Locating the House on

9 the Building Site

Section 9.1
Basic Site Layout

Section 9.2
Establishing Lines & Grades

Chapter Objectives
After completing this chapter,
you will be able to:
• Create a simple building
layout, working from an
existing reference line.
• Identify the basic types
of surveying instruments
and list their limitations.
• Use a builder’s level to
lay out a right angle.
• Describe how to set up
batter boards.
• Explain how to measure
a difference in elevation
between two points
using a level or transit.
• Calculate the volume
of soil excavated for a
house foundation.

Discuss the Photo

Surveying Many surveying and layout tasks require two people to work
together as a team. What features of this instrument allow one person to
complete the task?
Writing Activity: Step-by-Step Directions
Many locating tasks have step-by-step directions. Preview the step-
by-step activities in this chapter. Then, create step-by-step directions for a
simple task, such as hammering a nail into a board.

234 Chapter 9 Locating the House on the Building Site

Ian Francis/Alamy
 9
Before You Read Preview
Before a house can be built, its location on the plot of land must be accurately established.
Choose a content vocabulary or academic vocabulary word that is new to you. When you
find it in the text, write down the definition.

Content Vocabulary
● plot plan ● station mark ● porosity
● site layout ● batter board ● overdig
● theodolite ● differential leveling
● bench mark ● bearing capacity

Academic Vocabulary
You will find these words in your reading and on your tests. Use the academic vocabulary
glossary to look up their definitions if necessary.
■ methods ■ locate ■ visible

Graphic Organizer
As you read, use a chart like the one shown to organize content vocabulary words and their
definitions, adding rows as needed.

Content Vocabulary Definition

theodolite a transit that reads horizontal and vertical angles
electronically

Go to [Link] for this book’s OLC for a downloadable version of this graphic organizer.

Academic Standards
Mathematics Science
Measurement: Apply appropriate techniques, tools, and Science and Technology: Abilities of technological
formulas to determine measurements (NCTM) design (NSES)
Geometry: Analyze characteristics and properties of Science in Personal and Social Perspectives:
two- and three-dimensional geometric shapes and Science and technology in local, national, and global
develop mathematical arguments about geometric challenges (NSES)
relationships (NCTM)
Industry Standards
English Language Arts Measuring Distance
Use information resources to gather information and Leveling
create and communicate knowledge (NCTE 8) Site Layout

NCTE National Council of Teachers of English NSES National Science Education Standards
NCTM National Council of Teachers of Mathematics

Chapter 9 Reading Guide 235

 Site Layout
9.1
Basic Techniques Two basic methods can accurately deter-
mine the location of a proposed building on
What is a reference line? a property:
The plot plan is the part of the house • Measuring from an existing reference line.
plans that shows the location of the building • Using a surveying instrument such as a
on the lot, along with related land elevations level or a transit.
(see Section 2.3). The location of the building
must then be marked out on the land itself, Measuring From a Reference Line
in a process referred to as site layout. This A building may be planned so that it is
may be done by a surveyor or by a builder parallel to an existing line, such as a street or
familiar with basic surveying methods. marked property line. Such a line can then be
The purpose of site layout is to position used as a guide, or reference line. This makes it
the house correctly on the lot. The position possible to stake out the site without using a
of the house on the site must meet local surveying instrument. When working in this
building and zoning codes. Other factors way, it is best to make a drawing of the prop-
also apply, such as the placement of utilities. erty first. Such a drawing is shown in Figure
The position may have been chosen to take 9-2. Rectangle ABCD represents the property
advantage of views, to increase privacy, or to lines, and boundary AB is the reference line.
avoid a site feature such as a ledge (area of
rock below grade) or a stream. Using Surveying Instruments
When a building cannot be laid out by
The position of the working from reference lines, the builder
house may also have been chosen to maxi- or surveyor can use one of several kinds of
mize solar heat gain for increased energy surveying instruments. These instruments
efficiency, as shown in Figure 9-1. work with either optical or laser technol-
ogy, though some are based on GPS (global
positioning system) technology.

Property lines
A B

O X X O

E F

G H Position
of house

C D
Figure 9-1 Solar Electricity
Using the Sun This house uses photovoltaic panels Figure 9-2 Staking a Building
to generate electricity from the sun. For these to work Simple Layout Staking out a rectangular building
efficiently, the house must be placed properly on the lot. without the use of a surveying instrument.

