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Chapter 2

Natural

E
resources PL
M
LEARNING INTENTIONS
In this chapter you will:
SA

• explore the formation of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, and the rock cycle
• investigate the permeability of different types of rock
• explore the different methods of extracting rocks, ores and minerals, and consider why we extract them
• investigate the environmental, economic and social impacts of extracting rock, ore and minerals
• learn how land can be restored and repurposed after rocks, ores and minerals have been extracted,
and consider the benefits and limitations of these strategies
• understand what finite resources are and what sustainable management means
• discuss a variety of sustainable strategies for managing rocks, ores and minerals, and consider
the benefits and limitations of these strategies
• learn how fossil fuels are formed
• classify energy sources into renewable and non-renewable types
• explore how different energy sources are used to make electricity
• consider the benefits and limitations of different resources
• learn about the different factors affecting energy demand

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2 Natural resources

CONTINUED
• examine how energy sources can be managed efficiently and investigate research into new energy sources
• discover what fracking is, and consider the arguments for and against its use.

BEFORE YOU START

Look around you. Make a list of all the things you can
see from where you are sitting that are made from a
material that has been mined or extracted from the

E
ground. (Remember that plastic items are made from Energy used Energy used
oil.) Discuss your lists in pairs. Do you agree that all the to operate in manufacture
items come from materials extracted from the earth?
Now look again at objects in the room around you.
In your pairs, choose ten items. For each item,
Join up with another pair and discuss your

PL
decide whether energy was used in its manufacture,
whether energy is needed to operate it, or both.
Copy and complete the Venn diagram by putting
the items you have chosen in the relevant part.

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT IN CONTEXT

Our rocky planet

Not all planets in our solar system are the same.
Jupiter and Saturn are gas giants, but Earth is a
diagrams. Which area has the fewest examples?
What other examples from outside the room can
you think of that would fit in this area?

have been found or because improved technology

has made extracting resources more efficient.
However, many reserves of resources are in areas
M
such as Antarctica (Figure 2.1), where extracting
rocky planet. It is made from rocks and mineral ores. them could cause significant environmental damage.
Earth weighs 5 973 600 000 000 000 000 000 000 kg International agreements are in place to prevent any
(5.97 × 1024 kg). It has a density of 5.2 g cm–3, which mineral extraction in Antarctica, but it may prove
makes it the densest planet in the solar system. The difficult to maintain this agreement when the world’s
reason for this is that Earth’s molten core contains a resources are in short supply.
large volume of molten metals, especially iron.
SA

Humans are only able to exploit rocks, ores and KEY WORDS
minerals from Earth’s outer layer. There is a large
mineral: a naturally occurring inorganic
quantity there, but because these resources are not
substance; minerals are often solid
being replaced, they are non-renewable, or finite.
There will come a time when certain rocks, ores ore: a rock that contains minerals and metals
and minerals are no longer available, and this will that can be extracted
impact the world in many different ways. Coal is the
exploit: to extract and use natural resources for
most common example of a natural resource that
human advantage
is running low on Earth. But many other resources
are non-renewable, including the materials used to non-renewable (finite): a natural resource that
manufacture items that we consider essential, such is being used up faster than it is being replaced
as mobile phones, computers and batteries. so it will eventually run out
No one can say for sure when these natural reserves: stores of a useful resource that can
resources will run out. Many previous predictions be exploited
have proved to be inaccurate, because new reserves

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CONTINUED

Discussion questions
1 As resources are used up in the future, should
the ban on using reserves in Antarctica be
removed? Why, or why not?
2 What is more important, the supply of
resources for our needs or the conservation
of natural ecosystems?

E
KEY WORD
ecosystem: all the living things (biotic
Figure 2.1: There are large reserves of resources components) together with all the non-living
such as valuable rocks and mineral ores in Antarctica, things (abiotic components) in an area
but an international agreement currently bans

2.1 Formation of rocks PL

their extraction, as there is a risk of major damage
to wildlife and the environment.

There are many different types of rocks, but they

are usually organised into three groups based on
the way they are formed: igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic.
it cools, it turns to solid rock. When magma rises to
the surface from volcanoes, it cools and forms lava.
Igneous rocks are made from material that was once
molten, and they usually contain crystals that form
as the molten material cools. Many of these crystals
contain valuable minerals that are used in a wide range
of industrial processes.
M
Granite and basalt are examples of igneous rocks
Igneous rocks (Figures 2.3 and 2.4).
Igneous rocks form when molten rock from Earth’s
crust and upper mantle cools (Figure 2.2). The molten KEY WORDS
rock is called magma when it is still below the surface.
It is known as lava when it reaches Earth’s surface. igneous rock: rock made during volcanic processes
SA

Magma is found in the mantle. This hot, liquid rock magma: molten rock below Earth’s surface
comes under pressure from the rocks above it. When

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2 Natural resources

Crust Continental crust

0–100 km
Mantle Oceanic crust
2900 km
Core

6370 km

Mantle

E
Figure 2.2: The structure of Earth.

Figure 2.3: A piece of granite.

PL Figure 2.5: A piece of limestone.
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The sediments include different-sized mineral particles.
The smallest particles are clays, followed by silts
and then sands. These particles are important in the
formation of soils. They are transported by streams and
rivers, and then deposited as sediment. Each layer of
sediment becomes more compact and harder as it comes
under pressure from the newer deposits above it.
SA

Limestone, sandstone and shale are all examples of

Figure 2.4: A piece of basalt. sedimentary rock (Figures 2.5, 2.6 and 2.7).

KEY WORDS
Sedimentary rocks sedimentary rock: a rock formed from material
Sedimentary rocks are formed by the weathering of derived from the weathering of other rocks, or
existing rocks at Earth’s surface, the precipitation of the accumulation of dead plants and animals
dissolved materials out of solution in water and, in weathering: the processes that cause rock to be
some cases, organic material. Weathering processes broken down into smaller particles
release small mineral particles that accumulate to form
sediment. Over time, layers of sediment build up to form sediment: solid material on Earth’s surface that
sedimentary rock. has been moved to a new location through
natural processes

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When Earth’s crust first formed, all rocks were igneous.

These rocks were slowly eroded, releasing small particles
that formed sediment. The sediments built up over time
to form sedimentary rocks. The rocks that make up
Earth’s crust are always moving, which creates the heat
and pressure needed to form metamorphic rock.
All rock types are still being constantly eroded and
formed in a process known as the rock cycle.
Table 2.1 compares the characteristics of the different
Figure 2.6: A piece of sandstone. rock types.

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Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic
Made from Made from other Made from
magma rock fragments existing rock
Magma cools to Rock fragments Original rock
form solid rock become buried and is changed in

Figure 2.7: A piece of shale.

Metamorphic rocks
PL
Metamorphic rocks are created from existing
sometimes

of the crystals
depends on the
speed of cooling
No fossils
present
increased pressure
forms a rock
Mineral crystals Mineral crystals

present; the size

absent

Fossils may be
present
form by heat
and pressure
Mineral
crystals may
be present

No fossils
present
M
rocks when they are exposed to extreme heat and
pressure, which causes the structure of the rock to Table 2.1: Characteristics of the different rock types.
change. These changes can be chemical, physical or
both. Sedimentary and igneous rocks can become
metamorphic rocks, and a metamorphic rock can KEY WORDS
become another metamorphic rock. Metamorphic metamorphic rock: a rock formed from existing
rocks are usually harder than sedimentary rocks. rocks by a combination of heat and pressure
SA

Marble and slate are examples of metamorphic rocks

rock cycle: a representation of the changes
(Figures 2.8 and 2.9).
between the three rock types and the processes
causing them

Figure 2.8: A piece of marble.

Figure 2.9: A piece of slate.

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2 Natural resources

• physical actions, such as the action of wind

PROBLEM-SOLVING TIP and water, or expansion/contraction by changes
Remember – there are only three main rock in temperature.
types. Use what you know about the formation Weathering is the breaking down of rocks. When rocks
of each one to apply to situations where you are broken down and moved elsewhere, the process is
need to give information about the properties of called erosion. The part of the process in which the rocks
specific examples. are moved to a different place is called transportation.
Being broken down through wind and water are the
two most common ways in which rocks are eroded.
Local conditions, and the amount or wind and rainfall,
The rock cycle dictate which method of erosion is most common in a
particular place.

E
Figure 2.10 shows the processes by which the three
rock types form, and the relationships and interactions
between them. KEY WORDS
Rocks are always changing. Exposed rock at the Earth’s erosion: the movement of rock and soil
surface may be subjected to weathering caused by: fragments to different locations
•

•
and plant growth

acidic or alkaline water

PL
biological actions, such as the movement of animals

chemical actions, such as reactions with slightly

1
transportation: the process by which rock
particles are moved to another location

1. Weathering and erosion break off fragments

3.
of surface rock.
2. The eroded rock is transported to
another location.
The fragments of rock are deposited and build
M
Weathering up in layers. As the layers build up, the lower
and erosion layers are compacted into sedimentary rock.
Surface rock 4. Sedimentary and igneous rocks subjected to
2 heat and pressure underground form
Transportation metamorphic rocks.
5. At higher temperatures rocks melt to
form magma.
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6. Magma cools to form igneous rock.

Igneous rocks
4 3
Heat and pressure Sedimentation
Metamorphic rocks

6 Sedimentary rocks
Cooling 5 5 4
Melting Melting Heat and pressure

Magma

Figure 2.10: The rock cycle and the processes within it.

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When the wind drops or the water slows, the rock

particles eventually settle, in processes called deposition KEY WORDS
and sedimentation. Over time, layers of sediment build deposition: the laying down of sediment
up, compressing the layers below in a process transported by wind or water
called compaction.
sedimentation: the accumulation of sediments,
Finally, the compacted sediment becomes sedimentary
which then form sedimentary rocks
rock, through cementation. In this process, the pores
between the particles in the sediment fill with minerals compaction: the pressing together of particles
that have been dissolved in water, which binds them all over time, reducing the spaces between them
together like a chemical glue.
cementation: the hardening and joining together
These processes all take place extremely slowly. It can of compacted particles

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take thousands or even millions of years for sedimentary
rock to form. tectonic plate: a piece of lithosphere that
moves slowly on the asthenosphere; seven
Metamorphic rock also takes a long time to form
major, eight minor and numerous micro plates
because it needs intense pressure and heat. The pressure
have been identified
is usually a result of the movement of tectonic plates.

PL
In comparison, igneous rocks can form rapidly if the
magma cools on the Earth’s surface – for example, after
a volcanic eruption (Figure 2.11). However, igneous
rocks can also take many thousands of years (or longer)
if the cooling happens below Earth’s crust. The cooling
process allows for crystallisation to occur. A slower
cooling process, deeper in Earth’s crust, allows time for
larger crystals to form. The size of the crystals can be a
useful indicator of the type of rock that has formed.
For example, basalt contains closely packed crystals
crystallisation: the process of crystals forming
caused by cooling

Questions
2.1 Figure 2.12 shows part of the rock cycle.
Name the three types of rock, A, B and C.

ati
on
Rock A ce m
en
M
about 1 mm in size, whereas the crystals in granite are t ta
tio
often around 5 mm. en n
m
ce

de
po
on

re
melting

ss
siti

siti
ure
epo

on
and
transportation d

trans
tempe
SA

portation erosi
magma

rature
n
tio
sa
lli
m

a
st
el
sion

y
cr
tin

on
g
ero

Rock C Rock B

Figure 2.11: When magma is released from a volcanic

eruption, it cools quickly to form igneous rock.
p re re
ssu re atu
a n d te m per

Figure 2.12: The rock cycle.

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2 Natural resources

2.2 Name the three types of weathering.

2.3 Explain why fossils are only found in one of the
three rock types.

Permeable and
impermeable rocks
Another way of describing rocks (and soils) is by
considering their permeability – how easily water is able
to pass through pore spaces in them.

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Permeable rock has interconnected pore spaces that allow
water (or other liquids or gases) to pass through it. If a rock
has good permeability, water drains away from the surface
after heavy rain, for example. Many sedimentary rocks, such
as limestone and sandstone (Figure 2.13), are permeable.

KEY WORDS
PL
Impermeable rock does not have as many pore spaces,
so water does not drain through as easily. Igneous and
metamorphic rocks are usually impermeable, but some
sedimentary rocks, such as shale, are also impermeable.

permeability: the ability of water to pass through

the pore spaces of rock and soil
Figure 2.13: A magnified image of permeable
sandstone. Water can pass through the numerous
interconnected pores within the rock.
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permeable: describing rock and soil that water
(or other liquids or gases) can pass through COMMAND WORD
impermeable: describing rock and soil that water predict: suggest what may happen based on
(or other liquids or gases) cannot pass through available information
SA

FIELDWORK ACTIVITY 2.1

Testing the permeability of rocks Before you start

You will need Predict the permeability of each rock based on its
appearance. Compare your predictions with the
• four types of rock (ideally sandstone, others in your group.
limestone, granite and slate)
• four beakers (large enough to fit the samples) Method
• water Work in small groups.
• Label the four types of rock A, B, C and D.
Safety • Fill each beaker with water and place a rock
Wash your hands thoroughly before and after sample in each beaker.
the activity. • Observe what happens to the rock samples for
5 minutes. Record your findings in a copy of
the following table.

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CONTINUED

Rock Name of Observations Observations Observations Observations

rock type on first after 1 minute after 3 minutes after 5 minutes
placement
A

E
D

PL Questions
1
2

3
What did you observe in each of the samples?
What does this observation tell you about the
permeability of each rock?
What do you think would happen if you left the
rocks in the beakers for longer?
M
Figure 2.14: Testing the permeability of a piece
of rock.

