STS NOTES
Module 1: Introduction to STS
The Nature and Fields of Science:
Science
● derived from the Latin word “Scientia” which means knowledge
● defined as the systematic body of knowledge that seeks to give plausible
explanations and predictions about our universe or natural world.
● These explanations and predictions came about by a rigid methodology based on
verifiable evidence.
Main Fields of Science
1. Natural Sciences - seeks to study the physical world through experimentation
where controlled variables are set-up to determine measurable results. Known as
the “hard sciences” because of the high degree of control, objectivity, accuracy,
and replicability of results.
a. Branches of Natural Science:
i. Physical Science - study of non living components subdivided into
physics and chemistry
ii. Earth and Space Science - study of physical constitution of the
Earth and universe
iii. Life Science - study of living components, biology
2. Formal Sciences - consist of disciplines that deal with formal theoretical
systems. The methods of study in these disciplines are considered as a priori (a
laying term that describes knowledge or justification).
a. Branches of Formal Science:
i. Mathematics - language of science, quantitative scientific concepts
expressed in mathematical form.
ii. Statistics - deals with collection, analysis, interpretation,
presentation of masses of numerical or quantitative data.
iii. Computer Science - interdisciplinary field of study about the
nature of computations to find a more efficient way of computing.
iv. Information Theory - to explore mathematical laws that govern
data behavior.
3. Social Sciences - study of human society and the interpersonal relationships of
individuals as members of society, referred to as “soft sciences” due to
uncontrollable or, challenging to control, variables.
a. Branches of Social Science
i. Psychology - study of the relationship between human processes
and behavior
ii. Sociology - study of institutions and social relationship
iii. Philosophy - study of knowledge and looks at the meaning of life
iv. History - study of the past from chronological records of events
v. Anthropology - study of humans and their ancestors through time
focusing on biological and cultural aspects.
vi. Geography - the interaction of the physical, biological, cultural
features of the Earth’s surface.
vii. Political Science - study of governance
viii. Economics - production, distribution, and consumption of goods
and services
4. Applied Sciences - concerned with the technological applications and
development to convert scientific knowledge to practical applications.
a. Branches of Applied Sciences:
i. Medicine - applies biological, biochemical, and biophysical
knowledge for the diagnosis, treatment, management, and
prevention of diseases.
ii. Allied Health Sciences - provides medical services and patient
care in conjunction with medicine (nursing, medical technology,
pharmacy, physical therapy, radiologic technology)
iii. Engineering - scientific and mathematical methods for the design,
construction etc of structures, machines, factories, equipment,
devices, etc.
1. Civil engineering
2. Mechanical engineering
3. Chemical engineering
4. Electrical engineering
5. Electronics engineering
Technology and Innovation:
Technology - refers to any devices, systems, or methods that have practical
application.
Innovation - act of introducing new ideas, devices, processes or methods that are more
creative, effective, and efficient. Created by chance discovery or serendipity. Serves as
the driver for growth.
The Scientific Method:
Scientific Method
● Gold standard used for investigating plausible explanations to observed natural
phenomenon
● An Empirical Method which involves careful observation and recording of
patterns and behavior during experimentations and making generalization from
such processes.
Steps of Scientific Method
1. Observation - process of recognizing an occurrence in nature using physical
senses.
2. Asking Question - asking the right questions with the desire to know the answer
to those questions is a driver for carrying scientific investigations.
3. Literature Search - seeks the most relevant and updated related literature that
have significant bearing to the phenomenon being searched. RRL will tell you
things already known and the things still unknown. Requires critical analysis.
4. Hypothesis Formulation - “educated guess” or “tentative assumption” made to
predict the outcome of an experiment. Should be testable and falsifiable
5. Experimentation - series of systematic actions to test the hypothesis. There has
to be dependent (changes according to the variable manipulated) and
independent variables (you can control this variable),
6. Data Analysis - systematic and sound processing of all obtained data to
determine the overall results of the experiment. Requires detailed and careful
processing through tabular, graphical, mathematical, statistical, logical, and/or
computational analysis.
7. Conclusion - rational confirmation or rejection of the hypothesis.
Scientific Theory - systematic idea that explains an observed natural phenomenon
Scientific Law - generalized rule that describes a phenomenon. It describes and
implies a cause and effect relationship between the observed phenomenon and doesn’t
explain the reason unlike a scientific theory.