236 Chapter 9 Locating the House on the Building Site

Walter Geiersperger/Corbis
 Users of optical instruments rely on line- Types of Instruments
of-site observations to determine position.
The two basic types of surveying instru-
The user must look through the instrument’s
ments commonly used in residential con-
telescope to spot a target or leveling rod held
struction are levels and transits. Both sit atop
by an assistant. A leveling rod is a slender,
a tripod.
straight rod marked with graduations in feet
and fractions of a foot. The rod is held in a Levels The telescope of a level is fixed in
vertical position during use. a horizontal plane. It can be used only for
Laser instruments do not have a telescope. measuring horizontal angles because it
Instead, a highly focused beam of light is cannot be tilted up or down. It can only be
aimed at the target. The user does not need turned from side to side. This is sufficient for
to look through the instrument, so an addi- most building layouts. There are three types
tional person is not required. One person can of levels.
set up the laser and then move to another A builder’s level, shown in Figure 9-3, is
portion of the site and determine level by sometimes called a dumpy level. It is the least
holding an electronic detector against a expensive surveying instrument. It must be
leveling rod. When the detector senses the set up carefully to ensure accurate results.
reference plane projected by the laser, it A good quality model is usually accurate to
signals the user with a light or sound. The within ±1⁄4" at a distance of 75'.
disadvantage of a laser instrument is that its An automatic level, as shown in Figure 9-4,
light can be difficult to see in bright daylight. automatically adjusts for variations in setup.
GPS instruments are the newest develop- It takes less time and effort to set up than
ment in surveying systems. GPS stands for a builder’s level. It is also more accurate,
global positioning system. GPS consists of two usually to ±1⁄4" at 100'. Some are accurate to
parts, handheld instruments and 24 satellites ±1⁄16" at 200'.
evenly distributed around Earth’s orbit. A laser level, as shown in Figure 9-5 on
Each of these satellites transmits a unique page 238, does not have a telescope, but is
signal, and when a GPS instrument receives set up on a tripod like other levels. It proj-
several signals, it is able to locate its position ects its intense beam of light along a hori-
on Earth’s surface with great accuracy. These zontal plane. The light shows up as a small
systems are much more expensive than opti- red dot at great distances. Some models
cal or laser surveying instruments, but they continually rotate atop the tripod. They
are being used increasingly for construction project what appears to be a solid, level line
site layouts. around the job site. Other laser levels can be

Figure 9-3 Builder’s Level Figure 9-4 Automatic Level

Least Expensive A builder’s level is suitable for small Improved Accuracy An automatic level is more
or simple layout tasks. accurate than a builder’s level.

Section 9.1 Basic Site Layout 237

Arnold & Brown; David R. Frazier Photolibrary, Inc.
 A transit is classified by the smallest incre-
ment that can be read on its vernier scale. (A
vernier scale slides along a longer scale.) The
graduations on a vernier scale are in minutes
or seconds. A transit may be referred to as a
five-minute transit, a one-minute transit, or a
twenty-second transit. Measurements made
in seconds are more accurate. A theodolite,
as shown in Figure 9-7, is a transit that reads
horizontal and vertical angles electronically.
It needs no vernier scale. It displays the
measurements on an LCD (liquid-crystal
display) screen. It is used when extremely
accurate measurements are required. A
Figure 9-5 Laser Level device called an electronic field book can be
Remote Control A laser level makes it possible for one attached to a theodolite to store information.
person to determine elevation points. A theodolite is easy to set up.

rotated as needed using a remote control.

Some laser levels use an audible sound to
signal a certain level point. Recall What are the two tools used to determine
Transits The transit, shown in Figure 9-6, the location of a building on the site?
is sometimes called a transit level. Unlike Basic Layout with a Level or Transit
the telescope of a level, the telescope of the Most of the basic layouts described on the
transit can be moved up and down as well following pages can be made with a level.
as from side to side. A transit can measure
horizontal angles and vertical angles as well.
It can also be used to determine if a post or
wall is plumb.

Telescope

Leveling
screws

Figure 9-7 Theodolite

Figure 9-6 Transit Tracking Information This surveyor is entering
Plumb and Level A transit can be used for site layout information into a theodolite, or electronic transit.
but can also determine if parts of the building are plumb. What information might be entered?

238 Chapter 9 Locating the House on the Building Site

David R. Frazier Photolibrary, Inc.; Spencer Grant
 Leveling a Transit Head After you have chosen a position for the transit or level, level the
instrument’s head:
Step 1 Loosen the horizontal clamp screw and turn the telescope until the bubble is in line with one set of
opposing leveling screws. Grip the screws, one in each hand, using a thumb and forefinger. Loosen one screw
as you tighten the other to center the bubble. Keep the screws snug on the foot plate but do not overtighten
them. Continue to adjust the screws until the bubble is centered. See Figure 9-8.
Step 2 Rotate the telescope 90° so that it is over the second set of leveling screws and repeat the process
described in Step 1.
Step 3 Return the telescope to the first position. Check the bubble to be sure it is centered, and readjust if
necessary. Recheck the second position.
Step 4 Continue to check the bubble in both positions until it is within one graduation on either side of center
in the bubble tube.