REFLECTION ACTIVITY 2.1

SA

What do you think you learnt from Fieldwork Create a key that will help someone to accurately
activity 2.1? What process did you follow to identify examples of different types of rock:
reach conclusions? Were there any problems you basalt, granite, limestone, marble, sandstone,
needed to overcome? shale and slate. Start with a question with a ‘yes’
or ‘no’ answer. The answer to that should lead
to other ‘yes’ or ‘no’ questions, and so on, until
eventually the rock can be identified.
The start of a key is shown in Figure 2.15.
You can use this starting question or one of your
own. Add as many layers and questions to your
key as you need.

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2 Natural resources

• Surface extraction is mining on Earth’s surface.

CONTINUED
• Sub-surface extraction is the removal of material
from below the surface.
Are crystals visible • Biological extraction is the use of organisms, such
in the rock? as plants or bacteria, to extract material.

yes no Surface extraction

Open-pit mining (also called opencast or open-cut
mining) is used when a valuable deposit is located near
the surface. It is often buried below a thick layer of
yes no yes no worthless material called the overburden, which has to

E
be removed to expose the deposit (Figure 2.16).
The overburden is usually stored nearby so it can be
used to help restore the area later.
Figure 2.15: A simple key for rock identification.

PEER ASSESSMENT

PL
In pairs, try to complete each other’s keys and
give each other feedback. Are there better
questions that would help someone identify the
rock type more easily or clearly? If possible, try
out your partner’s key with some different rock
samples that your teacher will give you. Does the
key lead you to the right answer? You will need
M
to look very closely at each rock sample, using a
magnifying glass if possible.
Figure 2.16: In this nickel mine in Indonesia, the
topsoil and white limestone overburden have to be
removed to reach the deposits of nickel ore below.
2.2 Extraction of rocks,
Open-pit mines are carefully dug in sections called
SA

ores and minerals benches (Figure 2.17). The walls of the benches are
kept at an angle to reduce the risk of rockfalls.
An ore is a rock that contains minerals and metals.
Roads have to be created as the mine gets deeper,
These substances provide many different materials for
to allow the mineral deposit and overburden to be
use in everyday life. Coal and oil are sources of energy
removed. Extracting materials such as sand, gravel and
and many chemicals used in industry. Metallic ores
stone, which are widely used as building materials, uses
provide the metals and alloys needed to make products
similar surface-mining methods to extract mineral ores.
such as computers, mobile phones, cars, wires and
batteries. Rocks and the products made from them are
also widely used in the construction industry. KEY WORDS
overburden: a layer of rock or soil that has to be
Methods of extracting rocks, removed to reach an ore being mined beneath it

ores and minerals benches: layers cut into a mine to allow each
level to be excavated
There are three main methods for extracting rocks, ores
and minerals from mines:

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Sub-surface extraction
Sub-surface mining involves digging tunnels into the
ground to reach mineral deposits that are too deep
for surface mining. The type of tunnel depends on the
geology of the area and the location of the deposits
(Figure 2.19). In some cases (often when extracting
coal), horizontal tunnels are dug directly into a seam in
the side of a hill or mountain.
In deep mining, sloping tunnels may be excavated to reach
deeper deposits. Mining machinery can then be transported
down the tunnels while waste rock and mineral ore are

E
Figure 2.17: The sides of this gold mine in Australia hauled up to the surface in the opposite direction.
mine are cut into benches. The sloped sides reduce The deepest deposits are reached by digging a vertical shaft.
the risk of collapse. Horizontal galleries are then dug into the mineral deposits.
Shaft mining is more expensive and technically challenging
Strip mining is another type of surface extraction. than either horizontal or slope tunnelling, and only large

PL
It is used to mine horizontal seams of an ore. As with
open-pit mining, the overburden is removed first.
However, because the ore is available in layers or seams,
machines are then used to cut these out (Figure 2.18).
Strip mining is a common method for mining coal when
it occurs near to the surface.
deposits of valuable minerals are mined in this way.
The material is removed from mines by machines.
Compared with open-pit mining, any form of shaft
mining is more difficult because it needs a supply of
fresh air and water drainage. It is also potentially more
dangerous, as there is the risk of tunnels collapsing, as
well as poisonous gas, explosions and underground fires.
M
SA

A
Miners’ elevators
Coal elevators

Figure 2.18: A bucket excavator cuts away at a

deposit of coal in a strip mine. These machines can
B
remove thousands of tonnes of material every hour.

KEY WORD C
seam: a layer of a desired material found in rock
deep mining: the process of extracting minerals Figure 2.19: Types of sub-surface excavation.
from deep seabed (depths greater than 200m) A Horizontal tunnel. B Sloping tunnel. C A shaft
and horizontal tunnels. The more complex the
shaft mining: a method used to access minerals/ engineering needed in the mine, the more expensive
ore from the top down extraction will be.

Biological extraction

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2 Natural resources

Biological extraction uses living organisms to extract

materials from the ground. At the present time, it KEY WORDS
does not yield the high levels of materials that surface phytomining: the extraction of materials from the
and sub-surface extraction do, but it causes far less ground using plants
environmental damage so it is an increasingly popular
method, especially for mining metals. bioaccumulation: the build-up of a substance in
an organism over time
There are two main techniques for biological extraction:
• Phytomining: Some plant species growing in soil bioleaching: the extraction of materials from the
that contains a metal can take up that metal ground using microorganisms, such as bacteria
through their roots and concentrate it in their cells ion: a positively charged particle, usually found as
(Figure 2.20). This is known as bioaccumulation. part of a compound

E
The metal can be extracted by harvesting and
burning the plants. This process takes a long time,
but it is useful when the concentration of metals is
too low to be extracted by other methods.
• Bioleaching: Certain bacteria can break down low- Factors that affect the

PL
grade ores, such as copper ores, to make an acidic
solution that contains the ions of a metal. This
solution can be processed chemically to remove
the metal. Again, this is a useful technique where
concentrations of the metal are low, and it does
not require any special conditions, such as high
temperatures. However, it is also a slow process,
and the solution produced by the bacteria is acidic,
which could impact the environment if it is not
managed carefully.
decision to extract rocks,
ores and minerals
Several competing factors influence whether or not a
resource is extracted from an area.

Exploration
The first challenge is to find the location of suitable
deposits. In areas where minerals have not been
M
excavated before, the chances of finding a deposit are
low. Even when resources have previously been found
in an area, the chances of finding a suitable deposit
of metal ores there is only about 1 in 100. For rarer
materials, such as gold, the chances may be as low
as 1 in 1000. Geologists use information about the
rock types in an area to predict how likely it is that
SA

a mineral is present. They will then take samples of

the rock and test them in a laboratory to see if they
contain any useful materials. Further information
may be obtained from aerial surveys using aircraft or
drones (Figure 2.21).

Geology
Figure 2.20: Many plants are being tested to The geology of an area is evaluated when the rock
evaluate their suitability for absorbing metals samples are tested. Mining companies want to know
by phytomining. what type of rocks are present in the location, and how
easily and safely they can be excavated to access the
minerals and ores. An analysis of the structure of the
rock also helps the company decide on the most suitable
method of mining (Figure 2.22).

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E
Figure 2.21: Drones enable geologists to survey Figure 2.23: Minerals are often concentrated in layers
large or inaccessible areas of land for potential ores within the rock, such as this seam of gold.
or minerals far quicker and cheaper than on foot.

PL Accessibility and terrain

Even if the structure of the rock makes it suitable for
extraction, its location might not be favourable. The
whole site might be somewhere inaccessible, with no roads
into or out of the area, or roads that are not suitable for
large mining vehicles (Figure 2.24). The material itself
may be deep underground, making it difficult to reach
without the use of expensive specialist equipment.
M
SA

Figure 2.22: Information obtained from rock

samples can be used to determine the suitability of
rock for mining.

Many minerals are not uniformly distributed within the

whole rock but are found concentrated in layers, called
seams (Figure 2.23). Whether or not these seams are
accessible, and the geology of the rock itself, affect the
decision whether or not to extract the resource.

Figure 2.24: Some areas may have plenty of mineral

reserves, but the terrain makes it too challenging to
get large machinery into the area to extract them.

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2 Natural resources

Quantity and quality of deposit The cost to transport and process low-grade ore is
the same as for high-grade ore. This means that,
It is expensive to develop a mine. Not only are there overall, it will be far less profitable for the mine
the physical costs of extracting the resource from the owners, as the yield of gold will be less from each
ground, but there are also linked costs, such as building tonne of rock.
roads and setting up facilities for workers. Before
making such an investment, a mining company needs In exceptional circumstances, the ore may be very rich.
to be sure that the quantity and quality of the deposit Some rare examples have provided over 31 g of gold per
will make this investment worthwhile. For this reason, tonne. Even at this level, the percentage of gold in the
companies usually carry out additional testing and ore is only 0.0031%. The mass of ore to be processed at
surveying to learn more about the deposit. this type of mine is extensive, so it will also result in a
very large quantity of waste material.
In large mines, such as the marble mine in Figure 2.25,

E
most of the rock can be used. However, this is not
always the case. For example, in gold mining, only small Climate and weather
amounts of gold are found in the rock, and there are Local climate and weather conditions also need
additional stages in the extraction process, including to be taken into consideration. Mining can take
crushing the rock, sieving and washing it, which all have place in extreme environments, but climate, weather
to be factored in.

PL and landscape can make the process much more

complicated (Figure 2.26). Permanently frozen
ground (permafrost), such as that in the Arctic
tundra, makes excavation difficult. It may also be
harder to recruit workers to these environments.
As a result, such locations may be more costly both
in the equipment needed and in workers’ wages,
although mining may still go ahead if a company
feels there is enough profit in it.
While mining takes place in both extremely hot and
cold environments, the costs of operating in these places
M
mean that mining operators usually try less challenging
environments first.
Figure 2.25: Large machinery extracting marble in a
mine. The quantity of the resource available influences
the decision about whether to start mining the area.
SA

The cost of the extraction process needs to be weighed up

against the value of the resource and the potential profits
it might yield. Ores are graded on a scale of how much ore
is likely to be yielded per tonne of rock. Table 2.2 shows
the difference in the mass of gold present in different
qualities of ore.

Grade of ore Yield of gold / g per tonne of rock

Low grade 0–5.0
Average grade 5.1–8.0
High grade 8.1+ Figure 2.26: While mining may still be possible in
extreme environments, the harsh landscape can affect
Table 2.2: The yield of gold in different grades of ore. productivity levels.

41
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Environmental impact assessment

All forms of extraction have an impact on the local
environment. They destroy vegetation, cause the loss of
habitats for local wildlife and can cause air pollution.
As such, many governments require mining companies
to complete an environmental impact assessment
before they will grant permission for a mining project
to begin. The company must demonstrate that it has
considered all the damage its operation is likely to
cause. The company must record the likely impact and
state what it will do to ensure that negative effects are

E
minimised. It must also outline the processes in place to
prevent environmental accidents. Companies may also
be asked to show that they have evaluated other sites Figure 2.27: Many tin mines stopped working when
and that the one they have selected will have the lowest the price of tin dropped lower than the cost of
environmental impact. extraction. An increase in global demand for tin might
mean some mines in this area restart extraction.

PL
The cost of meeting the needs of the environmental
impact assessment can be high, so companies may feel it
is not worth developing a mine at a particular location.

Cost and profit, supply and demand

Costs and profit are often the most important factors in
determining whether or not deposits of rocks, ores and
minerals are exploited. Most independent companies
need to ensure they have sufficient income to pay all the
costs involved in the extraction process. Indeed, they will
KEY WORDS
costs: the expenses associated with completing an
activity, such as the production of a metal ore to sell
profit: the surplus made on selling an item once
costs have been deducted
M
aim to make a surplus (profit) that can be used to invest ACTIVITY 2.2
in new equipment or to expand the business.
Tin has been used for food storage (tin cans) for
Prices for different items change over time depending
many years. However, more recently, demand
on the number of people who want to buy them.
for tin has increased because it is now used
If more buyers are interested in an item, the organisation
in electrical circuits for computers and similar
selling it can charge a higher price. If fewer buyers are
equipment. Figure 2.28 shows the global price of
interested, prices may be reduced to attract more buyers.
SA

tin over a period of 34 years.

This is known as supply and demand.
If prices drop due to a reduction in demand, it may
Price of tin in USD / tonne

cost a company more to produce an item than they can 50 000

sell it for. When this occurs, the company may decide 40 000
not to extract so much. This can cause prices to rise, as
30 000
demand comes later than supply. There is no way for
businesses to know what demand will be or how it might 20 000
change until it happens, but it is very difficult for mining 10 000
companies to start or stop production quickly.
As a result, the price of raw materials can fluctuate. 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
Rocks and minerals are non-renewable resources. Year
This means that eventually there will be a shortage of
Figure 2.28: A graph showing variations in the
them, which will cause an increase in prices. As a result,
global price of tin, 1990–2024.
deposits that were not originally considered viable may
become profitable to exploit (Figure 2.27).