Interrelationships of Science, Technology, and Society
● Science serves as the basis of information to technology, technology improves
the way of life of a society, society demands information from science.
● Science aims to develop society, society demands innovation from technology,
technology demands intensive research from science.
● However, the careless and haphazard applications of science and technology
has also resulted in environmental degradation, societal upheavals, and
man-made calamities.
Module 2: Historical Antecedents of Science and Technology
A. STS in the Prehistoric Era
a. Stone Age (2.5 million years ago - 5000 BCE)
i. Humans learned to use simple rock tools for hunting and foraging
ii. Separated to old stone age, middle stone age, new stone age.
1. Old Stone Age (Paleolithic Period - 12,000 BCE)
a. Used coarse relics like chipped stone tools, tusks,
and bones for hunting and collecting food.
b. Stayed in caves as shelter, used leaves, barks, and
animal hides for clothing.
c. Learned to control fire (400,000 BCE)
2. Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic Period - 20,000 to 10,000
BCE)
a. Used more refined stone tools (microliths) forming
spears/arrows.
b. Ended with the development of agriculture which
made them stay longer in a suitable place
c. Formed groups called tribes.
3. New Stone Age (Neolithic Period - 10,000 to 2,000 BCE)
a. Used polished stone tools, pottery, weaving, and
agriculture
b. Learned to grow crops, and raise livestock
c. Rough political structures developed evolving into
complex structures.
d. Developed communities along river valleys where soil
is fertile and fresh water is abundant.
b. Bronze Age (3,500 - 1,000 BCE)
i. Copper and tin form the alloy bronze which is more durable than
either metal.
ii. First used in Eastern Anatolia (Turkey) and was developed in
Mesopotamia (Iraq and Syria)
iii. Extensively used for making metal tools for household, agricultural,
pastoral, decorative, and weaponry purposes.
iv. Invention of the wheel and ox-drawn plow.
c. Iron Age (1,200-550 BCE)
i. Iron was first smelted from ore in the 15th century BCE by a
by-product of gold gold processing.
ii. Used to make better axes, spears, and plows.
iii. Used in constructing larger ships for sea transport, leading to the
growth of trade and cultural exchange.
B. STS in Ancient Civilizations
a. Civilization - multifaceted society with high level of cultural, technological
advancement.
i. Mesopotamian Civilization (3,000 to 500 BCE)
1. Science had its earliest roots here
2. Invented a system of writing called the cuneiform,
characterized by wedge-shaped marks
3. Laid the foundation of astronomy
4. Set the fundamentals of modern mathematics, establishing a
number system with a base of 60.
5.
ii. Egyptian Civilization (3,000 to 30 BCE)
1. Well-versed in engineering and construction, architecture,
agriculture, food processing, medicine, astronomy, the arts,
and literature.
2. Architectures: great pyramids, statues, tombs.
3. Advanced their own writing system called hieroglyph, also
invented papyrus (thick paper made from the pith of the
papyrus plant).
iii. Chinese Civilization (1,500 BCE to 705 CE)
1. Earliest chinese communities settled along the Yangtze
River at Anyang
2. The politics of China were characterized by the formation of
numerous dynasties
3. Ch’in Dynasty started the construction of the Great Wall of
China
4. Confucianism by Confuscius was enriched during the Han
Dynasty which emphasized the respect for elders and the
authorities.
5. Fireworks were invented during the Tang Dynasty made from
Bamboo Cases filled with gunpowder, charcoal, sulfur and
saltpeter.
6. Woodblock printing was also invented in Tang Dynasty
7. Books were created (868 CE) by stitching together individual
pages
iv. Indian Civilization (3,100 BCE to 650 CE)
1. Arose on the Indus River Valley located now in Pakistan,
during the Bronze Age around 3,100 BCE.
2. Hinduism developed in 500 to 300 BCE
3. Buddhism, founded by an Indian prince and yogi by the
name of Siddhartha Guatama who emphasized the noble
with-fold path for achieving nirvana.
4. Kanad theorized the existence of anu or something like an
atom.
5. Modern number system and decimal system was developed
in India.
6. Aryabhata was the first to develop the digit zero
v. Meso-American Civilization (1,500 BCE to 300 CE)
1. Consisted of the Amerindian cultures from Mexico, Central
America, and Western South America
2. Cultivated important crops like corn, beans, squash and
cotton.
