Lesson worksheet Book 3, Ch 19

Ch 19 Ecosystems

19.1 Basic concept of ecology (Book 3, p. 19-2)

A What is ecology? (Book 3, p. 19-2)

◼ __Habitat__ (生境) is the place where organisms live.

◼ Ecology (生態學) is the study of the inter-relationships between organisms and those between
organisms and their (2) ___environment ___.

B Levels of organization in ecological studies (Book 3, p. 19-2)

Level of organization Description

(3) ___Species___ The lowest level of __classifying__ organisms. It consists of

(物種) organisms that can interbreed to produce __fertile__ offspring

(4) __Population___ A group of organisms of the _same_ species living in the same
(種羣) ___habitat___

(5) ___Community___ __All__ the populations of different species living in the same
(羣落) habitat

(6) ___Ecosystem___ A natural unit of living and non-living components. Their interactions
(生態系) make the unit self-supporting, stable, and yet dynamic (動態的)

(7) __Biome_ (生物羣系) A complex of __communities___ that occupies a large geographical

area, and is characterized by a __dominant___ type of (8)
___plant____ (determined by the climatic conditions)

Biosphere (生物圈) The entire space on the earth’s surface where organisms exist

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Lesson worksheet Book 3, Ch 19

C Basic features of an ecosystem (Book 3, p. 19-4)

◼ All ecosystems are self-supporting, stable and yet dynamic. There are three basic features for
an ecosystem:
Feature Description

Cycling of ◼ Useful elements (e.g. carbon and nitrogen) are not lost from the ecosystem.
materials They are (9) ___cycled____ through the ecosystem when the organisms
carry out different processes (e.g. photosynthesis and respiration).
Therefore, an ecosystem does not require the supply of extra materials.

Interactions ◼ Interactions of organisms with one another and with the environment make
of organisms an ecosystem (10) __dynamic__. Through feeding, materials are
with one transferred from one organism to the other in the form of
another and (11) __food__.
with the ◼ Inorganic materials may be (12) __absorbed___ by the organisms and
environment may be converted to organic matter through autotrophic nutrition.
Materials may be released back to the environment through different
processes (e.g. respiration, egestion).
◼ Organisms show different (13) ___adaptations____ in order to live in
specific environments. They also affect their physical environment.

Energy flow ◼ Energy (14) __cannot__ (can / cannot) be cycled. Ecosystems need a
continuous input of energy which usually comes from the
(15) ___sun___. After plants absorbed energy to build organic matter,
energy flows from one organism to another in the form of
(16) __food__, and is eventually lost as (17) __heat__.

heat

sun organisms

materials
light energy
Key: energy flow

physical environment cycling of materials

 Cycling of materials and energy flow in an ecosystem

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Lesson worksheet Book 3, Ch 19

D Major types of ecosystems in Hong Kong (Book 3, p. 19-6)

(18) ___Freshwater streams__ (19) __Mangroves___

(淡水河流) (紅樹林)

(20) __Woodlands__ (21) __Grasslands__ (22) __Rocky shores__ (岩岸)

(林地) (草地)

19.2 Component of an ecosystem: the abiotic factors

(Book 3, p. 19-9)

◼ An ecosystem is made up of two components: the (1) ____abiotic___ factors (非生物因子),

which are the non-living components, and the (2) _______biotic community_______
(生物羣落), which is the living component:

example temperature, light, rainfall and humidity, wind

abiotic factor
speed, water current, oxygen level, salinity,
(non-living)
nature of substratum

ecosystem

biotic community including

interactions among organisms
(living)

 Components of an ecosystem

A Some common abiotic factors (Book 3, p. 19-9)

1 Temperature
◼ The distribution and behaviour of organisms are greatly affected by temperature. This is
partly because metabolic reactions in the cells are catalysed by (3) ___enzymes____.

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Lesson worksheet Book 3, Ch 19

2 Light
◼ For plants, light intensity mainly affects the rate of (4) ____photosynthesis______. The
duration of light in a day (day length 日照時間) also affects the (5) _flowering_ of plants.
◼ For animals, light affects their behaviour. (6) __Diurnal___ (晝行的) animals are active
during the day and rest at night while (7) _nocturnal_ (夜出的) animals are active at night.

3 Rainfall and humidity

◼ Both rainfall and humidity affect the amount of (8) _water_ available in a habitat.
◼ Organisms in habitats with limited water supply develop special mechanisms to retain water
in their body and reduce water loss.

4 Wind speed and water current

◼ Organisms exposing to strong wind and strong waves usually develop body structures to hold
themselves firmly onto the (9) __substratum__ (基層).
◼ Some organisms have a streamlined (流線形的) body form to reduce their resistance when
moving in water.