42
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2 Natural resources

CONTINUED Impacts of extracting rocks,

a   Describe the trends shown in the price of tin. ores and minerals
b  Select from the following list the year when Environmental impacts
the price of tin was highest:
Environmental impacts from extracting resources from
1999 2005 2011 2020 2022 the earth range from large-scale habitat destruction,
c  State the range in the price of tin shown in which reduces biodiversity, to pollution of air, land and
Figure 2.28. water. People living near the site are also affected by
noise and visual pollution.
d  Predict how the price of tin is likely to

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change in the future. Give reasons for Ecological impacts
your answer. Even small-scale surface extraction requires that
vegetation is cleared. The plants removed have lost a place
to grow, and so the animals that depend on the plants
for food and shelter are also negatively affected. In deep
COMMAND WORD
mining, shafts are dug down to the seams of valuable
state: express in clear terms

ACTIVITY 2.3
PL
Write five quiz questions about the different
factors that companies evaluate when
considering whether or not to extract rocks, ores
and minerals. Write each question on a separate
piece of paper. Make sure the questions are
resources. At the start of the operation, only a small area
of land is cleared of vegetation. However, after several
years, more habitats are destroyed as the amount of mine
waste stored above ground increases, sometimes forming
huge heaps (Figure 2.29). These are potentially dangerous,
as the waste may shift in heavy rain, for example.
M
varied and cannot be answered with a simple
‘yes’ or ‘no’. Double check that you know the
answers to your own questions.
Get together in groups of four or five and, sitting
in a circle, take it in turns to ask one of your
questions. Anyone in the group can answer.
SA

SELF-ASSESSMENT
When you have completed Activity 2.3, note Figure 2.29: Deep mining requires the removal of a
down two topics you feel you understand better large amount of waste material to be stored above
as a result of developing your own quiz questions ground. The longer the mine is in operation, the
and answering the questions asked by other larger the area affected.
members of your group. Note down one idea
that you still need to spend more time on when Noise pollution
revising to understand it better.
Noise pollution is a problem in large-scale surface
mining because the overburden is loosened by
explosive charges and then removed by large machines.
The noise can change the behaviour of animal species
near the mine and cause health problems for people.

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Deep mining usually produces less noise than surface nature of mine waste means that only a few plants
mining. Mining licences often set limits on the levels of will grow there, even many years after mining has
noise and working hours of a mine. stopped. Today, safe storage and disposal of mine
waste is one of the most important aspects of any
Water pollution mining licence application.
Water pollution from any type of mine can be a major
problem that may continue even after a mine has
stopped working. The water that drains through mine
waste, or which comes directly from mine shafts, can
negatively affect organisms that live in streams and
rivers (Figure 2.30). In addition, drinking water supplies
can be polluted by drainage from mines, making it

E
unsafe for people to drink.

PL
Figure 2.30: Leaching from this copper mine has
Figure 2.31: Pollution and land degradation around a
copper mine.

Many mining activities release dust particles, which

settle on vegetation near the mine (Figure 2.32).
The leaves of plants need to absorb light energy to
perform photosynthesis. If light cannot penetrate the
layer of dust, then the rate of photosynthesis – and thus
plant growth – is reduced.
M
affected the local water store. While the pollution can
be clearly seen here, some pollutants are not easy to Dust from mining activities may also have toxic effects
see in water samples. depending on its chemical components and may be
dangerous to human health. Mining companies provide
Water pollution is caused by chemical reactions between safety clothing and breathing masks to protect the
the water and exposed rocks and mine waste. The water health of mine workers. However, many people make
may become acidic and then dissolve toxic metal ions. a living from ‘informal’ (illegal) small-scale mining
SA

The combination of acidic water with a high concentration without a licence. Health problems arising from
of toxic metal ions kills many aquatic organisms. Some exposure to toxic substances are common among miners
of the metal ions exist only in low concentrations in this working in this way.
water. However, organisms absorb these ions and retain
them in their body – a form of bioaccumulation. The
KEY WORDS
concentrations increase further in organisms that are higher
up the food chain. This process is called biomagnification biomagnification: the process in which the
and can cause the death of top consumers. concentration of a substance in living things
becomes higher at progressively higher levels in
Land pollution and waste management a food chain or food web
In the past, mining waste was often put in piles near photosynthesis: the process by which plants
the point of extraction – in some cases on top of make (synthesise) glucose using carbon dioxide
watercourses, which then became polluted with toxic and water, with sunlight as the source of energy
chemicals (Figure 2.31). Sometimes, unstable waste which is captured by chlorophyll in plants
piles collapse, increasing land and water pollution.
The affected area may be quite small, but the toxic

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2 Natural resources

Mining activity is often evident from the damaged small number of people will be directly employed to
landscape. This is visual pollution. Large-scale surface extract minerals. However, if the mineral is refined
mining will create the most obvious visual pollution. Visual and processed in the same country, further jobs
pollution may only be temporary because it is possible to are created. In many cases, minerals and ores are
restore the landscape after mining activities have finished. exported to be used in manufacturing processes in
other countries, which creates jobs in the country
importing the mineral.
Extraction usually benefits both local and national
economies. Jobs are created to extract minerals and
to supply transport and mining equipment, as well as
during the refining process. If all these activities occur

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in the same country, it generates significant income
for buying goods and services, as well as investing in
infrastructure projects (Figure 2.33).

dust (air pollution).

Questions
2.4
PL
Figure 2.32: Explosives are sometimes used to
loosen rock. This causes both noise pollution and

State three reasons why illegal mining (mining

M
without a licence) is bad for people and
the environment. Figure 2.33: Extracting resources increases the
2.5 Discuss how reduced plant growth can affect population of an area, but it may also result in an
an ecosystem. improvement in facilities and infrastructure, such
as roads.
2.6 Describe how dust from mining impacts living
organisms near the mine.
Improvements to transport and services, such as
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2.7 Define the term ‘biomagnification’. healthcare and education, are almost always required
to supply the mining industry and to support the mine
workers and their families. Some improvements are
COMMAND WORDS
paid for by the mining companies as a condition of
discuss: write about issue(s) or topic(s) in depth in their mining licence. Taxes (from both companies and
a structured way individual workers) can provide enough revenue to
invest in infrastructure projects that benefit the whole
define: give a precise meaning population. Local businesses may also benefit by
supplying workers in the area as the local population
increases due to the increased industry.
Economic impacts Negative economic effects of extraction include the
Extracting valuable minerals provides employment fact that some local people may lose their livelihoods.
for people and taxes for a government. Modern For example, farmers may have to give up their land
mining is carried out using machines, so only a if it is needed to develop the mine.

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Social impacts ACTIVITY 2.4

The social impacts of mining are often closely linked
to its economic impacts. For example, increased Imagine that a company is planning to establish a
employment in an area may result in a higher standard new mine in your local area. Copy and complete
of living. The development of roads and communication the following table to record the economic and
networks to supply the mine also benefits the social impacts that the mine would have on
local community. local people.

An increased local population has both advantages

Economic Social
and disadvantages. It may bring a greater demand
for housing, which can cause a housing shortage Positive impacts
that increases house prices in the area. People on Negative impacts

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lower incomes than mine workers might find housing
costs unaffordable. Extraction also needs a large When you have completed your table, join up in
amount of land, so whole communities may need to pairs and share your ideas. Add anything to your
be relocated. table that your partner included that you had not
Table 2.3 summarises the potential social impacts of thought of.

to the area in which extraction occurs.

Benefits of extraction
Improved roads and
PL
mining on an area. There may be other impacts specific

Drawbacks of extraction
Loss of homes due to
communication systems land use for mining
(to service the mine) also
used by locals
Improvements to
schools and medical
Relocation will mean
communities are not
kept together
REFLECTION
How did you decide what the positive and
negative impacts would be of extraction in your
local area? Do you think the impacts could be
different for someone in a different location?
Why, or why not?
M
Local religious/cultural
facilities (as the
sites could be lost
population grows to Strategies for managing
work at the mine) A higher population
Better community
could lead to a damaged landscapes
shortage of housing in
facilities (to meet the Management of any mining operation should start with
the area
needs of a growing plans for safe waste disposal and end by restoring the
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population) Loss of cultural identity land to its original state.

due to the influx of
Improvements to
workers from other areas
drinking water supplies / Land restoration
sanitation systems
Methods of land restoration vary between sites, but
Table 2.3: Some of the benefits and drawbacks of there some typical processes.
mineral extraction. Mines produce a large quantity of waste. Sometimes
this can be reshaped to blend in with the surrounding
landforms. The deep hole created by the extraction
process may also be refilled with some of this material.
The overburden is often put back to help with the
reshaping of the area (Figure 2.34).

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2 Natural resources

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Figure 2.34: This huge excavator is replacing the Figure 2.35: On the site of old mines, tree roots help
overburden removed from a coal mine in Germany, to to prevent soil erosion and also support a variety of
help restore the landscape. organisms in the area.

PL
Excavation sites need to be returned to as near a natural
habitat as possible, so the next stage is to develop a
good topsoil to enable plants to regenerate. To start this
process, soil from other areas may be imported to cover
the surface of the mining site. This creates a good base
for plant roots to develop.
Some resources extracted during mining are toxic.
Companies monitor water flowing from the site for many
years to check for pollution. Contaminated waste can also
into a nature reserve to help increase the biodiversity
in the area. The land may also be used for recreation
(Figure 2.36), such as sailing on a lake or reservoir, or
other outdoor activities.
Sometimes, the holes created by mining are used to
contain household waste until they are full. The waste
is then covered with soil and planted with trees.
This is referred to as landfill.
M
be treated using a process called bioremediation.
This is similar to the methods used for biological
extraction. Many organisms can break down toxic
substances into other substances that are less hazardous.
These organisms can be used to extract toxic materials
from an area to make it suitable for growing a wide range
of species again. Other microorganisms and plants may be
SA

added later to help improve the fertility of the soil once the
toxin level has dropped sufficiently to allow them to thrive.
Once soil conditions are right, an area can be replanted
with trees. Tree roots stabilise the soil, holding it in place.
Trees also support other organisms, providing food and Figure 2.36: Surface mines can be repurposed into
shelter to help establish a new ecosystem (Figure 2.35). tourist attractions, including adventure activities such
as this zip wire.
Repurposing land
Mineral extraction often creates large holes in the
landscape. If the rock lining the hole is impermeable, it The benefits and limitations of
can be filled with water to form a reservoir. This water
could be used for irrigating farmland or processed to land management strategies
provide clean, safe drinking water for humans.
Whenever mining takes place, there will be an impact
Even though the area may have changed from its on the environment. The challenge is to address this
original terrain, the restored land could be repurposed damage in the most appropriate way. Land restoration

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allows natural communities to re-establish themselves. typically restore the site to its original state. Creating
However, this can take a long time, and it still requires landfill can also cause problems. For example,
careful management and monitoring to check for decomposition in the landfill may generate the
impacts of toxic materials. greenhouse gas methane, and there is an increased risk
of water pollution. However, it does help solve the issue
The repurposing of mining sites for other uses often
of disposing of large quantities of waste generated by
provides a quicker solution. However, it does not
households and industry.

CASE STUDY

The Antamina Mine, Peru

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PL
M
Figure 2.37: The Antamina copper mine, Peru. Extraction has meant a significant change to the landscape.

The Antamina mine is a large open-pit mine The mine was expected to stop production in 2022.
located high in the Andes Mountains of Peru However, more reserves have been found and
at an altitude above 4000 metres (Figure 2.37). increased investment in efficient processing machinery
The estimated reserve is 1.5 billion tonnes has extended the expected life of the mine to 2029.
SA

of ore. Extraction of copper and zinc ores

began in 2001. The mine employs more than Questions
5000 people. 1 Suggest why the mine was developed in such
Before mining could begin, more than 100 million a remote location.
tonnes of surface rock had to be removed and 2 Water pollution is a serious risk at this open-pit
placed in waste piles. The ores were then mine. Give three reasons why there is a high
removed and crushed in the processing plant to risk of water pollution.
produce a more concentrated material. The water
waste from this process was stored in a compound 3 Suggest how the use of pipes for
to prevent water pollution. The concentrated transportation of the material makes the
material was then mixed with more water and process more sustainable.
moved in a 300 km pipeline to the coast. At the
4 Explain why it is unlikely that the land will be
coast, this water was removed so that the material
fully restored to its original condition when this
could be loaded onto ships.
mine stops production.

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2 Natural resources

SELF-ASSESSMENT Sustainable management

You have now studied a lot of concepts relating strategies
to the extraction of rocks, ores and minerals. How
confident do you feel about the key ideas in this Although they are considered to be finite resources,
topic? Create a bar chart, like this one, to rate there are several ways of making the exploitation of
your understanding. Add horizontal bars to show rocks, ores and minerals more sustainable.
how confident you feel on a scale of 1–10.
Knowledge of topic
Reduce and reuse
Reducing and reusing means making better use of
Methods of extraction products and resources, such as rocks and minerals,

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so they last longer.
Factors affecting decision The process of excavating, refining and manufacturing
to extract rocks, ores and minerals uses large amounts of energy
Environmental impacts as well as resources. The amounts of material and
of extraction resources in manufacturing can be reduced by:
Economic and social
impacts of extraction
Strategies to
restore landscapes
Benefits and limitations
of restoration strategies

2.3 Sustainable
PL
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
•

•
using building products that contain less material
but which are shaped to have the equivalent
strength (Figure 2.38)
processing materials as close as possible to the site
where they are excavated, to reduce the fuel used for
transportation
carefully planning which resources are needed
and how much of them are required, to limit the
amount of waste
finding new methods of building that reduce the
M
amount of materials required and limit waste, such
as computer technologies that can 3D print a house
management of rocks, at its final site to reduce the waste materials when
items such as bricks are cut to size (Figure 2.39).
ores and minerals
A finite (non-renewable) resource is a natural resource
SA

that is being used up at a faster rate than it is being

replaced. Sustainability means meeting the needs of
the present without affecting the ability of future
generations to meet their needs. A fully sustainable
resource will never run out. Industries such as Figure 2.38: This building brick is as strong as one
agriculture and forestry can be sustainable because the without the gaps, but it requires less clay to make.
resources are biological and can be regrown. However, Bricks like this are also lighter to transport than
rock, ores and minerals will not last forever. traditional bricks.