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All of them can be made using a transit. A plumb bob is suspended from a hook
The same concepts apply to the use of other beneath the head of the instrument. Use
surveying instruments, although layout this plumb bob to center the level or transit
methods will differ. directly over the station mark. Adjust the
Locating a Bench Mark To lay out a building tripod so that it rests firmly on the ground,
using a transit or a level, you must first have with the telescope at eye level.
a basic starting point. This starting point, Once a level or transit has been properly
from which measurements can be made, is set up, be careful not to move or jar the
usually called the bench mark, or point of tripod. If this occurs, the instrument must be
reference (POR). A bench mark may be a readjusted. Some or all of the sightings may
mark on the foundation of a nearby building. have to be redone.
More often it is a stone or concrete marker
Bubble
placed on the ground at a certain location.
The location of the bench mark may appear
on the architect’s drawings. If so, the plans
will usually be oriented to that point.
Setting Up a Transit or Level Set up the transit
or level in a position outside the expected Leveling
flow of activities on a job site. This will screws
prevent it from being accidentally disturbed.
The point over which the level is directly
centered is called the station mark. The
layout is sighted from this point. The station
mark may be a bench mark or a corner of
the lot, but it should be where the lot can be Figure 9-8 Leveling Controls
Level with Care The level of the head of the instrument
conveniently sighted. (If the bench mark and
can be adjusted by using the leveling screws and
the station mark are not the same, be sure checking the bubble.
you can sight the bench mark easily.)

Section 9.1 Basic Site Layout 239

David R. Frazier Photolibrary, Inc.
 from Point A to Point D will be perpendicular
to the base line. Thus a right angle is formed
A C D B E where the lines intersect at Point A.
For accurate work, a spirit level (carpen-
Figure 9-9 Points on a Line ter’s level) may be attached to the leveling
Using a Transit Establishing points on a line. rod to check if the rod is being held plumb.
The rod can also be kept plumb by aligning
Surveying measurements are based on it with the vertical crosshair in the telescope.
degrees of a circle. A circle is divided into 360 The person at the telescope can tell the rod
degrees. To increase the accuracy of surveying holder which way to move the top of the rod
measurements, degrees are further subdi- in order to make it plumb. The rod holder
vided into minutes and seconds. A minute is should move the target up or down until
1⁄60 of a degree. A second is 1⁄60 of a minute.
the crossline on the target aligns with the
Establishing Points Along a Line To establish crosshair sights in the telescope.
points along a line, you must use a transit. Laying Out a Simple Rectangle To perform this
Use the plumb bob to center the transit operation you must work from an existing
accurately over one point on the line. Then line such as a road, street, or property line.
level the instrument. Sight the telescope In Figure 9-12__on pge 241, this reference line
on the most distant visible point along the is shown as AB. Locate the point (C) that
same line. Lock the horizontal clamp screw represents the side limit for a front corner
to hold the telescope in position. Then adjust of the building. Set up the level or transit at
the instrument to place the vertical crosshair Point C. Lay out a simple rectangle parallel
exactly over the distant point. Now, by to the existing line as follows:
tipping the telescope up or down, you can 1. Set the
__telescope at Point C to sight down
determine the exact location of any number line AB.
of points on the line, as shown in Figure 9-9. 2. Measure from Point C to establish Point
Laying Out a Right Angle Using a plumb bob, set D. This dimension will be found on the
up the level or a transit directly over the point
where the right angle is to be located. This is
Point A in Figure 9-10. Sight a reference point
along a base line and set the 360° scale to zero.
The reference
__ point is Point B, and the base
line is AB. Turn the telescope until the scale
indicates that an arc of 90° has been completed.
Next, place a leveling rod in a vertical
position along this second line at the desired
distance, as shown in Figure 9-11. This is
shown as Point D in Figure 9-10. A line drawn
A B
90
C

D
Figure 9-11 Leveling Rod
Figure 9-10 Right Angle Locating the Target The target on the leveling rod can
Swing an Arc Laying out a right angle with a transit or be moved up or down. The rod is divided into whole feet,
a level. tenths, and hundredths of a foot.

240 Chapter 9 Locating the House on the Building Site

David R. Frazier Photolibrary, Inc.
 C D Back corner
A B of building

E F
"
16
Tape 11 /
'-2 32'
measure 51
Tape
measure
Building A 40' B

Established line

Figure 9-13 Rectangle Layout: Method #2

Using Two Tapes Measure from each end of the
G H established line AB. The back corner will be where
the diagonal measurement (51'-211⁄16") and the end
measurement (32') intersect.

calculator, and the diagonal of the rectangle

is figured automatically. Using one tape
Figure 9-12 Rectangle Layout: Method #1 measure, measure the desired distance from
Basic Layout Laying out a square or rectangular one end of line AB. Then, with a second tape
building with a level or transit. measure, measure the diagonal. The lines
will intersect precisely at one of the corners.
building plans. It represents the width of Do this from both ends of the established
the building. line and a perfect rectangle is established.
3. Turn the telescope 90° and establish The example in Figure 9-13 shows a house
Points E and G by measurement. that is 40' long and 32' deep. It has a diagonal
of 51'-211⁄16".
4. Move the level or transit to Point D and
sight through the telescope to Point C. Laying Out an Irregularly Shaped Building When
the building is not regular in shape, it is
5. Turn the telescope 90° and establish
usually best to start by laying out a large
Points F and H by measurement.
rectangle that will take in all or most of the
6. Points E and F represent the front corners building. This is shown in Figure 9-14 as
of the building.__To check
__your accuracy, QHOP. After the large rectangle is established,
measure lines EF and GH. They should
be the same length. Check the layout for
A B
square by measuring diagonally from C D G H
Point E to point H, and from Point F to Q
Point G. If these two measurements are
identical, the layout is square. E F
N Building
Another method of laying out a rectan- M
gular project is to figure the diagonal of the I
J
rectangle, as shown in Figure 9-13. __After one P L K
side of the project is established (AB), usu- O
ally the front setback line, the rectangle can
Figure 9-14 An Irregular Shape
be laid out accurately by using two long tape
Multiple Shapes Laying out an irregularly shaped
measures. The side and end measurements building made of a series of squares and rectangles.
are input as rise and run into a construction