3. Maya civilization knows how to make paper and write in
Maya Hieroglyphs. Today, only 3 are found, called Dresden
Codex.
vi. Greek Civilization (1,200 to 323 BCE)
1. Period of great political, philosophical, artistic and scientific
achievements. Foundation of modern Western civilization.
2. Thales of Miletus the father of Greek science was the first to
explain the physical world in terms of natural rather
supernatural causes.
3. Anaximander, a student of Thales is credited with making
practical use of sundial and constructing a map of the Earth
4. Anaximenes, one of the primary constituents of the universe,
is air and becomes water when compressed and
compressed even more to form solid earth.
5. Xenophanes theorized Earth changing overtime specifically
mountains covered by oceans in the past.
6. Pythagoras is known for the Pythagorean Theorem dealing
with the measurements of triangles.
7. Euclid, father of geometry.
8. Socrates, dialectic method of inquiry in philosophy.
9. Plato, founded the first formal institution of higher learning in
western civilization, also delved into metaphysics.
10.Aristotle, delved into natural sciences, also delved into
formal logic
vii. Roman Civilization (800 BCE to 500 CE)
1. From kingdom to republic and eventually an empire.
2. The cultural elements of ancient Rome are often grouped
together with ancient Greece and became known as the
greco-roman civilization.
3. Economy was based on large scale agriculture and not on
sea trade.
4. Contributed to governance, jurisprudence, engineering,
architecture, arts, sciences, and military warfare.
5. System of government is called Res Publica
C. STS in Middle Ages (500 - 1500 CE)
a. Western Roman Empire was broken into independent “barbarian”
kingdoms in the 5th century because of internal instability and attacks by
migrating people.
b. Easterns part of the empire called Byzantine empire survived through the
5th century and remained till 1453.
c. The period of the central or high Middle Ages was marked by economic
and territorial growth, demographic and urban expansion, the advent of
national identity, and the reformation of secular and ecclesiastical
societies.
d. St. Thomas Aquinas synthesized Aristotelian philosophy with Christian
theology.
e. Feudalism - the relationship between landowner (lord) and his subjects
(vassals)
f. Pseudoscience of Alchemy - the progress of chemical science which is
believed to be imbued with power to transform base metals into gold and
conferring immortality as the fountain of youth.
D. Renaissance (1300 - 1600)
a. Italy the birthplace of the era - French word for Rebirth, served as the
cultural bridge between the middle ages and the modern ages
b. The italian city states sit in the ruins of the ancient Roman Empire which
has adapted the classical greek culture
c. The Italian city states became the most urbanized and wealthy cities in
Europe during that period because they have control of the Mediterranean
trade route.
d. The rulers vied for supremacy in the economic sphere, commissioning and
supporting artists, architects, poets, historians, and philosophers.
e. They allow certain level of political and social freedom that became
favorable to academic, artistic, philosophical, and scientific explorations
f. They had a more contextual thinking of the relationship between God and
men
g. Leonardo da Vinci, the artist behind the Last Supper, Mona Lisa
h. Nicholaus Copernius, heliocentric solar system model
i. Galileo Galilei, supported the copernican theory by observation using a
telescope that he made himself. Also famous for the free fall theory.
j. William Harvey - English Physician who made the first detailed description
of the human circulatory system.
k. Johannes Gutenberg - German who invented the movable-type printing
press.
E. Scientific Revolution
a. Period of emergence of modern science
b. Empiricism - main philosophy of the scientific revolution, the value of
experimental evidence
c. Sir Francis Bacon - Father of Empiricism
d. Johannes Kepler - Laws of Planetary Motion
e. Isaac Newton - Laws of Motions and Law of Universal Gravitation
F. Industrial Revolution
a. British Agricultural Revolution - Agricultural productivity greatly increased
b. First industrial revolution started in Great Britain around 1760, with
mechanical innovations that were largely driven by steam power
c. Positive effects of industrialization:
i. Economic output from textile, iron, mining, machine tooling, and
transportation.
ii. Standards of living and life expectancy of their general population
increased significantly compared to the middle ages
iii. A new economic class, the capitalists, became powerful because of
their economic influence.
iv. The factory system of production led to specialization of labor and
repetitive work load
v. Goods were produced in large-scale and sold in mass market
locally and abroad in cheaper price
vi. The economic life blood of these nations shifted from the farms to
the cities where the factories were built. The factory jobs became
an important source of livelihood for the common people.