KEY WORD
sustainability: the ability to meet the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs

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Figure 2.39: This house is being ‘printed’ on site

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using computer-controlled equipment. Techniques Figure 2.41: Scrap metal in a scrapyard. Recycling
like this use fewer materials than traditional methods metals is far more energy efficient than extracting
and create less waste. from metal ores.

Making new products requires resources, energy and Table 2.4 shows the recycling data for several countries

PL
time. One of the simplest ways to reduce the consumption
of finite materials is to re-use items that already exist.
For example, people could refill glass bottles and jars
rather than buying – and therefore creating a demand for
new ones – or they could use strong containers or bags
instead of single-use ones (Figure 2.40).
in 2022.

Country

Australia
Brazil
China
Kenya
Mexico
Proportion of all waste
that is recycled (%)
52.9
2.8
24.4
19.9
9.6
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Russia 5.3
South Korea 67.1
USA 14.8
Zimbabwe 21.8

Table 2.4: Percentage of waste that is recycled in

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Figure 2.40: Many single-use containers and bags different countries, 2022.
are plastic, which is made from oil – a finite resource.
Plastic items are a major cause of marine pollution. Analysis of this data shows that in 2022, most of the
Replacing single-use items with longer-lasting countries listed were recycling less than 50% of their
alternatives conserves resources and helps waste, and in all cases there is potential for improvement.
the environment. It is difficult to find any overall trends in the data, too.
For example, there is no clear correlation between the
wealth of a county and its success in recycling.
Recycling When considering how countries could improve their
Recycling materials makes an important contribution recycling percentages, it is worth first exploring the
to the sustainable use of rocks, ores and minerals. Many reasons why people do not recycle. Some global data is
manufactured goods, from cars to cans, can be recycled. shown in Table 2.5.
Most metals can be recovered and refined back to
clean metals to be re-used by industries (Figure 2.41).
This takes less energy than processing the ores to make
metals. However, there are some issues with recycling.

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2 Natural resources

waste, they may dispose of it by an easier option.

CRITICAL THINKING TIP It is important to educate people in the ways that
When analysing data, it is important to understand different materials can be recycled.
how accurate the information is before drawing
conclusions. Look at the information in Table 2.5.
You might ask the following key questions:
• Who collected and compiled this data?
Are they impartial? Can they be trusted?
• Was the data collected in a meaningful way
(for example, was there a sufficient sample
size that represents the whole population)?

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• Views change over time, so how recently was
the data collected?
• When a category of ‘other’ is provided, is it
a significant proportion of the total? If so, is Figure 2.42: Efficient systems may help increase the
there another group that should be reported rate of recycling. Collection from home and a range
separately within the table?

Reasons for
not recycling
Lack of recycling
facilities/services
Not knowing how to
use facilities correctly
Inconvenience
PL
Proportion of people stating
this as the main reason (%)
42

25

16
of colour-coded bins for different materials increases
recycling rates.

Increasing the efficiency of extraction

Increasing the efficiency of extraction seems an obvious
starting point for effective resource use. For example,
underground coal mines only remove 55–70% of the
coal in a reserve due to the difficulties of extracting the
remaining coal safely and cost-effectively. To improve
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the efficiency of extraction, many mine wastes are
of recycling now being processed for a second time. This allows
Lack of trust in 15 valuable materials to be recovered and reduces the risk
the system of pollution from stored mining waste. Techniques such
Other 2 as phytomining may also be useful in obtaining more
metals from the waste.
Table 2.5: Reasons why people do not recycle. Improvements in the performance of the machines used
SA

in mining and processing, as well as using computers

From the information in Table 2.5, you might consider in data processing, also increase extraction efficiency.
some of the following ways to encourage more recycling: However, surface mining has more potential than
underground mining, because it is more difficult to
• Improve accessibility: Ensure that facilities are predict geological conditions underground.
available for the main waste types (Figure 2.42).
Without these, important resources may be
disposed of in landfill sites rather than recovering Avoiding resource depletion
them for use in new products. The increasing global population puts huge demands
• Make recycling easier: If the process of recycling on all resources. Without careful monitoring, important
is too complex, people are less likely to make the minerals and metals may be depleted beyond rescue.
effort, particularly if it is easier to dispose of the Unfortunately, it is not as simple as preventing
waste in another way. people from using items made of these key resources.
• Education: The waste from many households and At present, there are no potential replacements available
businesses is made up of many different materials. for many resources, and in some cases, the use of
If people are unsure how to treat different types of these resources may prevent a larger environmental
problem. For example, the development of electric cars

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requires additional quantities of metals such as lithium,

which is used in electric car batteries, to be extracted.
However, electric vehicles could reduce the reliance
on fossil fuels – another finite resource and one that
contributes significantly to climate change.

Use of alternative materials

There is not any one easy answer to the problem
of demand for resources. The solution is likely to
be a combination of careful use and looking for
opportunities to use alternative materials, among Figure 2.43: Electrical equipment is sometimes

E
other things. Alternative materials may be in greater referred to as ‘e-waste’. Many countries now have
abundance, therefore reducing the demand for the laws to ensure that the valuable metal components in
resource that is in short supply. Switching to other these items are recycled.
materials may result in a cheaper product or the use
of a material that was previously discarded as waste.
For example, scientists are working on a scheme to SUSTAINABILITY TIP

PL
process discarded plastic bottles to use as strengthening
for concrete. If successful, this will make stronger
concrete (which can be made with less mined materials).

Legislation and enforcement

While many businesses and individuals are trying to
minimise their use – and misuse – of resources, others
may continue in their existing practices. Because of this,
governments may need to create laws to force a change
in behaviour. These include:
Electrical waste (e-waste) may contain a lot of
valuable metals that could be re-used instead
of extracting and processing more materials
from the ground. Complete an audit at home of
all the electrical equipment that you and your
family no longer use. Investigate local services
that are available to recycle old electrical waste.
Were you aware of these local systems to recycle
e-waste? What could be done to make local
people use them more regularly?
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• laws requiring businesses to take back products for
recycling when their use has ended
• ensuring that all waste disposal is recorded, to monitor
types of waste and ensure it is treated correctly
Benefits and limitations of
• fines for people who dump waste illegally and do sustainable management
not use approved waste disposal systems
strategies
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• policing the disposal of waste – for example, businesses

may have unannounced spot checks to ensure that
The benefits and limitations of different sustainable
they are complying with requirements (Figure 2.43)
management strategies vary according to the local
• additional taxes for businesses that produce too situation and the type of mineral, ore or rock used.
much waste. However, there are some general principles, which are
It is important that any new laws are enforced; if people outlined in Table 2.6.
do not comply, they may be fined, lose their business
licence or even go to prison.

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2 Natural resources

Benefits of sustainable Limitations of sustainable

management strategies management strategies
2.4 Energy resources
It will delay the date Recycling of materials Most energy is created by direct combustion (burning) to
of the exhaustion may be difficult as produce heat and light. Combustion requires a suitable
of finite resources. products use a lot of fuel source – usually something that contains large
different materials. amounts of carbon. While items such as wood contain
Re-use of minerals carbon, there are other sources that are far more ‘energy
or ores means less Not everyone will recycle, dense’, producing a greater amount of heat from a unit
environmental damage meaning materials are of fuel. These sources – natural gas (methane), coal and
caused by mining/ lost. petroleum (oil) – are known as fossil fuels (Figure 2.44).
extraction.
Sustainable extraction

E
Recycling of materials methods may take longer
often uses less energy and be more complex to
than refining raw manage.
materials/ores.
Reducing the volume
Reducing the volume of material used in a
of material in a product
may mean it can be
made more cheaply.
Legislation may help
restrict the use of rare
materials to essential
uses / ensure more
sustainable approaches
are used.
The need to use
PL
product may mean it
performs less effectively.
Legislation may not
be followed or may be
complex to enforce.
Some alternative
materials do not perform
as well as the materials
they are replacing.
Some alternatives may
Figure 2.44: Most vehicles rely on fossil fuels as their
energy source.

KEY WORDS
M
alternative materials not be recyclable.
combustion: a high-temperature reaction between
may be more effective
Demand for certain a fuel and oxygen, commonly referred to as burning
than using traditional
materials may increase,
methods and materials. natural gas: a naturally occurring flammable gas
meaning the current
that contains carbon; the most common example
supplies need to be
of natural gas is methane
supplemented with
additional extraction. petroleum: a liquid mixture of carbon-containing
SA

chemicals that is present in some rocks, which is

Table 2.6: Some benefits and limitations of extracted and refined to produce fuels such as
management strategies. petrol and diesel oil
fossil fuel: a carbon-based fuel, formed over many
millions of years from the decay of living matter
Questions
2.8 Name three ‘Rs’ relating to sustainable
management strategies. How fossil fuels are formed
2.9 Why will it still be necessary to extract more Fossil fuels are produced from the decay of plants
resources, such as metal ores, even if sustainable and animals. These remains form organic matter
management strategies are used? that becomes covered in layers of sediment.
2.10 Why will the introduction of legislation alone Over millions of years and buried deep in the ground
not be sufficient to change people’s behaviour by further layers, the organic material is subjected
regarding the use of finite resources? to great pressure and heat. The precise conditions,

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and the type of animal and plant material available,

determine whether coal, petroleum or natural gas
is produced. Huge forests grew
millions of years ago
Figure 2.45 shows how coal is formed. The processes
covering most of
for petroleum and natural gas are similar, and are the earth
shown in Figure 2.46. In both cases, the dead remains
of animals and plants are buried under many layers The vegetation dies and
of sediment, so extracting them involves digging or forms peat
drilling deep underground. The length of time it takes
for fossil fuels to form means that there is only a
limited supply. The peat is compressed

E
between sediment layers
to form lignite

Further compression
forms coal

Ocean

Small marine
organisms
PL
300 to 400 million years ago

Ocean
Figure 2.45: The process by which coal is made.

50 to 100 million years ago

Today
M
SA

Trapped
Sediment and rock
gas
Impermeable rock
Porous sedimentary rock
Organisms turn into
petroleum and natural gas

Porous sedimentary
rock Impermeable Trapped Sediment
rock petroleum and rock

Figure 2.46: Petroleum and natural gas form in a similar way to coal. They are held in a layer of porous rock,
which means they can be accessed by drilling.

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2 Natural resources

Types of energy resources they are a suitable replacement for fossil fuels. However,
supplies of the source material (uranium) are finite, so
Energy resources can be classified by whether they are although it will last a long time, it cannot be replaced
limited resources or available in unlimited supplies: once it has been used.
• Limited resources are often described as being non- Biofuels include the burning of wood, of which there
renewable (finite). Once they are used, they cannot is only a limited amount at any one point in time.
be replaced. However, it is possible to replace felled trees with new
ones, so it is classified as renewable.
• Renewable, or non-finite, resources of energy are
those that can be replenished – they can be used
over and over again.
Energy resources and the

E
Table 2.7 lists the most common examples of renewable
and non-renewable energy types.
generation of electricity
Most electricity is generated by electromagnetic induction.
Renewable (non-finite) Non-renewable (finite) This transforms kinetic energy (energy from movement)
energy sources energy sources into electrical energy using a magnet and loops of a
Biofuels (bioethanol,
biomass, biogas, wood)
Geothermal power
Hydro-electric power
Tidal power
Wave power
Solar power
Wind power
uranium
PL
Fossil fuels
(coal, petroleum,
natural gas)
Nuclear power using
conducting material, such as copper. As the coils are
rotated close to the magnet, electricity is generated.
A power source is needed to rotate the coils. This comes
from a turbine connected to the generator. Turbines are
designed to provide the rotary motion needed in the
generator. This is often achieved by passing a stream of
gas or liquid over the turbine blades, causing a shaft to
move (Figure 2.47).
Energy resources such as fossil fuels, biofuels, nuclear
and geothermal power are usually used to heat water to
M
produce steam. In this simple system, a heat source (in the
Table 2.7: Classification of energy resources. burner) heats up water (in the boiler), which is converted
to steam. The steam passes over the blades of the
turbine, causing them to move. The rotation of the shaft
KEY WORDS makes the copper coils in the generator move, producing
electricity that is transferred by wires to the light bulb.
renewable: an item or resource that will not be
SA

used up or can be replaced; also referred to as a

non-finite resource KEY WORDS

bioethanol: a type of fuel made from plant material electromagnetic induction: a process for
that has been fermented to form an alcohol, which generating electricity that uses a magnet and the
can be combusted to provide energy movement of a metal coil

biomass: organic materials from plants and turbine: a machine, often containing fins, that is
animals that are combusted to produce heat made to revolve by the use of gas, steam or air

biogas: the gas produced when organic matter generator: a machine that converts mechanical
decomposes, which is combusted to produce heat; energy (such as movement) into electrical energy
biogas usually has a large proportion of methane burner: a receptacle used to hold fuel as it is burnt
boiler: a vessel used to heat water to convert it
While some of these energy resources are easy to into steam
classify, others are more complex. For example, nuclear
fuels will last for centuries, and many scientists believe

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Figure 2.48 is a simplified diagram of the production Turbine

of electricity from a geothermal source. In this case, Generator
cold water is pumped under pressure into a layer of Steam
hot rocks. The rocks heat the water, and the hot water
then returns to the surface under pressure. The hot
water heats up a second supply of water using a heat
exchanger. The steam produced in the second supply
moves the turbine, which generates electricity in the Boiler Shaft Wire
generator. Water can then be re-used in the system to
continue the process. Bulb
Burner

E
KEY WORDS
heat exchanger: a device used to transfer heat Figure 2.47: A simple electricity generation system
between two fluids at different temperatures using a turbine.