Section 9.1 Basic Site Layout 241

the remaining portion of the layout will Even if the outline of a building is not a
consist of small rectangles. Each small rectangle, the process for establishing each
rectangle can be laid out and proved sepa- point is basically the same. More points must
rately. These rectangles are shown as NMLP, be located, and the final check is more likely
ABCQ, DGFE, and JIOK. to reveal a small error.

Staking Out the Site To stake out the site in the drawing, proceed as follows:
Step 1 Check the plot plan to find the setback dis- Property lines
tance. The setback distance is the minimum space
allowed by local codes between a house and the A B
property lines. Codes also specify setback distances
between the house and utility O X X O
_ _ lines,
_ _streams, and
ponds. Along boundaries AC and_ _ BD, measure this
distance back from front line AB. In_ the
_ drawing,
__ E F
the setback is shown by segments AO and BO.
G H Position
Step 2 Stretch a line tightly between the points of house
marked O. The _ front
_ corners of the building will be
located on line OO. There are two ways to locate
C D
them. You can obtain the measurement from the
plot plan to see how far the corners should_ be_
from the side boundaries. Then, along line _ _OO,
measure the indicated distances in from AC and the lot. Points G and H represent the rear corners of
_ _
BD. Xs represent the front corners of the building the building.
in Figure 9-2. If the building is to be centered Step 4 The boundary lines of the lot may not be
between the side boundaries, you need not refer at right angles to each other. If this is the case,
to the plot plan. Instead, subtract
__ the length of the you will need to first establish the corner of the
building from the length of OO. Then __ measure half building that will be closest to a boundary line.
this distance in from each end of OO. Measure the Next, make certain that the minimum front and side
distance between the two points marked X and _ _ yard requirements are established from this point.
check this distance with the plans. The distance X X Then lay out the building by using the methods
represents the length of the building. It must be described on page 240, “Laying Out a Right Angle”
accurately measured and match the length on and “Laying Out a Simple Rectangle.” Establish
the plans. a line to indicate the rear of the building. This is
Step 3 Check the plans to determine the depth shown by GH in Figure 9-2.
of the building (how far back it will extend from Step 5 If the building is complicated, divide it
the front corners). Mark off the depth by extending into__
smaller rectangles. Establish more lines such
lines back from the two points marked X. If the as OO to indicate the front of each rectangle. You
boundary lines of the lot form a 90° angle_ at the
_ can get the necessary information from the plans.
corners,
_ _ these lines should be _parallel
_ to AC and Then carry out the same steps to establish the rest
BD._ Note that E is the same as OX, and F is the same
_ of each rectangle. The result will be a group of
as XO. Thus, E and F show the distance between the adjoining rectangles that will show the total outline
sides of the building and the side boundary lines of of the building.

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242 Chapter 9 Locating the House on the Building Site

 9.1
After You Read: Self-Check
1. What is a plot plan?
2. Name one advantage of surveying instruments based on laser technology.
3. What is the difference between a level and a transit?
4. What is the purpose of the hook under a level or transit?

Academic Integration: Mathematics

5. Area of Irregular Shapes Structures are not always regular shapes such as quadrilaterals.
For example, some structures are L-shaped or U-shaped. The floor plan for the structure
shown below is drawn to scale. Some of the dimensions on the floor plan are missing.
Find all of the missing dimensions, then calculate the area of the structure.
Area measures the size of a surface. 40'
The area (A) of a regular quadrilateral is calculated
using the formula A ⫽ length ⫻ width. You can
calculate the area of an irregular shape below by
dividing the shape into multiple rectangles.
30'
Step 1: Divide the shape into a number of regular
quadrilaterals.
20'
Step 2: Calculate the sum of the areas of each shape
10'
that makes up the structure.
10' 10'
Go to [Link] for this book’s OLC to check your answers.

