choosing and
Using Combinations of Precast and In-Situ Concrete for
(CSC), The Concrete Centre (formerly the Reinforced
Better Value Structural Frames. The Concrete Centre,
Concrete Council), Curtins Consulting Engineers, Camberley.
Edmund Nuttall, HBG Construction, Trent Precast Green, S.D. (1992) A SMART Methodology for Value Manage-
Concrete Ltd, and Whitby Bird and Partners. The ment. Occasional Paper No. 53, Chartered Institute of Build-
authors are grateful to all those involved in the project. ing, Ascot.
Green, S.D. and Moss, G.W. (1998) Value management and post-
occupancy evaluation: closing the loop. Facilities, 16(1/2),
34–39.
Hansen, K.L. and Vanegas, J.A. (2003) Improving design quality
References through briefing automation. Building Research & Infor-
Andreu, I.C. and Oreszczyn, T. (2004) Architects need environ- mation, 31(5), 379–386.
mental feedback. Building Research & Information, 32(4), Idrus, A. and Newman, J. (2003) IFESS: a computer tool to aid
313– 328. structural engineers at the conceptual design stage. Construc-
Ballal, T.M.A. and Sher, W.D. (2003) Artificial neural network for tion Innovation, 3, 127–143.
the selection of buildable structural systems. Engineering, Con- Laseau, P. (2003) Graphic Thinking for Architects and Designers,
struction and Architectural Management, 10(4), 263–271. Wiley, New York, NY
BRE (2000) Housing Quality Indicators, BRE, Watford (avail- Lawson, B. (1997) How Designers Think, Architectural Press,
able at: [Link] (accessed May 2003). Oxford.
Charlesworth, G.L., Chauncey, D.J., Lillie, S.T. and Southcott, Liu, A.M.M. and Leung, M.-Y. (2002) Developing a soft value
M.F. (1995) Project Profile: Lakeside Car Parks, Reinforced management model. International Journal of Project Man-
Concrete Council/British Cement Association, Crowthorne. agement, 20(5), 341–349.
Construction Industry Council (CIC) (2002) Design Quality Ofori, G. and Kien, H. L. (2004) Translating Singapore
Indicator Questionnaire, CIC, London. architects’ environmental awareness into decision making.
Eisenhardt, K.M. (1989) Building theories from case study Building Research & Information, 32(1), 27–37.
research. Academy of Management Review, 14(4), 532–550. Phillips, R. (2000) The Architect’s Plan of Work, RIBA
Elliott, K.S. (2002) Precast Concrete in Mixed Construction: A Publications, London.
State-of-the-Art Review. FIB Commission 6 – Task Group Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) (2004) A Client’s
TG2, FIB Bulletin No. 19, FIB. Guide to Engaging an Architect, RIBA Enterprises Ltd,
Gann, D.M., Salter, A.J. and Whyte, J.K. (2003) Design quality London.
indicator as a tool for thinking. Building Research & Seo, S., Aramaki, T., Hwang, Y. and Hanaki, K. (2004) Fuzzy
Information, 31(5), 318 –333. decision-making tool for environmental sustainable build-
Gersick, C. (1988) Time and transition in work teams: toward a ings. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management,
new model of group development. Academy of Management 130(3), 415–423.
Journal, 31, 9–41. Yang, Y.Q., Wang, S.Q., Dulaimi, M. and Low, S.P. (2003) A
Glaser, B.G. and Strauss, A.L. (1967) The Discovery of fuzzy quality function deployment system for buildable
Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research, design decision-makings. Automation in Construction, 12,
Aldine de Gruyter, New York, NY. 381–393.
Glass, J. (2003) ‘Not’ hybrid concrete construction. Unpublished Yin, R.K. (1993) Applications of Case Study Research, Sage,
research report for The Concrete Centre (part of the DTI London.
Partners in Innovation project, best practice guidance for Yin, R.K. (2003) Case Study Research: Design and Methods, 3rd
hybrid concrete construction). edn, Sage, London.

219