Ground level

PL
Pump
Heat Turbine
Exchanger
Excess water vapour
Production well

Production well

Pump Generator
Injection well

1 km
Insulating
2 km Rocks
M
3 km

4 km Hot rocks
4.5 km

Figure 2.48: Production of electricity from a geothermal source.

SA

Wind power KEY WORD

Wind power does not rely on the heating of water to
produce steam. Figure 2.49 shows a wind turbine. wind power: electricity generation using a
Note the addition of a gearbox to maximise the rotation wind turbine
of the shaft as it enters the generator. The brake
will slow down or stop the rotor blade in very windy
conditions to prevent the blade being damaged.

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2 Natural resources

Rotor blade Solar power

Solar power is the main exception in the way that
electricity is produced. Most electricity produced by
Brake solar power comes from photovoltaic cells. While the
Gearbox chemistry and construction of photovoltaic cells is quite
complex, they all work on the principle that certain
Generator
materials produce a small electric charge when they are
exposed to light. The electricity produced by one cell is
small, but a bank of cells organised into solar panels,
and a group of panels put together in a large area, can
produce a significant amount of electricity (Figure 2.50).

E
Tower

Questions
Foundations

Figure 2.49: A wind turbine.

Grid

PL
Connection

2.11 Compare the generation systems shown in

Figures 2.47, 2.48 and 2.49.
Figure 2.50: Technological advances in the design
and manufacture of photovoltaic cells are making them
far more efficient. However, many of the metals used
within the cells are quite rare and expensive to obtain.
M
a Name the component that is common to all Tidal power
three systems.
Tidal power uses the natural rise and fall in water level
b Explain the purpose of the components in a particular area each day. As the level drops, water is
that are not common to all three generation held back by a tidal barrage – a small dam that releases
systems in a table like this one. The first row water back through a turbine. This creates the electricity
has been done for you.
SA

using a generator. The amount of power generated

depends on the change in tide level throughout the day.
Component Purpose Figure 2.51 shows the scale of these constructions.
Burner Location for combustion of fuel to
heat water KEY WORDS
solar power: harnessing energy from sunlight
2.12 Rank the three technologies from the simplest to
tidal power: the use of tides (the natural change
the most difficult to install. Explain the reasons
in sea levels) to generate electricity
for your choices.
tidal barrage: a small dam used to manage
COMMAND WORD water to allow for electricity generation

compare: identify/comment on similarities and/

or differences

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possible to simply use fast-flowing rivers. As water is

released through the dam or flows through the river, it
causes the turbine to rotate, allowing electricity to be
generated from this kinetic energy. One benefit of this
system is that provided there is a suitable supply of
water, electricity can be generated whenever it is needed.

Figure 2.51: An example of tidal power generation

near St Malo in France. Turbines below the water level

E
rotate as the level changes with the tide.

Wave power
Wave power also uses a turbine and generator to create

PL
electricity, but these use the smaller differences in
water levels caused by wind action. Power is therefore
produced by channelling the energy of waves at sea.
Unlike tidal power, wave power is not limited to the
regular pattern of the tides. However, electricity
generation may stop in calm weather, when there
are few or no waves. This type of generation can
take place further away from the coast so there is
potential to use larger areas.
Figure 2.53: The reservoirs created by hydro-electric
dams can be a potential store of fresh water, and
may be used for leisure or tourism purposes
that may create jobs in the area.

REFLECTION
M
You have come across a lot of technical and
subject-specific words and phrases in this
section. Are they all new to you? What strategies
have you used to help you remember all these
terms? Have they worked? If not, what other
methods could you try to help you remember
new terminology?
SA

KEY WORD
wave power: the use of changes in the height
of a body of water to generate electricity
hydro-electric power: the generation of
Figure 2.52: The use of new technologies to
electricity using flowing water
generate electricity will mean the workers of the
future will need different skills to maintain them.

Hydro-electric power
Hydro-electric power also uses a turbine, generator
and the flow of water. In most cases, water is stored in
a reservoir by a dam (Figure 2.53), although it is also

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2 Natural resources

Benefits and limitations of resources. In addition to these general factors, there may
also be localised issues that will have an impact.
energy resources
KEY WORD
Deciding which energy resource to use is not always
easy, because they all have different impacts, and all greenhouse gas: a gas that absorbs radiation
have both benefits and limitations. As a result, a range and emits the energy as thermal or heat energy,
of different strategies may be used to supply the energy such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxides
needs of a community. Table 2.8 summarises some of and water vapour
the main benefits and limitations of different energy

Energy Benefits Limitations

E
resource
Fossil Plentiful supply in some locations. Combustion produces carbon dioxide, which is a
fuels (coal, greenhouse gas.
Extraction provides jobs.
petroleum,
Other toxic gases are produced when combusted,
natural gas) Existing technology – the fuel is
which can affect health.

Nuclear
power (using
uranium)

Biofuels
PL
available for most countries to use.

Does not produce carbon dioxide.

Small amount of fuel produces large
Extraction causes damage to local area.
Limited supply – prices rise as the supplies get smaller.
Risk of radiation leakage (impact on human health
and the environment).
amounts of energy (it is energy dense). Waste products cannot be recycled, as radiation is
Power plants employ lots of people.
Fuel is useful for a long time.
active for centuries.
Limited supply.

A renewable resource – bioethanol, Carbon dioxide and other toxic gases are produced
M
(bioethanol, biomass and wood are obtained when burnt.
biomass, from growing plants; biogas comes
A lot of land is needed to grow crops for fuel.
biogas, wood) from the recycling of waste products.
Potential removal of natural ecosystems to grow
Growing more plants uses carbon
fuel crops.
dioxide through photosynthesis.
Growing fuel crops may result in food shortages.
SA

Geothermal Does not produce carbon dioxide. Can be expensive to install.

power
Unlimited supply, as it uses heat Only certain areas have suitable conditions.
from Earth as its power source.
Hydro-electric Does not produce carbon dioxide. Building dams impacts the natural flow of water.
power
Water can be re-used for Villages and ecosystems may be destroyed when dams
other purposes. and reservoirs are built.
Tidal power Does not produce carbon dioxide. Limited to specific coastal areas.
Tidal movements are not dependent Impacts on the tourist industry and local fishing areas.
on weather conditions.
Wave power Does not produce carbon dioxide. Limited to specific areas.
A renewable source of power. Currently not very efficient, so large amounts of
resources are needed.
Unsuitable for certain weather conditions.

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Energy Benefits Limitations

resource
Solar power Does not produce carbon dioxide. Only efficient under certain weather conditions.
Sunlight is an unlimited resource. Generation only occurs in daylight hours.
Visual impact and potential damage to local ecosystems.
Materials used to make solar panels are in short supply.
Wind power Does not produce carbon dioxide. Not all locations are suitable.
Uses a renewable resource. Generation only occurs in certain conditions
(at certain wind speeds).

E
Visual impact.
Uses a large area.

Table 2.8: The benefits and limitation of different energy resources.

Availability of energy resource

PL
Using an abundant local resource has economic
advantages. Some countries still have plentiful reserves
of fossil fuels, which will keep electricity generation costs
lower and so may be favoured over less-polluting methods.
Similarly, some countries have easy access to geothermal
energy (Figure 2.54) and will choose this over other energy
resources that may prove to be more expensive.
Location of population
If a population lives a long way from the energy
resource, the cost of supply increases, as additional
pipelines or transport are needed (Figure 2.55).
There may also be concerns about the impacts on
health for people living near a nuclear power station
with the risk of radiation. Some people may need to
relocate to allow the exploitation of the energy resource –
for example, if an area needs to be flooded to create
a reservoir for a hydro-electric dam (Figure 2.56).
M
Issues may not always be negative, however.
The development of a hydro-electric dam may
require improvements to infrastructure, such as roads
and communication systems. The increase in population
needed to operate the site may also mean that improved
education and health facilities are built, too.
SA

Figure 2.54: The Blue Lagoon in Iceland is a series Figure 2.55: Petroleum or natural gas deposits may
of pools heated by geothermal energy from below be located in remote areas. Building a pipeline is one
ground. This in an abundant resource to utilise in way to transport them to where they are needed, but
this location. it is expensive.

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2 Natural resources

Impact on employment
Exploiting an energy resource impacts people working
in local industries, such as farming where agricultural
land is no longer available, but it may provide new
employment opportunities within the new generation
site. The benefits may appear to cancel out the
limitations, but this is not necessarily the case if the
farmers do not have the skills and qualifications to work
at the new site. Pollution to the area caused by the new
development may also have a negative impact of other
industries, such as fishing.

E
Figure 2.56: The flooding of the River Ter to form
the Sau Reservoir in Spain meant the population of
a village needed to relocate. Signs of the original
buildings are still visible when the water level is low.

CASE STUDY
Biofuels: The future of fuels or a
misguided technology?

PL source. Biogas can be produced from a range of

organic wastes, such as animal manure, food waste
and household waste.
Bioethanol is a renewable energy resource that
is mainly produced by fermenting the sugar
found in some crops. Crops that can provide
this sugar include maize, wheat, corn, willow,
Miscanthus and similar tall grasses, sorghum,
M
and Jerusalem artichoke. These crops are
often grown especially for biofuel production.
Bioethanol can be used as a substitute for
petroleum (gasoline).
Bioethanol is believed to have great potential as a
fuel for cars and trucks; it is commonly mixed with
petrol or diesel fuels to make these finite resources
SA

Figure 2.57: An aerial view of ploughed land on a last longer, but development work is underway to
sugar cane plantation near Ribeirao Preto, Brazil. use it as a complete replacement for fossil fuels.
The crops from this plantation will not be used for
Supporters of bioethanol production state a range
food but for the production of biofuels.
of benefits:

Fuels that are extracted from crop plants are known • Easy to source: Petroleum is a non-renewable
as biofuels. The three most common types are resource, whereas crops can be grown around
biogas, bioethanol and wood (the growing and the world for years to come.
burning of timber to produce heat). • Reduces greenhouse gases: The burning of
fossil fuels causes increased levels of carbon
Biogas is the common name for a mixture of gases dioxide. While the same is true of bioethanol,
formed by the decomposition of organic matter in the plants grown to provide the fuel use
the absence of oxygen (anaerobic decomposition). carbon dioxide to produce sugars via the
The main component of biogas, methane, is process of photosynthesis.
highly flammable and is therefore suitable as a fuel

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CONTINUED
• Economic security: Not all countries have a • Monoculture: The energy crops used to make
supply of oil, but many can grow suitable crops bioethanol are grown in the same large fields
to produce bioethanol. There is less risk of a year after year. This means that nutrients in
lack of energy supply if a country can produce the soil decrease. Adding fertilisers can cause
its own fuel. water pollution and the crop will also need the
People who are against the increased use of application of pesticides, which will affect the
bioethanol state a range of disadvantages: local ecosystem.
Questions
• Food shortages: Bioethanol is produced from
crops that have high quantities of sugar, which 1 Explain why the production of bioethanol

E
also tend to be food crops. When there are might be more attractive to a country without
people short of food across the world, it does its own oil supplies than one with large
not seem right to use potential food as fuel oil reserves.
rather than for feeding the hungry.
2 Suggest why the growing of biofuels on a
• Water usage: The crops need a lot of water, worldwide scale is seen to be important, even

PL
which can lead to a shortage of water for
humans and their livestock in some areas.
Industrial pollution: The amount of carbon
dioxide produced by bioethanol may be less
than that produced by fossil fuels, but the
factories that produce bioethanol do emit
pollutants, which can affect local populations.

Factors affecting the demand

3

4
though there are some clear disadvantages.
Suggest why a farmer might choose to grow
crops for bioethanol production rather than for
food production.
Describe how an increase in demand for
biofuels may impact biodiversity.

customers all over the world. While this can decrease

production costs, it has significantly increased the costs
M
for energy of transportation. Some estimates suggest that there
has been a fourfold increase in the number of shipping
Demand for energy is increasing worldwide, and experts journeys in the past 20 years (Figure 2.59). Air transport
predict that it will continue to do so. Nobody knows has also increased substantially.
exactly how long supplies of non-renewable resources
will last, and predictions so far have generally been
inaccurate. There are various reasons for this:
SA

• New deposits have been found.

• As prices have increased, some deposits have
become economic to exploit.
• New technologies have made extraction more
efficient (Figure 2.58).
Despite this, we know that as non-renewable resources
become more scarce, prices for them will continue to increase.
There are many factors involved in demand for energy
around the world, which are outlined in the following
sections.
Figure 2.58: Oil sands are rich in oils and tars that can
Transport be converted into fuels. As technology has improved
The development of more efficient systems of and prices for fuels have increased, it has become
production means that manufacturers often supply economically worthwhile to extract them.

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2 Natural resources

• a decrease in the price of oil (because worldwide

demand had decreased as a result of the two
factors above).
The global pandemic in the early 2020s meant that for
a period of time many factories did not work at full
capacity. This had an impact on the amount of energy
these factories used and the associated need to transport
these goods.

Climate
Comparing energy use between countries is complicated

E
by typical weather conditions. People living in a
temperate climate are likely to experience colder winters
Figure 2.59: An increase in transporting products
than those living in warmer climates. So, the energy
internationally means a greater demand for fuel to
demand for heating in colder climates is likely to be far
power the ships.
higher (Figure 2.60). In the winter months, people in

PL
Ships and planes both need large amounts of fossil fuels
to operate. The cost of transporting goods across oceans
is high, but the savings in manufacturing still make these
forms of transportation attractive to the end customer,
even though the energy used in the process is more than
if the items were produced locally.