Establishing Lines
9.2 & Grades
Lines & Grades Grade
What is an excavation? The grade refers to the level of the
After its location and alignment have been ground where it will meet the foundation
determined, a rectangle showing the outer of the completed building. The grade is
dimensions of a structure is staked out. If the found on the building plans. Grade must
building is to form a simple rectangle, the be established accurately because it is
staked-out area will follow the foundation used for making important measurements.
line exactly. From the grade, you can find the depth of

Section 9.2 Establishing Lines & Grades 243

 Setting Up Batter Boards Refer to Figure 9-15. After the corners of the building have been
located, set up the batter boards as follows:
Step 1 Drive three 2⫻4 stakes at each corner of the building, at least 4' beyond the foundation lines.
Step 2 Nail 1⫻6 or 1⫻8 boards to the stakes horizontally. The top of each board must be level. All boards
must be level with each other. Use a level or transit to locate the height of the boards.
Step 3 Stretch string across the tops of boards at opposite corners and align it exactly over the nails in the
corner stakes. A plumb bob is handy for setting the lines.
Step 4 Make a shallow saw kerf where the string overlaps the boards. This will keep the string from sliding. It
will also make it easy to reposition the string if it must be temporarily removed to let equipment or machinery
pass. Make similar cuts in all eight batter boards.
Step 5 Tie the string to the boards, using the saw kerfs to position it (see Figure 9-16 on page 245). This
establishes the lines of the house.
Step 6 Check the diagonals again to make sure the corners are square. (The area for an L-shaped building can
be divided into rectangles and the diagonal measurement of each rectangle can be checked.)

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the excavation. An excavation is a cut, cav- You can also use the grade to establish other
ity, trench, or depression made by removing points, such as the height of a foundation or
earth. the elevation of the first floor.
Sometimes the bench mark is used as a
reference point for establishing the grade. At Batter Boards
other times, the grade may be located in rela- After the grade and the corners of the
tion to the level of an existing street or curb. house have been established, building lines
The grade is indicated on a stake driven must be laid out as aids in keeping the work
into the ground outside the excavation area. level and true. A batter board is a board

Outside line of
foundation wall

Diagonals are equal

if building is square

Figure 9-15 Using Batter Boards

Building Outline Using batter boards to establish the outline of the foundation wall. The top edge of a batter board
represents the height of the foundation wall.

244 Chapter 9 Locating the House on the Building Site

 Saw kerf

Batter board

Stake

Plumb
bob
Nail

Stake 12'- Taut line

0" 0"
9'-
4'-
0"
Mi
n. 15'-0"

Outside line of
foundation wall

Figure 9-16 Batter Board Detail

Squaring a Corner You can check that the corners of a layout are square by using the 3-4-5 system.

fastened horizontally to stakes placed to the 3. Measure along the adjoining side in
outside of where the corners of the building the same number of 4' increments (8, 12,
will be located. These boards and the string or 16). The diagonal drawn between the
tied between them locate and mark the end points will then measure in an equal
outline of the building as shown in Figure number of 5' units (10, 15, or 20) when
9-15. The height of the boards may be the the unit is square. Thus, a 9' distance
height of the foundation wall. Before setting on one side and a 12' distance on the
up batter boards, locate the corners of the other should result in a 15' diagonal
building precisely by one of the methods measurement if the corner is a true 90°.
already discussed. Drive nails into the tops
of the stakes that indicate the outside edge of Land Elevations
the foundation walls. Check the architect’s plan to see where
Setting up batter boards is explained in the elevations are to be determined. Set up a
Step-by-Step Application. level or transit. Be certain that the locations
To be certain that the corners are square, can be seen through the telescope. Place a
use the following procedure: leveling rod upright on any location to be
1. Measure the diagonals of the completed checked. Then sight through the telescope at
layout to see if they are the same length, the leveling rod. Take a reading of where the
as shown in Figure 9-15. horizontal crosshair in the telescope crosses
2. The corners can also be squared by using the rod. Then move the rod to the second
the 3-4-5 method shown in Figure 9-16. location to be established. Raise or lower the
This is done by measuring a distance rod until the reading is the same as for the
along one side in 3' increments, such as first point. The bottom of the rod is then at
6, 9, or 12. the same elevation as the original point.

Section 9.2 Establishing Lines & Grades 245

 A B
5' 7'

Figure 9-17 Elevation Difference #1

Points Visible Obtaining the difference in elevation between two points that are visible from an intermediate point.

Measuring a Difference in Elevation To learn the the instrument. The process of determining
difference in elevation between two points, differences in elevation between points
such as A and B in Figure 9-17, set up a that are remote from each other is called
transit or level at an intermediate point. With differential leveling.
the measuring rod held at point A, note the
mark where the horizontal crosshair in the
telescope crosses the rod. Then with the rod
held at point B, sight the rod and note the
Recall What points can be established using
point where the horizontal crosshair crosses the grade?
the rod. In our example, the difference
between the reading at A (5' 0") and the read-
ing at B (7' 0") is the difference in elevation Foundation Wall Height
between A and B. Thus the ground at point The foundation wall footings must rest
B is 2' lower than the ground at point A. This on firm soil below the frost line. Footings
technique can be used to position foundation are continuous concrete pads that support a
footings and other points below grade. foundation wall. The depth of the frost line
Sometimes it is not possible to sight two varies according to the local climate and is
points from a single point between them. given in local building codes. This deter-
A high mound can cause this difficulty. To mines how deep the excavation must be. To
solve this problem, one or more additional determine this depth, it is common practice
intermediate points, such as C and D shown to use the highest point on the perimeter
in Figure 9-18, must be used for setting up of the excavation as the reference point, as

C D
B
A 51/2' 5' 2'
41/2'
7' 1'

Figure 9-18 Elevation Difference #2

Points Not Visible Obtaining the difference in elevation between two points not visible from a single intermediate point.