5 Oxygen level
◼ A number of factors affect the oxygen level in aquatic habitats:
➢ Temperature: The solubility of oxygen in water (10) __decreases___ (increases /
decreases) as temperature increases.
➢ Water current: Splashes (11) ___increase__ (increase / decrease) the contact of water
with oxygen.
➢ Organic matter: The decomposition of organic matter (by decomposers) uses oxygen.

6 Salinity
◼ Salinity (鹽度) directly determines the (12) _____water potential_____ and hence the
availability of water and minerals to organisms.

7 Nature of substratum
◼ In soil with small particles, the air spaces among the particles are (13) __small__ and the
concentration of oxygen in the soil is (14) __lower__ .
◼ Different types of soil may also vary in pH value (usu. pH 5.5-7), oxygen, water, nutrient and
(15) _humus_ (腐殖質) contents. (**Humus is formed from the decomposition of organic
matter (e.g. dead bodies, manure). It is the major source of nutrients in soil, e.g.
proteins nitrates ions, ↑ in soil nitrogen. It can also hold a large amount of moisture.)

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Lesson worksheet Book 3, Ch 19

B Key abiotic factors in different ecosystems (Book 3, p. 19-12)

1 In woodlands
◼ The canopy layer forms a ___shelter___ against strong wind and heavy rain to prevent
(16) ___soil erosion___ (土壤侵蝕) and reduce *runoff (refers to the movement of water across
the soil surface) (徑流).
◼ The tree roots are deep and extensive to hold the soil particles together, preventing soil
___erosion___ and reducing (17) ___runoff___.
◼ The thick layer of __**humus__ on the ground layer maintains (18) ___fertility___ of the
soil.

2 In coastal ecosystems
◼ Rocky shores:
➢ They have a hard (19) __substratum__ exposed to _strong_waves.
➢ The shores can be divided (20) __vertically__ (horizontally / vertically) into different
zones (zonation) based on the overall average exposure of the zones.
➢ Many organisms in the rocky shores develop ways to attach firmly to the rocks and have
a hard (21) __shell__ for protection.
➢ Some organisms hide themselves in _rock crevices_to stay away from strong waves.
◼ Mangroves:
➢ Most are located in sheltered bays and subject to __tidal_ actions. They are protected
from wave action.
➢ The (22) __salinity__ of the mud fluctuates throughout the day.
➢ Organic matter can easily accumulate in the soft mud and the oxygen level in the mud
is (23) _low_ (high / low).
➢ Some mangrove trees develop specialized forms of roots (pneumatophores) to obtain
(24) __oxygen__ from the air, while some can excrete excess (25) _salt_ through leaves.
➢ Large amount of organic matter that accumulates in the substratum of mangroves
provides a food source for a diversity of animals.

3 In freshwater ecosystems
◼ In the upper course (typically fast-flowing), the oxygen level is usually (26) ____higher____
(higher / lower) and the particles of the substratum are usually larger.
◼ Plants along stream bank provide food for many aquatic organisms in the stream. They also
help regulate water temperature, (27) ___purity____ water, reduce the risk of __flooding_
and reduce __erosion__ on stream bank.

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Lesson worksheet Book 3, Ch 19

stream bank

19.3 Component of an ecosystem: the biotic community

A Describing the biotic community (Book 3, p. 19-17)

◼ The biotic community is the living component of an ecosystem. Common terms used to
describe it include:

1 Niche and habitat

◼ A (1) __habitat__ is the place where an organism lives.
◼ A (2) _**niche_ (生態位) is the role that an organism plays in its environment. It refers to the
way of life of an organism in its natural habitat. It is determined by the (3) _temperature_
range in which the organisms live, the type of food they eat, and the (4) ___space__ they
occupy. (If their ecological niches are similar/ overlapping, there may have been keen
competition between them.) Populations of two species cannot coexist if they have the
same niche.

2 Species diversity
◼ (5) __Species diversity__ (物種多樣性) refers to the variety of organisms that make up a
community. It is determined by the (6) __species richness___ (i.e. the number of species in
the community) and the (7) ____relative abundance____ of different species (i.e. the
proportion of different species within the community).
◼ Example:
Species
A B C D
Community

1 25 24 28 23

2 94 2 2 2

Communities 1 and 2 have the same species richness because they are both made up of four
different species (A, B, C and D). However, the four species are present in
(8) ___similar___ (similar / different) proportions in community 1 and we can easily notice
the four different species. We say that the species diversity of community 1 is
(9) ____higher____ (higher / lower) than that of community 2.