Personal and national wealth

Domestic demand for energy (and the purchase of
manufactured goods) depends on how well off people
colder climates also experience fewer hours of daylight,
so there is an increased use of electric lighting.
Climate change has resulted in more extremes of
weather, including excessive cold and heat. These have
resulted in increased energy consumption, particularly
from people living in urban areas, who need additional
heating or cooling from air-conditioning units.
M
are within a country. If economic conditions are good,
employment is higher so people have more money to
spend on luxury items. If economic conditions are poor,
households will have less money to spend and will need
to make savings. They may limit how much fuel they
use and restrict the purchase and use of electrical items,
which use energy.
SA

These factors also play a part at a national level. If a

country has less income because it is manufacturing
less, it will be less able to import foreign goods. A weak
Figure 2.60: People living in colder parts of the world
economy means:
use more energy to heat their homes than those in
• less manufacturing (less energy used) warmer climates.
• fewer goods to transport (less energy used)
• an inability to purchase foreign energy supplies.
Human population size
Sometimes, the impact of reduced manufacturing in one
country can affect the global economy. For example, in Population growth is probably the greatest factor that
the mid-2010s, reduced manufacturing in China meant has affected energy demand. The global population
that around the world there was: currently stands at more than 8 billion, and there is little
sign that this is going to level out. That is a lot of people,
• a reduction in demand for steel consuming a lot of energy and needing a lot of materials
• a decrease in the amount of manufactured goods to function in their daily lives. Even the production and
transported by ships supply of food and clean water requires significant energy.

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Industry
Energy use per head of population is far lower
in traditional farming communities than it is in
communities that have become industrialised.
Manufacturing requires large quantities of energy in
all stages of production. Iron and steel production,
for example, has an extremely high energy demand,
using fuel to melt iron ore and refine it (Figure 2.61).
Additional heat is needed to shape the resulting product.
Developments in manufacturing techniques have Figure 2.62: Electricity supplies may be disrupted for
resulted in technological advances in the products a number of reasons, including physical damage to

E
and have also made these products more affordable. the supply system, such as a fallen power line.
This means that many items are now considered
necessities, not luxuries. The increase in demand leads
to increasing energy needs for increased production. Scarcity of resources
The ability to supply electricity is often linked to the

PL
Disruption to and unreliability of supply
People need energy resources to be readily available
(Figure 2.62). On a basic level, this may be a need for
materials to burn for heating and cooking, but on
a larger scale it includes a regular electricity supply
to power appliances. While there are still issues with
supply in some locations, where supply is reliable it
will encourage greater use through the purchase of
additional appliances. In this way, demand for electricity
increases because of its availability.
availability of resources that allow it to be generated.
This might be because of conflict between countries,
which may prevent resources such as natural gas from
being imported. Resources may also become scarce due
to changes in weather conditions. For example, cloudy
weather with little wind affects how much wind and
solar energy can be generated. It may also impact wave
power, as winds can create larger waves.

Questions
M
2.13 Explain how an increase in the standard of living
causes an increase in the demand for electricity.
2.14 Table 2.9 shows the energy use per person in four
different countries in 2021.
Country Energy used per
SA

person/kWh
Central African Republic 286
Iceland 165 871
Pakistan 4 243
USA 78 754

Figure 2.61: The production of iron and steel Table 2.9: Energy used per person in 2021.
requires the use of very high temperatures, needing
large quantities of energy. a Calculate the percentage of the energy used by a
person from Iceland that is used by an equivalent
person from the Central African Republic.
b Suggest reasons for the differences in the
energy use between the two countries with
higher energy consumption per person and the
two with lower energy use.

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2 Natural resources

2.15 Iceland relies mainly on geothermal energy as its If this occurs, it will result in power cuts and, in the case
power source. Describe how this could be used to of fuels such as petroleum, the risk of fuel rationing.
generate electricity.
2.16 ‘Countries with strong national economies will KEY WORDS
always use more energy than those with weaker
national economies.’ How far do you agree with energy gap: a situation in which demand for
this statement? Justify your answer. energy is greater than the available supply
2.17 How could climate change affect the demand power cut: a period of time when electricity is
for energy? shut off so people cannot use it
fuel rationing: a controlled restriction on the
COMMAND WORD

E
availability of fuel for defined purposes
justify: support a case with evidence/argument
There are several practical ways of reducing energy
consumption. In particular, electrical devices should be
turned off when not in use. Many devices have a ‘standby’
2.5 Conservation and
management of
energy resources
PL
As you have seen, the increased need for energy is due
to an increasing population, greater demand from
industrialisation and improved living standards. No
one knows how long supplies of non-renewable fossil
fuels will last, and at the moment not enough energy is
mode that enables them to be accessed rapidly. It has been
calculated that the average device uses around 15 watts of
power even when it is in this mode. Four or five devices
left on standby in a household is the equivalent to leaving
an electric light on for the same length of time.
Promoting this strategy has some key benefits. It prevents
the need for further investment in infrastructure, and the
reductions in energy consumption will not significantly
affect people’s ability to use equipment. The main
limitation is that it is hard to enforce as it will involve
changing behaviours, would be hard to monitor and
M
being generated from renewable resources to meet the
world’s needs. there would be few penalties for failing to do so.

Insulation
Strategies for effective A standard European house (i.e. one in a cooler climate)
loses heat through a variety of routes. Figure 2.63 shows
energy use the proportions lost.
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What are the options for resolving this situation?

30−35% through
Would governments agree to all countries taking a share
the roof
of the available energy resources? If so, what happens
to countries that are colder and need energy to keep
warm and use lights in the winter months? Should
industrialised countries cut back on their use of energy
while others catch up? It is unlikely that all governments
would agree on all of these issues. However, they may be 21−31% through 18−25% through
able to reach agreement on the careful management of windows walls
the resources that are used.

6−9% through
Reducing consumption air leakage
The rapid increase in energy use in the past few years
has created the possibility of an energy gap – a Figure 2.63: The percentages of heat lost from an
difference between demand and the available supply. insulated house in a temperate climate.

65
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Insulation is one of the most effective methods of

reducing this type of heat loss. Using building materials
with good insulation properties prevents the loss of
heat to the air, in the same way that a blanket keeps a
person warm.
In the example shown in Figure 2.63, an insulation
layer could be added into the roof space (loft
insulation). Most heat is lost through the roof, so
investment in this area would have a big impact.
Similarly, a lot of heat can be lost through the walls.
Some homes are built with a gap between the inside

E
and outside walls. If this cavity is filled with an
insulating material, heat will pass through far more Figure 2.65: Installing insulation materials into walls
slowly than if this space was filled with air. Figure helps retain heat in cooler climates. While expensive,
2.64 shows the construction system for cavity wall the investment is often quickly paid back in lower
insulation. Figure 2.65 shows an alternative system for heating costs.
adding insulation to a wall.

Inner wall

Insulation
PL In the typical house in Figure 2.63, energy is also lost
through the windows. Reducing the size of the windows
would limit this, but it would also reduce natural light,
so may increase the amount of energy used for artificial
light. Instead, energy use can be reduced by double
glazing the window. This technique uses two panes of
glass with a gap in the middle to act as an insulator.
The sealed gap is filled with a clear material, such as
an inert gas like argon, or simply air. Further savings
could be made using triple glazing (three panes of glass;
Figure 2.66), but many people consider this to be too
M
expensive for the amount of energy they are saving.
This strategy has major benefits as, once installed, the
Outer
impact of insulation is long term. However, it can be
Wall costly and sometimes difficult to install into existing
homes that were not designed to be as energy efficient.
Some historic buildings would be difficult to adapt
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without changing the character of the structure.

Figure 2.64: Cavity wall insulation can be made from

a variety of insulating materials.

Figure 2.66: A cross-section of a triple-glazed

window. The extra layer reduces the heat transfer
through the window.

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2 Natural resources

FIELDWORKS ACTIVITY 2.2

How well do materials reduce heat loss? • Jar C: wrapped in the towel or put inside
the sock.
This simple investigation will help you to evaluate
how much heat energy insulation will retain, • Add the same volume of boiling water to each
reducing the amount of energy used. jar and put the lid on firmly.
• Record the temperature in each jar over 1 hour
You will need at 5-minute intervals.
• three identical glass jars with lids, each • Present your results in a table and in a line graph.
lid with a hole for a thermometer or
temperature probe

E
Thermometer or temperature probe
• three temperature probes, for the top of
each jar
• boiling water
5 5 5

4 4 4

3 3 3

• a towel or sock 2

1
2

1
2

•
•
a piece of paper
a timer

Before you start

PL
Organise a space where all three jars can be placed
side by side and the thermometers will be easy to
read. Wrap one jar in a towel or place it inside a
sock. Wrap another jar with a sheet of paper and
secure it.
0

-1

-2

-3

No covering
to jar
0

-1

-2

-3
-1

-2

-3
0

Jar wrapped with a Jar wrapped in

sheet of paper a towel
M
Safety Figure 2.67: How to set up your experiment.
Take extra care when handling, measuring and
pouring boiling water. Questions
Method 1 What do the temperature changes in jars A
and C tell you about the heat loss through
• Set up the three jars in a row, each with a
glass and through an insulator?
thermometer (or probe) through the lid
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(Figure 2.67). 2 Why was jar B included in the experiment?

• Label the jars A, B and C.
3 What could be done to make the water stay
• Jar A: no covering. hotter for longer?
• Jar B: with the covering of paper.
4 Suggest a further experiment that could be
done to test the issue of heat loss further.

FIELDWORK TIP
Review the method for the practical experiment.
What aspects of the experiment were kept
constant across all three jars? Why is this so
important for the accuracy of the experiment?

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Energy-efficient devices Businesses and individuals will save money, as they are
using fewer resources to operate the machines. However,
Appliances and machines use energy – either directly this benefit is only achieved if people can be persuaded
as fuel, in the case of vehicles, or indirectly by using to replace existing equipment with more energy-efficient
electricity to operate. However, a wide variety of new, examples. Not everyone can afford new equipment, and
energy-efficient versions are now available. scrapping less efficient machines increases the problems
Vehicles have become much more efficient in their of waste management and recycling.
energy use. Figure 2.68 shows the mean energy
efficiency of new cars purchased in the USA between
1975 and 2021. While direct comparisons are difficult
due to changes in models, improvements to engine
efficiency have clearly allowed cars to travel far

E
further on the same volume of fuel (approximately
6 km per litre in 1975 compared to over 13 km per
litre in 2021).
The situation could be improved further with the use
of alternative fuels and electric vehicles powered by
rechargeable batteries. People could also drive smaller,
lighter cars, which would be more energy efficient.

15

PL Figure 2.69: Schemes to encourage the use of

electric cars reduce the consumption of fossil fuels,
but investment is needed to make sure there are
enough spaces to charge the vehicle batteries.
Fuel consumption in km / litre

SUSTAINABILITY TIP
Once you understand where energy is used
inefficiently, you can apply the same principles to
10 an unfamiliar situation. For example:
M
• Older buildings were not designed to be as
energy efficient.
• Old machines could be replaced by newer,
more efficient ones.
5 • People may leave devices unattended.
0
• A group of people may use multiple items
2021
1975
1977
1979
1981
1983
1985
1987
1989
1991
1993
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
2005
2007
2009
2011
2013
2015
2017
2019
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when they could use one between

Year them instead.

Figure 2.68: The increase in the fuel efficiency of new However, do not assume that because something
cars in the USA since 1975. is new it uses less energy. Sometimes things are
created for convenience or comfort, and they
might use more energy than an older device or
Some countries offer scrappage schemes to remove
way of doing things.
inefficient machines, including vehicles and electrical
appliances. The consumer is paid to trade in their old
machine, which is then recycled. The purchase of a new
version improves energy efficiency and has a significant
impact on air quality. Schemes to make electric vehicles
more affordable will reduce the need for fossil fuels,
particularly if the electricity is generated from renewable
resources (Figure 2.69).

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2 Natural resources

ACTIVITY 2.5
Table 2.10 contains information about four types of common light bulb.

Light bulb type Compact Halogen Incandescent Light-emitting

fluorescent lamp diode (LED)
(CFL)
Appearance

E
Energy consumption
of a 1600 lumen 23 72 100 20
bulb (W)
Average lifespan
(years)
Typical cost to buy
* = low
***** = high
PL
8

**
2

Table 2.10: A comparison of four different electric light bulbs. Source: ResearchGate

a Present the information about the energy

consumption of each type of light bulb in a
i
1

*
18

*****

Rank the four light bulbs according to the

amount of energy used. Start with the light
M
bar chart. bulb that consumes the least energy.
b Research the cost of purchasing each type of bulb ii Rank the four light bulbs according to their
in your local area. Use the information obtained cost to buy and operate over an 18-year
from your research and Table 2.10 to complete period. Start with the cheapest light bulb.
the following tasks:
c Review the use of lighting at your home and
school. Make recommendations to improve the
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energy efficiency of the lighting used.