246 Chapter 9 Locating the House on the Building Site

 Foundation wall than the outside finished grade,
Reference or
high point outline measures must be taken to assure
good drainage. The finished grade
should always slope away from
the house, as shown in Figure 9-20.
Below-surface drainage systems
might also be required.
The Excavation
Any variation from standard
construction practices increases
the cost of the foundation and
footings. This might influence
Figure 9-19 Determining Excavation Depth
the design of the house. Before
Highest Point To establish the depth of the excavation, use the
highest point around the excavation as the reference point. excavating for a new home, subsoil
conditions should be determined
shown in Figure 9-19. This is true for both by test borings or by obtaining soil samples
graded and ungraded sites. in some other way. This has several pur-
Good drainage is ensured if sufficient poses. It helps the excavators to determine
foundation height is allowed for the sloping whether any special precautions will be
of the finish grade, as shown in Figure 9-20. necessary. Unusually soft or hard soil
Finish grade is the level of the ground when conditions may call for special excava-
grading is completed. Foundation walls at tion techniques or equipment. It is also
least 7'-4" high are necessary for full base- important to know the bearing capacity of
ments, and 8' walls are common. the soil. Bearing capacity is a measure of
The top of the foundation wall must be at how well the soil can support the weight
or above a minimum height set by code. This of a house. Another purpose of soil testing
distance is often at least 8" above the finished
grade, but this may vary with local code.
This allows the siding and framing
Minimum 8" clearance
members to be protected from soil
moisture and places them well above Finish grade
Drain away
the grass line. In termite-infested areas, from house
this makes it possible to observe signs of Fill
any termite activity between the soil and
Original grade
the wood. Protective measures can then
Foundation
be taken before the wood is damaged. wall
Crawl spaces should have enough
height to permit inspections for ter-
mites and to allow plastic soil covers
to be installed. Soil covers reduce the
effect of ground moisture on framing
members. Ordinarily, there should be at
least 18" between the undersides of the
joists and the highest point of ground
enclosed by the foundation walls. Figure 9-20 Proper Drainage
Finished Grade Added fill brings the finish grade above the
If the ground beneath the structure
original grade and ensures drainage away from the house.
is excavated or is otherwise lower

Section 9.2 Establishing Lines & Grades 247

is to determine its porosity. Porosity is the
measurement of the ability of water to flow
through the soil. If the soil does not drain
well, additional material may have to be
Call Before You Dig Utility lines that are
excavated and replaced with better soil. accidentally severed can pose a serious risk to
Test borings will also identify problems workers. Before excavating, contact the local
that could significantly affect the cost of utility companies for information about the
the house. A rock ledge may require costly location of sewer, telephone, fuel, electric,
removal. A high water table may require water, or cable lines that may cross the area.
design changes from a full basement to a Locations should then be clearly marked.
crawl space or concrete slab construction. Go to [Link] for this book’s OLC for more on
If there has been a previous excavation on job safety.
the site, the soil may have been disturbed
and may not have sufficient bearing strength
for footings. exposure to air or water. Thus, unless form
Several types of earth-moving equipment, boards are to be used, it is advisable not to
such as a power shovel or backhoe, can be make the final excavation for footings until it
used for basement excavations. Topsoil is is nearly time to pour the concrete.
often stockpiled by a bulldozer, a front-end The excavation must be wide enough to
loader, or a grader for future use, as in provide space to work, as shown in Figure
Figure 9-21. Power trenchers are often used 9-22. For example, there must be enough
in excavating slab footings or shallow foun- room to install and remove concrete forms,
dation walls. to lay up block, to waterproof the exterior
It is best to excavate only to the top of the surfaces of the walls, and to install founda-
footings or the bottom of the basement floor. tion drainage. Overdig is the term used to
The soil must be stable enough to prevent describe the additional excavation needed to
cave-ins, and some soil becomes soft upon provide clearance for work. The sides of the

Figure 9-21 Grading the Site

Stockpiling Topsoil A grader being used to strip the topsoil from a building site in preparation for
excavating the basement.

248 Chapter 9 Locating the House on the Building Site

David Young-Wolff
 Batter board
Saw kerf
Escape Routes Any excavation or trench
that is more than 4' deep must be provided
with a stairway, ladder, ramp, or other safe
String means of escape. This includes foundation
Plumb line excavations. The escape devices must be
Back slope
Wall line within 25' of a worker.
Go to [Link] for this book’s OLC for more on
job safety.
Access space

established on the footings and marked to

indicate the position of the formwork or
concrete block wall.
No fill Excavation costs are based on the total
cubic yards of earth to be removed. To
Footing trench. Make sharp cut determine the volume of material, multiply
or use form boards.
the length of the excavation times the width
times the depth. Calculating is usually done
Figure 9-22 Excavation Detail in decimals. See Table 9-1 for conversion
Back Slope The basement excavation is back-sloped figures and Table 9-2 on page 250 for exca-
to prevent cave-ins. Note the use of the plumb line for vating features for standard depths.
accurately locating the foundation wall line.