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Lesson worksheet Book 3, Ch 19

3 Dominant species
◼ Among the different species in a community, usually a few species exert a strong influence on
the composition and diversity of the community. These species are called the
(10) ____dominant species____ (優勢種).
◼ In terrestrial ecosystems, the dominant species are usually the commonest types of
(11) ____plants___ (plants / animals).

B Interactions among organisms in a community (Book 3, p. 19-19)

◼ Organisms in a community interact with one another in different ways. They may gain
benefit (+), be harmed (–) or not be affected (0).

1 Predation (+ / –)
◼ In predation, the (12) ____predator___ (捕食者) gains benefit (+) while the (13) ___prey___
(獵物) is harmed (–).
◼ The change in the population of the predator is always (14) ___lagging behind____
(preceding / lagging behind) that of the prey:

 prey
population

   predator

time
 The predator-prey cycle

 The prey has plenty of food. It breeds and increases in number.

 An increase in the prey population means that more food is available for the predator. So
the predator population (15) __increases___.
 A large number of predator feed on a large number of prey. So the prey population
(16) ____decreases____.
 As the food supply becomes limited, the predator population (17) __decreases__.
 The number of prey recovers and the cycle repeats itself.

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Lesson worksheet Book 3, Ch 19

2 Competition (– / –)
◼ All organisms involved in competition are (18) ___harmed___ (–).
◼ Two major types of competition:
➢ (19) ___Interspecific____ competition (種間競爭) among organisms of different species
➢ (20) ___Intraspecific___ competition (種內競爭) among organisms of the same species.
◼ Intraspecific competition is usually (21) __more__ (more / less) intense because individuals
of the same species have the same niche and same (22) __needs__.
(Mikania is a common weed, is a very strong competitor. When it climbs on a tree, it competes with
the tree for sunlight & finally kills the tree.)
3 Commensalism (+ / 0): Commensal (+), host (0) TB P.21 (barnacles & whales; epiphytes)
◼ (23) __Commensalism__ (偏利共棲) is a relationship in which two organisms live together in
such a way that one gains benefits (+) while the other is not affected (0).
◼ Example: Commensal: egret, host: cattle
➢ Some egrets (鷺) stay on the back of elephants or
cattle. The egrets benefit from feeding on insects
stirred up by the animal. The elephants or cattle
are unaffected.
➢ Barnacles may also live on the body of crabs.

4 Mutualism (+ / +) TB P.22
◼ (24) ___Mutualism___ (互利共生) refers to the relationship in which two organisms live in
such a way that both gain benefits (+).
◼ Examples:
➢ Lichens consist of algae and fungi living together.
The algae make food by photosynthesis for both
organisms while the fungi hold water and provide
protection and anchorage for both.

➢ Sea anemones living on the shells of hermit crabs:

Sea anemones: the __movement__ brought about by the crab & _food_ remains of the crab

Crab: ___protection/ camouflage___ provided by the sea anemones

➢ Legumes (e.g. peanut plants, soya beans) and the N2-fixing bacteria (TB P.45 & 67)

N2-fixing bacteria: provide ___nitrogenous/ ammonium__ compounds to the legumes

for the formation of ___proteins for growth____

Legumes: provide ___carbohydrate/ food___ and __shelter__ as bacteria live in the root

nodules of the plants. (Legumes can grow well in poor soil with little amount of nitrates.)

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Lesson worksheet Book 3, Ch 19

5 Parasitism (+ / –)
◼ (25) __Parasitism___ (寄生) refers to the relationship in which the (26) __parasite (+)__
(寄生物) lives on or inside the (27) _host (-)_ (寄主), obtaining benefits (+) from the host but
causing harm (–) to them.
◼ Example: (TB **P.23 Parasitic wasps & caterpillars; dodder & plants; disease-causing organisms)
(+ Chapter 23 P.2-P.5)
➢ Tapeworms (絛蟲) live in the (28) ___intestines___ of some mammals (e.g. cats, pigs, cattle and
humans) and absorb digested food from them. The hosts are harmed through the loss of nutrients.
(Symbiosis: closely associated, live together): commensalism, ②mutualism,parasitism)
**TB P.24 Invasive species

C Ecological succession (Book 3, p. 19-26)

◼ The series of changes in the composition of a community over a period of time is called
(29) __ ecological succession___ (生態演替).
◼ During the process, organisms modify their environment in ways that allow other species to
come in and (30) ___ replace ___ them. The process repeats and species diversity
progressively (31) ___ increases ____ (increases / decreases) to a maximum, when a
(32) ____ climax community____ (頂級羣落) is reached.
1 Primary succession

0–15 years 15–35 years 35–80 years 80–115 years 115+ years

trees

mosses, ferns shrubs

and grass
barren area with
some lichens

 Primary succession

◼ Primary succession (原生演替) starts with the colonization of a (33) __barren__ (光禿) area
where there were no soil or organisms before.
◼ The process of primary succession:
I Barren rocks are exposed after a glacier retreat (冰川後退). They are broken up into
smaller particles because of weathering (風化). Lichens first colonize the area and form
the (34) ___**pioneer community___ (先鋒羣落). The dead bodies of the lichens are
decomposed to become organic matter, which gradually forms the (35) __soil__
together with small rock particles.