MATHS TIP Exploiting existing energy

The use of finite resources can be reduced by re-using
When drawing a bar chart, remember to: existing materials to extract the energy from them before
• use a sensible scale for the data they are thrown away. Some countries have introduced
schemes to do this but often only on a small scale to test
• use a ruler their effectiveness. However, they could be important,
• label the axes especially in places where other ways of disposing of
waste are limited.
• plot the information accurately
Anaerobic digestion is the breaking down of organic
• ensure the bars are of equal width
waste (such as food and vegetation) using bacteria
• ensure the bars are not touching. (Figure 2.70). This process takes place in a sealed
container and produces biogas, which has a high

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methane content. Methane is a flammable natural gas these oils and recycle them into biofuels that are
that can be used for a variety of heating purposes or for suitable for running vehicles. In some cases, the biofuels
powering vehicles. The composted waste can be used on are added to fossils fuels; in others, vehicles may run
land to improve the structure of soil and the amount of exclusively using this biofuel.
nutrients it contains.
This strategy ensures that energy resources are used as
Household rubbish can be incinerated (burnt) to efficiently as possible, so there is a reduced demand for
produce heat, which can be used to generate electricity finite resources and less investment needed in renewable
(Figure 2.71). Many people dislike this process because energy solutions. This approach also makes use of
poisonous gases can be produced during combustion. materials that may otherwise be wasted. However, it is
However, one benefit of it is that the amount of waste unlikely that using waste will meet a large proportion of
from burning (ash) is small and does not take up lots of the energy needs in an area. Many solutions also involve

E
space when disposed of. the combustion of waste, which may produce additional
pollutants as well as the release of carbon dioxide.
Anaerobic digestion Biogas
Organic
chamber combusted
matter, e.g
to release
Education on energy conservation
plant waste
energy New technologies and innovative designs will only be
animal waste
food waste
Microbial action

PL
Organic solids
used for soil
improvement and
nutrient enrichment

Figure 2.70: A simplified anaerobic digestion process.

successful if people understand their benefits. In the
same way, people also need to understand the ways in
which energy is currently being wasted and what can be
done to conserve it.
Figure 2.72 shows the results of research conducted in
the UK in 2022. People were asked whether they would
be willing to pay more for sustainable products.

11%
M
19% 42%

28%
Key:
Not willing to pay more
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Prepared to pay up to 10% more

Prepared to pay 10–20% more
Prepared to pay 20–50% more

Figure 2.72: The results of a questionnaire to

determine whether people would pay more for
sustainable products. This does not match with actual
Figure 2.71: A waste incineration facility in the UK. buying patterns. Source: [Link]
The heat produced is used to produce steam, which [Link]/blog/sustainability/new-insights-consumer-
powers turbines for electricity production. attitudes-to-sustainable-products-and-pricing/

While the majority of people questioned said they

Food-processing industries use large quantities of would be willing to pay more, in varying amounts, 42%
cooking oils in the preparation and manufacture said they would not pay extra for a sustainable product.
of foods. Once used, these vegetable oils need to be Information on buying trends also suggests that while
disposed of. Many countries have schemes to collect people say they will pay extra when asked, they do not
do so in practice.

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2 Natural resources

This presents a challenge for companies developing new

PROBLEM-SOLVING TIP technologies. The educational message must be that
You may sometimes come across discrepancies despite the initial cost, significant savings can be made
in what data shows and other evidence. in energy bills over the longer term by reducing energy
For example, the data presented in the pie use. This education could be reinforced by including
chart in Figure 2.72 differs from actual sales of energy-efficiency ratings for new products, so customers
sustainable products. You will need to consider can compare products when choosing which to buy
why these differences have appeared. It can (Figure 2.73).
help to ask yourself questions based on the The key to education strategies is to create an increased
data and method of collection. Here, you awareness within the population. Education may
might put yourself in the position of the person help change attitudes to the use of items such as

E
completing the questionnaire and ask yourself fossil fuels, particularly if there are incentives such as
these questions: grants to make changes. However, a population will
not necessarily decide to change, and it is difficult to
• What factors might influence my answer?
enforce change without the use of other strategies such
• What influences my decision most when as legislation. It is also a challenge to ensure that the
I choose to buy an item? whole population receive the information in a way they

PL
Why are these not necessarily the same?
can understand.
M
SA

Figure 2.73: Examples of customer information labels for new products. If all products had the same type of
information label, people could easily compare the energy efficiency of different models before deciding which
one to buy.

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CASE STUDY

The house that needs no energy input • high insulation windows (using special
reflective glass and triple glazing)
The challenge for many designers is to develop a
house that requires as little energy input to run it • use of a heat exchanger to capture excessive
as possible. This is particularly difficult in countries heat produced by the occupants
where winter temperatures drop below 0 °C.
• a ground heat exchanger to capture heat from
The Passivhaus Institute in Germany has pioneered lower levels in the ground
the development of building design technology
that reduces the energy used to operate a house • solar panels to produce electricity and to heat

E
(Figure 2.74). In a comparable temperate climate, water pipes.
a Passivhaus (or passive house) can reduce the To date, it has been estimated around 65 000
amount of energy used by 90% compared to structures have been built on this principle
a ‘standard’ house in a similar location. worldwide, with the majority in Germany
Design features often include: and Austria.

•
•
high levels of insulation
airtight construction

PL Questions
1

2
It has been calculated that the energy used by
a ‘standard’ house in a location is 15 dm3 of
heating oil per square metre of living space.
Calculate the volume of oil that would be used
per square metre in a Passivhaus in the
same location.
The energy savings from this building design
are large. Suggest reasons why such a small
M
percentage of houses are built this way, even
though so much energy can be saved.
3 Explain why the aim of building a house with
no energy input might not be possible.

Figure 2.74: The use of different materials and

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technology can significantly reduce the energy use

of a house.

Transport policies Current government initiatives include:

Transporting products around the world once they • regulations regarding fuel efficiency and the quality
have been manufactured, in addition to private of exhaust gases from vehicles
transport, uses a significant amount of energy. • restrictions on where vehicles may travel
Governments play a large part in regulating transport • taxes on fuels
and encouraging more efficient use, in the hope
of reducing the impact on global oil reserves and • surcharges for travelling to certain places, such as
improving air quality. cities, at peak times (Figure 2.75)

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2 Natural resources

• improving public transport so it is easier and Battery storage

cheaper to use than cars
As you have seen, some renewable energy sources
• improving routes for cyclists and pedestrians so that are only efficient under certain conditions, which
these are more convenient ways to travel can mean the energy supply from these resources is
• encouraging car sharing inconsistent. For example, solar panels need sunlight,
• restricting when cars can be used; for example, in and wind turbines operate best at certain wind speeds.
São Paulo, Brazil, regulations have been imposed However, the demand for electricity does not follow
that only allow cars with certain digits on their these peaks and troughs.
licence plates to operate on certain days Battery storage systems are one way around this
• providing grants to buy more fuel-efficient problem (Figure 2.76). Excess electricity generation
vehicles and dispose of older, more is used to charge batteries, which store the electricity

E
polluting vehicles until it is needed. At the moment, technology is
• providing grants for vehicles that use cleaner only available to set up battery storage systems at
technology, such as electric-powered vehicles. a local level. However, there are plans to develop
larger storage facilities to supply a greater number
of people.
CRITICAL THINKING TIP

PL
Many different transport policies have been
implemented all over the world. When giving
examples of this kind of policy, make sure that
you can explain why the policy is likely to be
effective. Imagine yourself in the area where
the transport policy has been put in place and
think how it would affect you. For example,
would it make it easier for you to travel to
school? Try to analyse why some strategies
will work in some countries or regions, but not
While there are clear benefits to this strategy, there are
also limitations. The main one is that reserves of the
minerals needed to manufacture the batteries are finite.
Some people also object to the installation of battery
storage facilities near their homes, as they can cause
visual pollution and are perceived as a fire risk if there is
a fault in a battery circuit.
M
in others.
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Figure 2.75: Some cities impose charges for using Figure 2.76: Battery storage systems are being
vehicles at the busiest times and for the most developed to allow the use of electricity at times
polluting vehicles. In London, UK, the ultra-low when demand exceeds supply. These are bulky and
emission zone (ULEZ) has resulted in an improvement use of a lot of valuable resources in the manufacture
in air quality but is not popular with everyone. of the batteries.

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Development of new KEY WORDS

energy resources blue hydrogen: hydrogen produced from
natural gas
Several new technologies and energy resources are
currently being developed to help address the energy green hydrogen: hydrogen produced from the
gap. One of the main new technologies is the use splitting of water molecules
of hydrogen as a fuel. When combusted, hydrogen
electrolysis: the use of electricity to break down
combines with oxygen to form water, which is not
molecules into their component elements
harmful to the atmosphere. Hydrogen for this purpose
is produced from either natural gas (blue hydrogen fuel)
or water (green hydrogen fuel).
Air source heat pumps

E
Air source heat pumps (Figure 2.77) use similar
Blue hydrogen fuel technology to ground source heat pumps. An air
Natural gas can be split using a process called steam source heat pump acts much like a refrigerator or air-
methane reforming. The results of this split are conditioning unit – but in reverse. The heat exchanger
hydrogen (which forms water when it is combusted) extracts heat from the outside air and transfers it to

PL
and carbon dioxide, which is captured before it escapes
into the atmosphere. In this way, heat is produced from
combustion without increasing the amount of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere. This contributes less to
climate change and air pollution, but the process still
uses natural gas – a non-renewable resource – as its
raw material.

Green hydrogen fuel

Green hydrogen describes a production method
water to pump the heat generated into a building.
As with the ground source heat pump, this type of
technology cannot provide enough heat to generate
steam to turn a turbine, so it is limited to heating a
space or providing warm water in the home rather than
electricity generation. Air source heat pumps will often
replace the combustion of natural gas to heat homes but
will still use some electricity in their operation. This can
be provided by sustainable sources.
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where hydrogen gas is produced from water and the
energy from other renewable sources (such as solar
panels). It uses electrolysis to split water molecules
into hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen is captured
and used for combustion, and the oxygen is allowed
to escape into the atmosphere. Although splitting the
water molecules takes a lot of energy, this comes from
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a renewable resource and allows the hydrogen to be

burnt when needed, such as at night when solar panels
are ineffective.

Ground source heat pumps Figure 2.77: Installing an air source heat pump will
A heat exchanger allows heat deep in the soil to be reduce the volume of carbon dioxide generated to
extracted to use in heating homes. The temperatures heat a home.
of this soil are far lower than those available from
geothermal energy, so heat from a ground source heat
pump cannot heat water sufficiently to produce steam to
drive a turbine, for example. As a result, this technology
is best suited to the direct heating of buildings in cooler
climates, rather than for generating electricity.

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2 Natural resources

ACTIVITY 2.6 The fracking process

Complete an audit of your day to identify Fracking involves drilling a vertical hole deep
opportunities to use less energy. underground to reach the fuel-rich rocks (shale rocks).
Items might include: Depending on the location, this may be 2–3 km deep.
Water, chemicals and sand are then pumped down into
• walking rather than using a car the shale rock layer under pressure. This causes the
rocks to fracture (split open), releasing the petroleum
• making sure lights are turned off when
and natural gas, which are forced back to the surface
not needed
and collected. Figure 2.78 shows the process.
• using less water (energy is used in its
supply and to purify it)

E
• wasting less food (energy is used in food
production and its transportation)
• using natural ventilation rather than
air conditioning. When you start your

examples.

change to reduce your own energy use.

PL
investigations, you will see many more

Use the information from your audit to make

an action plan of the top five things you could

Review your progress after one month to see if

you have managed to keep to your action plan.
Water table

Water, chemicals
and sand pumped
down under pressure

Natural gas and petroleum

move up to the surface
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2.6 Fracking Extra pressure
Shale
As energy demands continue to increase worldwide, fractures the rock,
rock
some scientists are concerned that the use of renewable releasing natural
resources cannot be developed at the pace required to gas and petroleum
meet these needs.
There may be large reserves of fossil fuels in Figure 2.78: The fracking process – splitting open
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Antarctica, but international agreements are in shale rocks deep underground.

place to prevent them being exploited due to the
significant environmental impact it would have. Regarding the three materials that are pumped into the
However, other reserves have been identified that could shale rock layer:
be accessed using a different – and controversial –
• Sand is used to keep the cracks in the rock open
technique called fracking. This is a way of extracting
as they occur, allowing the petroleum and natural
petroleum or natural gas from shale rock by
gas to escape. The sand is sometimes referred to as
hydraulic fracturing.
the proppant.

KEY WORD
KEY WORD
fracking: the common term for hydraulic
proppant: a material, such as sand, that is used
fracking – the process of obtaining petroleum or
to keep cracks in shale rocks open to allow
natural gas from shale rock by breaking open the
natural gas or petroleum extraction
rocks using water, sand and chemicals

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• Chemicals are added to stop the blockage of pipes. Benefits of fracking Limitations of fracking
• Water is used to act as a carrier for the sand and
Fracking provides many Fracturing lower levels
the chemicals, allowing them to be easily pumped.
jobs locally. of rock may cause
Water has the benefit of being inexpensive and
earth tremors.
easily available.
The technology is not The longer-term impact
yet in place to allow the of the technology is
The fracking controversy whole world to meet its not known, and any
current lifestyle without damage done may
Table 2.11 shows a list of benefits and limitations of
fossil fuels. be irreparable.
fracking. You might notice that the benefits, which tend
to be used to support arguments in favour of fracking,
Table 2.11: Benefits and limitations of using fracking

E
are based mainly on economic considerations, while the
to extract petroleum and natural gas.
limitations, used for arguments against fracking
(Figure 2.79), are largely environmental. Depending
on your viewpoint, the relative weighting of these
reasons will differ. Ultimately, the decision about
whether fracking is allowed in a country is made by
the government.

Benefits of fracking
It allows access to
more natural gas and
petroleum, which are in
limited supply.
Using natural gas and
petroleum produces
less pollution than
PL
Limitations of fracking
There is a risk of toxins
from fracking entering
the water table, affecting
water supplies.
The mixture of chemicals
used as part of the
fracking mixture is toxic
M
burning coal, so it is and may affect Figure 2.79: Not everyone is in favour of introducing
better to extract extra local residents. fracking. The signs at the side of the road are part of a
supplies than rely protest against a potential fracking site in the UK.
on coal.
It reduces the need Fracking uses a lot of
to import petroleum water, which may Questions
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or natural gas from reduce availability for

other countries. other purposes. 2.18 Governments need to encourage businesses and
individuals to become more energy efficient.
Shale rock is a long Noise pollution: fracking They can do this in several ways, by legislation
way underground, far in an area will affect the (to force a change) or by policies that encourage
below the water table, local community. change. Copy and complete the following table
so poses little risk of with examples of programmes that have been
water pollution. introduced by governments. One has been filled in
Petroleum and natural Natural areas will be for you.
gas have been drilled destroyed when new
for many years and this drilling sites 2.19 It has been suggested that in a world with limited
is just another are developed. energy supplies, governments should reach an
deep method. agreement to share energy resources equally based
on the size of their population. Explain why this
might be unfair.