Table 9-1: Converting Inches to Decimal

excavation may have to be sloped to prevent Fractions of a Foot
them from caving in. This is sometimes
called back slope. The steepness of the back Inches Feet
slope of the excavation is determined by the 1 0.083
type of subsoil.
Once soil is excavated, the sides of the 2 0.167
excavation are exposed to the weather. 3 0.250
They will dry out and may become unsta-
ble. Allow sufficient overdig and back slope 4 0.333
to reduce the hazards. Follow OSHA regu- 5 0.417
lations for slopes and check local building
codes for information regarding soil types. 6 0.500
When excavating for basements, some 7 0.583
contractors rough-stake only the outline of
8 0.667
the building to indicate where earth must
be removed. When the proper elevation 9 0.750
has been achieved for the basement floor,
10 0.833
the footings are laid out and the final
excavation dug. After the footings have 11 0.916
been placed and the concrete has hardened
12 1
somewhat, the building wall outline is

Section 9.2 Establishing Lines & Grades 249

 This estimating and planning
exercise will prepare you for
national competitive events
with organizations such as
SkillsUSA and the Home
Builder’s Institute.
Excavation Volume
Excavation Costs
Multiply the length of the excavation
times the width times the depth to deter-
Table 9-2: Excavating Factors for
mine the volume of the material to be
Standard Depths
removed. Depth per Cubic Yards Depth per Cubic Yards
Square Foot Removed Square Foot Removed
1. For the house shown in the floor plan
below, multiply 7' (depth of excava- 2" 0.006 4'-6" 0.167
tion) times 30' (26' width of house 4" 0.012 5'-0" 0.185
plus 2' clearance at each end, between 6" 0.018 5'-6" 0.204
the excavation and the outside of the 8" 0.025 6'-0" 0.222
foundation wall) times 44' (40' length
10" 0.031 6'-6" 0.241
of house plus 2' clearance at each end).
1'-0" 0.037 7'-0" 0.259
The answer is 9,240 cubic feet.
1'-6" 0.056 7'-6" 0.278
2. There are 27 cubic feet in 1 cubic yard.
To convert cubic feet to cubic yards, 2'-0" 0.074 8'-0" 0.298
divide by 27: 2'-6" 0.093 8'-6" 0.314
9,240 ⴜ 27 ⴝ 342.2 3'-0" 0.111 9'-0" 0.332
Rounded off, approximately 3'-6" 0.130 9'-6" 0.350
342 cubic yards of material will have 4' 0.148 10'-0" 0.369
to be excavated. Note: To find the factor, first locate the excavation depth. The
There is another method to determine factor is in the column to the right.
the cubic yards of material to be removed.
It can be used if the excavation depth is a
standard one as shown on Table 9-2.
1. Refer again to the floor plan.
The excavation needed for
this house is 30' wide, 44'
long, and 7' deep. Multi-
ply the width by the length
to find the area of the
excavation.
2. Refer to Table 9-2. For an
excavation 7' deep, 0.259
cubic yards of material are
removed for each square foot
of area. Multiply the area of
the excavation by 0.259 to
find how many cubic yards
of material will be removed.
Round up.

250 Chapter 9 Locating the House on the Building Site

Trenches The amount of material that will
be removed from trenches, such as those Table 9-3: Cubic Yard Content of Trenches
trenches that might be dug for utilities, per 100 Lineal Feet
can be calculated by using Table 9-3. For Depth Trench Width in Inches
example, if a trench is to be 42" deep and in
18" wide, the table shows that 19.4 cubic Inches 12 18 24 30 36 42 48
yards of material will be removed for every 6 1.9 2.8 3.7 4.6 5.6 6.6 7.4
100 lineal feet. Such a trench might be dug
for a house with a 30' setback. To determine 12 3.7 5.6 7.4 9.3 11.1 13.0 14.8
how much material would be removed, 18 5.6 8.3 11.1 13.9 16.7 19.4 22.3
multiply 19.4 by 0.30 (because 30' is about
0.30 of 100'). The answer is that 5.82 cubic 24 7.4 11.1 14.8 18.5 22.2 26.0 29.6
yards of material would be removed. 30 9.3 13.8 18.5 23.2 27.8 32.4 37.0
36 11.1 16.6 22.2 27.8 33.3 38.9 44.5
Measurement
42 13.0 19.4 25.9 32.4 38.9 45.4 52.0
Volume How many cubic yards of material
48 14.8 22.2 29.6 37.0 44.5 52.0 59.2
will be removed for a trench that is 24"
deep, 24" wide, and 100 lineal feet long? 54 16.7 25.0 33.3 41.6 50.0 58.4 66.7
Starting Hint Consult Table 9-3.
60 18.6 27.8 37.0 46.3 55.5 64.9 74.1

9.2
After You Read: Self-Check
1. What are three possible reference points for establishing a grade?
2. What is a batter board and what is its purpose?
3. Briefly describe the process of identifying the difference in elevation between two points.
4. What is overdig?