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Lesson worksheet Book 3, Ch 19

II Mosses, ferns and grass start to grow in the soil. They become established over most part
of the rocks and become the (36) ___dominant____ species. They provide food and
shelter for plant-eating animals.
III Dead, decaying plants and animals, as well as animal waste form (37) ___humus___
which further enriches the soil. The soil becomes thick enough for the growth of
(38) ___shrubs____ which grow over the mosses, ferns and grass. More animals are
attracted to the habitat for food and shelter.
IV Finally, the soil becomes thick and rich in (39) _nutrients (e.g. NO3 -)_. It can support
the growth of (40) ___trees___ which grow over the shrubs. The habitat turns into a
woodland that attracts increasing numbers of animals. A (41) __climax community___
is reached.
◼ Characteristics of a climax community:
➢ It has the largest variety of (42) ___species___, maximum biomass and greatest
organism (43) ___interactions___.
➢ The energy input to the ecosystem is (44) __balanced__ by the energy consumed.
➢ If a climax community is disturbed by some external forces (e.g. a hill fire), it will
redevelop until it attains stability again. Secondary succession takes place in this case.

2 Secondary succession

0–2 years 2–20 years 20–70 years trees 70+ years

area that once

supported life
shrubs and
grass and small trees
ferns

 Secondary succession

◼ Secondary succession (次生演替) takes place in areas that once supported life but are now
barren, e.g. on hillsides after a hill fire or abandoned fields.
◼ Differences between primary succession and secondary succession:
Primary succession Secondary succession

Where it In barren areas where no organisms In areas where organisms were present
takes place and soil were present before before but is now barren

Pioneer (45) __Lichens___ Grasses and (46) __ferns___ because

community soil is already present

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Lesson worksheet Book 3, Ch 19

Time needed (47) ___Longer___ (48) __Shorter__ because seeds, roots

to reach and underground vegetative organs of
climax
plants are present in the soil
community

Q: In a study, a plot of land was burnt by fire. After this, the vegetation on this land, classified
into herbs and woody plants, was monitored for 10 years. The percentage cover of each type
was recorded. It was found that the dominant vegetation was herbs in the first three years,
but then woody plants replaced herbs as the dominant vegetation. Explain the change in
the dominant community.
Secondary succession takes place:
• After the land was burnt by fire, the underground sprouting organs (e.g. rhizomes, tubers)
and seeds were not damaged in the fire.
• Herbs (e.g grasses) generally germinate and grow faster than woody plants.
• Hence, the percentage cover of herbs increased rapidly at first and become the dominant
vegetation in the first three years.
• As woody plants (germinate from seeds) continue to grow and over-shadow the herbs, thus
out-compete the herbs for light, they replace herbs as the dominant vegetation.

19.4 Energy flow in an ecosystem (Book 3, p. 19-30)

A The sun as the ultimate source of energy (Book 3, p. 19-30)

◼ Energy ultimately comes from the (1) __sun__. Light energy is captured by green plants
through (2) __photosynthesis__ and then converted into (3) __chemical___ energy in the
plants.
◼ Energy flows in the form of (4) ___food___ in an ecosystem.
◼ A continual input of energy from the sun is essential for maintaining a stable ecosystem
because energy is (5) __lost__ from the organisms through different processes.

B Food chains and food webs (Book 3, p. 19-31)

1 Food chains
◼ A (6) ___ food chain ___ (食物鏈) shows the sequence of organisms in a particular feeding
relationship and the direction of (7) __energy / material __ and (8) _ material / energy __ flow
from one organism to another.

grass rabbit fox wolf ( means eaten by)

◼ Organisms in a food chain may act as (9) ___producers___ (生產者), (10) ___consumers_ (消
費者) or (11) ___decomposers___ (分解者), depending on their roles in the energy flow.