vii. Mass education was developed, and basic literacy and numeracy of
the population increased significantly.
d. Negative Effects of Industrialization
i. Workers clocked in long working hours under grim and unsafe
conditions. Their wages are usually below the minimum for decent
economic living.
ii. Child laborers have exploited in many ways and they became
highly vulnerable to work-related hazards.
iii. These poor working conditions and abuses led to labor unrest and
workers eventually banded together and formed labor unions to
advance their welfare.
iv. The flocking of workers from the farms to the cities where masses
congregated in slums where living conditions are poor and rife with
many struggles.
v. The burning of coal released toxic pollutants like soot and sulfur
dioxide which became the major causes of air pollution.
vi. Carbon dioxide gas, which is a by-product of fuel combustion, was
released into the atmosphere on a large scale and started to
accumulate in the atmosphere which is now known to be one of the
major causes of global warming.
vii. Water pollution was brought about by dumping of untreated
industrial effluents along with domestic sewage and garbage.
A. STS in the Philippines During the Pre-Colonial Era
a. Homo Luzonensis (Callao Man)
i. earliest men in the Philippines
ii. 50,00 and 67,000 years ago
iii. Remains were discovered by archaeologists Dr. Armand Mijares
inside Callao Cave in Cagayan in 2010
b. Tabon Man
i. Considered the earliest known human fossils (47,000 years old) in
the country that were discovered in Tabon Cave in Quezon,
Palawan, by the American anthropologist, Robest B. Fox in 1962
c. Aetas (Negritos)
i. First living ancestors who arrived 40,000 years ago through the
Sundaland land bridges, which connected the ancient Philippines to
mainland Asia.
ii. They are aboriginal tribes that have short stature, dark skin, and
curly hair. They live through hunting and foraging,making use of
simple stone tools utilized during the Stone Age
d. Malayo-Polynesian
i. First arrived by boat around 3,000 BCE. Their characteristic
physical features are brown skin, medium height, flat nose, and
straight hair.
ii. They had a more advanced way of living because they used refined
tools made of stone, bronze, brass, or iron.
iii. They built houses from plant materials like cogon grass, bamboo,
and nipa palm leaves.
e. Barangay
i. Basic political unit during the Philippine pre-colonial era which are
the local villages headed by a local chieftain, or datu, together with
a council of nobles and elders.
f. Rajah
i. The chief ruler among larger political unit is formed from the
alliance of various barangays.
g. Babaylans
i. Influential priestesses who perform as shamatic religious leaders
and practice as shamanic religious leaders and practice folk
medicine by utilizing local medicinal herbs as remedies for various
illnesses along with various rituals.
h. Baybayin - ancient script of the Tagalog domains.
i. Banaue Rice Terraces - carved by the Ifugao tribe some 2,000 years ago
on the mountains of the Cordilleras using only simple tools.
j. Lumads - Austronesian tribes, like the T’boli and Manobo, who are known
for their colorful geometric fabrics and accessories that reflect motifs from
nature.
k. Moros - Muslim tribes of Mindanao, like the Tausug and the Maranaw, who
are known as skilled blacksmiths who made complex weapons, jewelry,
musical instruments, and household items from brass, bronze, copper,
silver, and gold.
l. Chinese Traders - are close trading partners of our ancestors, to whom
they bartered silk porcelain wares and other wares for local hemp cloth,
beeswax, tortoise shell, cotton, and pearls/
m. Arab Traders - went to the Philippines when our ancestors traded pearls,
shells, fish, copra, and ropes in exchange for cotton, rice, thread, yarn,
and fabrics.
n. Indian traders - by means of the Indian settlers on the Malaysian
peninsula.
B. STS in the Philippines During the Colonial Era
a. The Spanish Colonial Era (1521-1898)
i. Ferdinand Magellan arrived in the Visayas in 1521, which set the
Spanish colonization of our country. However, during the Battle of
Mactan, he was killed by the local chieftain, Datu Lapu-Lapu.
ii. Miguel Lopez de Legazpi became the most successful in
establishing the country as a colony of Spain. He also served as
the first governor-general of the Philippines.
iii. The Philippines was under the rule of the Spaniards for over 300
years and largely converted the populace to Roman Catholicism
through the various waves of missionaries like the Augustinians,
Dominicans, and Jesuits
iv. The extremely altered the way our ancestors live by making them
abide by their Catholic practices and Hispanic culture..