Academic Integration: Science

5. The Water Table During excavation, soil samples must be obtained to identify any poten-
tial problems that could significantly affect the cost of construction. For example, a high
water table may require design changes from a full basement to a crawl space or concrete
slab construction. Find out more about the science of the water table. Write a few sentences
about your findings. Be sure to define water table, then explain the difference between the
saturated zone and the unsaturated zone.
Go to [Link] for this book’s OLC to check your answers.

Section 9.2 Establishing Lines & Grades 251

 Review and Assessment
9
Section Chapter Summary
9.1 A house can be positioned or located on a piece of property either by measuring from
an established reference line or by using an instrument such as a level or a transit. Most
layouts begin at a bench mark. Surveying instruments include levels and transits. The
point at which they are set up is called the station mark.
Section
9.2 String stretched between batter boards is used to establish the outline of a house. Once
this has been done, the excavation can proceed. The excavation must be wide enough to
provide space to work. Soil taken from an excavation is measured in cubic yards.

Review Content Vocabulary and Academic Vocabulary

1. Use each of these content vocabulary and academic vocabulary words in a sentence or diagram.

Content Vocabulary Academic Vocabulary

• plot plan (p. 236) • batter board (p. 244) • methods (p. 236)
• site layout (p. 236) • differential leveling (p. 246) • locate (p. 237)
• theodolite (p. 228) • bearing capacity (p. 247) • visible (p. 240)
• bench mark (p. 239) • porosity (p. 248)
• station mark (p. 239) • overdig (p. 248)

Like a Pro 5. Demonstrate how to use a builder’s level

to lay out a right angle.
Technical Terms 6. Demonstrate how to set up batter boards.
2. Work with a classmate to define the follow- 7. Explain how to use a transit or level to
ing terms used in the chapter: reference line measure a difference in elevation between
(p. 236), leveling rod (p. 237), builder’s level two points.
(p. 237), dumpy level (p. 237), automatic level
8. Explain how to determine the depth of an
(p. 237), laser level (p. 237), vernier scale
excavation for a house foundation.
(p. 238), 3-4-5 method (p. 245), finish grade
(p. 247), back slope (p. 249), rough-stake
(p. 249).
Critical Thinking
9. Infer How could you best keep the cost of
Review Key Concepts foundations and footings for a building at
a minimum?
3. Describe how to work from an existing
reference line to establish a simple building
layout.
4. Describe the different types of surveying
instruments.

252 Chapter 9 Review and Assessment

Academic and Workplace that they will not be able to work on Satur-
Applications day. The job needs to be completed before
Monday. You were planning on working
with your crew members and have all of
10. Finding Volume A rectangular excavation the optical instruments ready to use. Now
5' deep is needed to build a building that is you will have to determine how you will
to be 26' by 32'. How many cubic yards of complete the surveying job alone. Describe
material should be removed if a 2' clearance what changes you can make in order to
is needed outside the foundation walls? complete the job yourself in a one-page
summary. Identify the equipment you will
The formula for finding need and explain why this equipment will
the volume of a rectangular prism is be suitable for the situation.
V ⴝ lwh. To determine the actual dimen-
sions of the excavation, draw a picture and
label the length and width to account for
the building and the clearance all around. Multiple Choice
Step 1: Draw a picture of the dimensions Directions Choose the phrase that best
of the building. Then add the clearance. completes the following statements.
Step 2: Multiply the length by the width. 13. The top edge of a batter board represents
Then multiply the result by the depth of the the ______.
excavation. a. depth of the foundation wall
b. outside edge of the foundation wall
Step 3: Use cubic units to express the
c. height of the foundation wall
volume of the material. Convert cubic feet
to cubic yards. d. width of the foundation wall
14. A measure of how well the soil can support
the weight of a house is called ______.
11. Measurement Accuracy A surveyor makes a. a bench mark
a measurement of 60½' using a laser mea- b. the bearing capacity
sure. It is accurate to within ±¼". What is c. an overdig
the range within which the actual length d. the station mark
could fall?
15. The purpose of a site layout is to ______.
Starting Hint All measurements fall within
a. position a house correctly on the lot
a range of accuracy depending on the size
b. determine the depth of an excavation
of the smallest mark on the measuring
device used and the quality of the device. c. locate a bench mark
Determine the lower end of the range by d. maximize solar heat gain
subtracting the accuracy factor.

Skipping a question when you do not know the

answer can waste valuable time. A better strategy
12. Career Skills: Problem Solving You are is to mark the answer you believe to be correct and
a member of a surveying crew that has come back to the question after you finish the test.
been hired to survey a building site this
* These questions will help you practice for national
Saturday. On Friday evening, the other two certification assessment.
members of your crew call to inform you

Chapter 9 Review and Assessment 253