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2 Natural resources

2.20 State the main arguments for and against the Forcing change Encouraging change
development of fracking in an area where
there has not been petroleum or natural gas Restrictions on when cars
extraction previously. may be driven

EXTENDED CASE STUDY

The Island Copper Mine, Vancouver During its lifetime, the environmental impact of

E
Island, British Colombia, Canada the mine was carefully managed and monitored.
All water run-off from dumps was controlled by a
The Island Copper Mine started production in 1971 system of water management.
(Figure 2.80). It was finally closed in 1995 because
there was insufficient ore left to make further The impacts of the mine can be summarised under
extraction economical. It was an open-pit mine four headings:

PL
and employed 900 people at its peak. During its
lifetime, 363 million tonnes of ore were extracted.
The ore contained an average of 0.41% copper
and 0.017% molybdenum. Extraction involved the
removal of a billion tonnes of material in all, at a
maximum rate of 170 800 tonnes per day.
The pit produced by the mine was 2400 m long,
1070 m wide and had a depth of 400 m. The waste
from the mine, which is called tailings, was disposed
of in the sea. Water pollution from the mine was
•

•
Physical: 400 million tonnes of tailings
deposited into Rupert Inlet reduced its depth
by 40 m. These materials, leading to a reduction
in marine biodiversity, regularly smothered the
bottom fauna. A small rocky beach was formed
where once it was sand, and copper-tainted
sediment was found many kilometres away.
Chemical: Over 25 years of monitoring, no
trends were seen in any of the variables
measured (pH, oxygen and dissolved heavy
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restricted by a 33-m deep, 1219-m long barrier. metals including copper, manganese and zinc).
• Biological: There was evidence that the water
The final production figures for the mine were became less clear. The reduction in species
1 299 978 tonnes of copper, 31 000 tonnes of diversity on the seabed was the biggest effect.
molybdenum, 31 700 000 g (31.7 tonnes) of gold, A site near the mine only had 15 species in
335 994 324 g (336 tonnes) of silver and 27 tonnes 1995, whereas a different site sampled away
of rhenium. These materials were exported to many from the mine had 41. Despite early fears, there
SA

countries around the world. were no areas found where no life was present.
• Bioaccumulation: There was very little
evidence of an increase in the levels of
any metals in the tissues of animals. This
suggests that neither bioaccumulation nor
biomagnification was occurring.

Port Hardy, a small town near the mine, originally

had a population of 700 that grew after the opening
of the mine to over 5000. The company spent over
2.9 billion US dollars (USD) in the mine’s 25 years of
life. From early on during the life of the mine, tax
was paid at a rate of about USD 3 million per year.
Figure 2.80: The Island Copper Mine, Vancouver The mining company provided 400 houses for its
Island, British Columbia, Canada. employees, with another 600 being constructed

77
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CAMBRIDGE IGCSETM AND O LEVEL ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT: COURSEBOOK

CONTINUED
by other builders. All the necessary services, Year Copper (mg kg wet mass)
including sewerage, roads and water, were paid for
1980 8.5
and provided by the mining company. The mine’s
opening also led to the creation of a hospital, a 1981 8.5
swimming pool, a theatre and some parks. 1982 10.0
The plans for the eventual mine closure were in place 1983 7.7
even when its opening was being prepared in 1969. 1984 9.1
Nearly 5 million tonnes of overburden were kept and
1985 6.5
used for land reclamation during the 25 years of the

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mine and after its closure. The features of the mine 1986 6.6
covered by the closure plan were the open pit, the 1987 6.4
waste rock piles, the sea and the buildings. 1988 8.1
The open pit was flooded with sea water after 1989 9.9
closure, creating a 300-m deep lake with an area of 1990 10.4

aquaculture was considered.

Questions
1
2
PL
215 hectares. The possibility of using this lake for

A further 200-hectare area was recontoured, and

over 600 000 tree seedlings were planted during
the life of the mine.

Explain why the mine was closed in 1995.

Calculate the percentage of the total material
extracted that was waste. Quote your answer
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
9.0
9.0
10.0
11.0
9.0
10.3
12.3
9.3
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to two decimal places. Table 2.12: Copper levels in Dungeness crab
3 One of the biggest concerns about the caught near the mine.
operation of the Island Copper Mine was the
possible effect of disposing waste water at sea. a Copy and complete Figure 2.81 using the data
Various studies to monitor this started as soon as in Table 2.12.
the mine opened. In one study, a commercially
b i Describe the trend in copper in crab tissue
SA

important predator, the Dungeness crab, was

from the opening of the mine until 1977.
checked yearly for the levels of copper and other
metals in its tissues over the life of the mine. ii State the year when the concentration of
The data from this study are given in Table 2.12. copper in the crabs was the lowest.

Year Copper concentration mg / kg wet mass iii Scientists concluded that the mine did
not cause an increase in the concentration
1971 7.0 of copper in the crabs. State evidence to
1972 6.0 support this view.
1973 5.7
1974 8.1 c Suggest why the Dungeness crab was chosen
to monitor copper levels in the tissues of living
1975 7.7
things in this study.
1976 9.7
1977 11.8
1978 11.6
1979 9.9

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2 Natural resources

CONTINUED
Copper concentration in crabs / mg per kg wet mass

12

10

E
6

PL
19 6
19 7
19 8
19 9
19 0
19 1
19 2
19 3
19 4
19 5
19 6
19 7
19 8
19 9
19 0
19 1
19 2
19 3
19 4
19 5
19 6
19 7
98
19 1
19 2
19 3
19 4
19 5
7
7
7
7
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
7
7
7
7
7
19

Year

Figure 2.81: Copper levels in crab tissue.

Project Further resources

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In small groups, find out more about the Island Island Copper Mine, Rupert Inlet
Copper Mine, using the internet or any other
Vancouver Island Copper Mine
resources available to you. Create a presentation to
evaluate how effective the restoration of the area Island Copper Mine Location
has been since the mine closed in 1995. Ensure
that the information you use is provided by reliable
SA

sources and provide a balanced opinion so that

you can form your own conclusions.

79
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CAMBRIDGE IGCSETM AND O LEVEL ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT: COURSEBOOK

SUMMARY

Rocks can be classified into three main types depending on how they are formed: igneous, sedimentary
and metamorphic.
Rocks are continuously forming and being broken down in a process called the rock cycle.
Most sedimentary rocks are permeable (water can pass through them easily).
Igneous, metamorphic and some sedimentary rocks are impermeable (water cannot pass through
them easily).
Ores are rocks that contain useful minerals and metals.
There are three main methods of mining rocks, ores and minerals: surface extraction, sub-surface extraction

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and biological extraction.
Factors that influence whether or not a particular reserve of a resource is exploited include the geology of the
landscape, its accessibility, terrain and climate, the quantity and quality of the deposit, and associated costs
and profits.
Extraction has environmental, economic and social impacts, including loss of habitat, pollution, and changes

help the environment. PL

to local and national economies and infrastructure.
When mining has finished, land can be restored or repurposed in a variety of ways, each of which has benefits
and limitations.
The use of rocks, ores and minerals needs to be strategically managed in order to conserve the resources and

Management strategies include recycling, using more efficient extraction processes, laws to manage how much
and how resources are used, and finding alternative materials.
Petroleum (oil), coal and natural gas are collectively known as ‘fossil fuels’.
Energy resources can be classified as non-renewable (finite), which includes fossil fuels and nuclear energy,
M
or renewable, such as solar, wind and geothermal power. All have benefits and limitations.
Renewable and nuclear resources do not contribute to the overall level of carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere.
A generator is used to produce electricity but will need a source of energy to power it.
Energy demand depends on a range of factors, including the climate, population size and the relative wealth
of the population.
SA

The use of energy resources can be managed through a variety of strategies, including insulation, education,
transport policies and battery storage.
New energy resources are being developed, including blue and green hydrogen fuel, ground source heat pumps,
and air source heat pumps.
Fracking is a technique that may allow for exploitation of additional sources of fossil fuels, but environmental
concerns have made it controversial.

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2 Natural resources

SELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST
After studying this chapter, complete this table.

Needs Almost Ready to

I can:
more work there move on
describe how igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks
are formed
describe the processes involved in the rock cycle
define ‘permeability’ and classify rocks as permeable

E
and impermeable
explain what an ore is
describe a variety of methods for extracting rocks, ores and
minerals from the ground

extracting rocks, ores and minerals

PL
explain the environmental, economic and social impacts of

discuss different methods for restoring and repurposing land

after extraction, and explain the benefits and limitations of
these strategies
define ‘finite resources’ and ‘sustainable management’
outline some sustainable strategies for managing rocks, ores
and minerals, and explain the benefits and limitations of
M
these strategies
describe how fossil fuels are formed
classify energy sources into renewable and
non-renewable types
explain how different energy sources are used to
make electricity
SA

discuss the benefits and limitations of different resources

identify the different factors that influence energy demand

suggest how energy sources can be managed efficiently

outline what research is currently being undertaken into new
energy sources
state what fracking is and discuss the arguments for and against
its use.

81
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CAMBRIDGE IGCSETM AND O LEVEL ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT: COURSEBOOK

END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONS
1 a Aluminium is produced from a sedimentary rock called bauxite.
State the name given to any rock that contains a valuable metal. [1]
b The process to extract aluminium from bauxite is shown in the
information box below.

5 tonnes of bright red bauxite are made into 2 tonnes of a

white powder called alumina (aluminium oxide).
The bauxite is usually obtained from open-pit mines. Hot

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caustic soda solution (an alkaline solution) is added to the
crushed rock to get rid of impurities in the alumina.
The alumina is then converted into 1 tonne of aluminium
in a smelter. To do this, an electric current is passed through
the material to heat it and molten aluminium is collected.

c
i

ii

ii
PL
Calculate the mass of solid waste that would be produced from
the processing of 25 tonnes of bauxite.
Calculate the mass of bauxite that would be needed to
produce 25 tonnes of aluminium.
Suggest two environmental impacts of aluminium production
after the bauxite has been mined.
Explain how the landscape may be restored after bauxite
mining is finished.
[2]

[2]

[2]

[3]
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2 Figure 2.82 shows a deep coal mine and the area around it.

B Overburden
A Original
Topsoil Millions
of Years
0
SA

Oil 65
140
spoil 205
250
290
545

Coal
Seam

Figure 2.82: A deep coal mine and the area around it.

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2 Natural resources

CONTINUED
a Explain how the coal is extracted from the location shown in
Figure 2.82. [3]
b State the estimated age of the coal and oil deposits shown in
Figure 2.82. [2]
c With reference to Figure 2.82, describe how the spoil heap has
been reclaimed. [5]
3 Figure 2.83 shows how the production of a mineral changed over time.

E
Amount of mineral
extracted per year

a 
1990 2000

PL
2010
Year

Figure 2.83: The production of a mineral over time.

2020

Choose a word from the list to describe the situation for this mineral in
1990, 2003 and 2020.
exhaustion
1990…………………………………………………
peak production discovery
M
2003………………………………………………....
2020……………………………………………….... [1]
b Explain what might have happened between 2003 and 2020. [3]
c Suggest which techniques could be employed so that the mineral
could still be extracted after 2020. [3]
SA

4 Renewable (non-finite) resources offer opportunities to meet energy

needs in a more sustainable way.
a i Name two types of biofuel. [2]
ii Identify two renewable energy sources that use the power
of water. [2]
b Describe how geothermal power is used to generate electricity. [4]
c 
Obtaining energy from the burning of household waste is one
solution to meeting energy needs.
i Give one environmental benefit of using waste in this way. [1]
ii Give one limitation of using waste in this way. [1]
d Explain the limitations of using solar power to generate electricity. [3]

83
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CAMBRIDGE IGCSETM AND O LEVEL ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT: COURSEBOOK

CONTINUED
5 Some people argue that while it is a non-renewable resource, a nuclear fuel
such as uranium is a suitable replacement for fossil fuels.
State three pieces of evidence that might support this view. [3]
6 Hydrogen is being evaluated as a useful additional resource to supplement
existing energy resources.
a i Define ‘green’ hydrogen. [1]
ii Define ‘blue’ hydrogen. [1]

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b 
Explain why ‘green’ hydrogen is thought to be preferable to ‘blue’
hydrogen. [2]
7 Different fossil fuels produce different amounts of carbon dioxide and
sulphur dioxide when burned.
a Table 2.13 shows the amount of carbon dioxide produced when you

Petroleum
Natural gas
Coal
PL
burn each fossil fuel to transfer the same amount of energy.

Fossil fuel Units of carbon dioxide produced (based

on petroleum = 100)
100
  75
150

Table 2.13: Relative volumes of carbon dioxide emitted by different

fossil fuels.
M
i State the most appropriate type of graph or chart to display
this data. [1]
ii Plot a chart or graph to show the units of carbon dioxide
produced per fossil fuel. [3]
b 
A student observes that the data shows that natural gas
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appears to be the least environmentally damaging fossil fuel.

Suggest three other factors that should be considered before
reaching this conclusion.  [3]
8 Mining for minerals has social, economic and environmental impacts.
Explain these impacts. [6]

84
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