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Lesson worksheet Book 3, Ch 19

Role of organism Description

Producers (e.g. ◼ Can make their own food (i.e. (12) __autotrophs___ 自養生物)
plants, algae,  Most of them are photosynthetic (Some are chemosynthetic)
photosynthetic ◼ (Importance: They convert light energy to chemical energy in food &
bacteria) pass the energy in food to other organisms/ consumers)

Consumers ◼ Feed on other organisms (i.e. (13) __heterotrophs__ 異養生物)

◼ Can be classified into three types depending on their positions in the food
chain:
➢ (14) _primary_ consumers (初級消費者), which feed on producers
➢ (15) _secondary_ consumers (次級消費者), which feed on primary
consumers
➢ (16) ___tertiary___ consumers (三級消費者), which feed on
secondary consumers
◼ In the food chain above, the (17) ___grass___ is the producer, the (18) ___rabbit___ is the
primary consumer, the (19) ___fox___ is the secondary consumer, while the (20) ___wolf___
is the tertiary consumer.

2 Food webs
◼ A (21) ___food web___ (食物網) shows all the possible (22) ___feeding___ relationships
among selected organisms in an ecosystem.

bear

wolf

fox

bird

deer rabbit grasshopper caterpillar

grass oak tree

 A food web in a forest

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Lesson worksheet Book 3, Ch 19

◼ An organism may play different roles in different food chains. In the food web above,
the fox is a (23) ____secondary____ consumer when it eats the rabbit. It becomes a
(24) ___tertiary___ consumer when it eats the bird.
◼ Pay attention to the following points when drawing a food web:
➢ Producers should be put at the (25) ___bottom___ (bottom / top) of the food web.
➢ Organisms at the same feeding level should be put at the same level.
➢ Crossing of arrows should be avoided.

C Energy lost along trophic levels (Book 3, p. 19-32)

◼ A (26) ___trophic level___ (營養級) is the feeding level of an organism, depending on its
position in a food chain. Energy flows from (27) ___lower____(higher / lower) to
(28) ___higher___ (higher / lower) trophic levels.
Organism in the food Role in the food
Trophic level Direction of energy flow
chain chain
Wolf Tertiary consumer Fourth

Fox Secondary consumer Third

Rabbit Primary consumer Second

Grass (29) __Producer__ First

◼ When energy is transferred from one trophic level to another, a large portion of energy is lost
to the surroundings by four main ways. Only a very small proportion of energy is transferred
from one trophic level to the next.
Way of energy loss Description
Uneaten materials ◼ (30) __Chemical__ energy stored in the uneaten body material is not
passed to higher trophic levels.

Undigested and ◼ Usually, a large proportion of organisms are (31) _indigestible (e.g.
egested materials fibres)_ and unabsorbed when eaten by others.
◼ These materials will be passed out as (32) __faeces__.

Excretory ◼ Energy is lost through the (33) __excretory__ products

products (e.g. carbon dioxide and urea) of organisms.

As heat during ◼ The chemical energy in the food eaten is released as heat through
respiration (34) __respiration___ or used to support various body functions.

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Lesson worksheet Book 3, Ch 19

dead bodies, egested materials

heat loss and excretory products
fourth trophic level
due to
(tertiary consumers)
respiration
dead bodies, egested materials
heat loss and excretory products
third trophic level
due to

s
decomposer
(secondary consumers)
respiration heat loss
dead bodies, egested materials due to
heat loss and excretory products respiration
second trophic level
due to
(primary consumers)
respiration

heat loss dead bodies

first trophic level
due to (producers)
respiration
Key:
energy flow along trophic levels
sun energy lost from trophic levels

 Summary of energy flow and energy lost along trophic levels in an ecosystem

◼ With fewer trophic levels, less energy is lost. Therefore, a shorter food chain can support
(35) __more__ (more / less) consumers than a longer food chain.
◼ Role of decomposers in an ecosystem: (P.34)
➢ Decomposers are (36) ___saprophytes___ (腐生生物). They secrete digestive enzymes to
break down dead organic matter. This process is called (37) _decomposition_ (分解).
Chemical energy stored in the dead organic matter is transferred to the decomposers.
➢ Decomposers also play an important role in (38) ___material___ cycling.
Decomposers are usually not shown in the food chains.

Q: Why is it rare that there are more than six types of organisms in a food chain?
(TB P.34)
 It is because a lot of energy is lost when it is transferred along the food chain. (1)
The energy is lost due to respiration, excretion, incomplete ingestion/
digestion, death.
(1)
 With more trophic levels, more energy is lost and the amount of energy can
be passed to the sixth level would be so little that it may not be enough to
support their life. (1)
 With fewer trophic levels, less energy is lost and so shorter food chains can
support more consumers

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Lesson worksheet Book 3, Ch 19

D Ecological pyramids (Book 3, p. 19-36)

◼ Ecological pyramids (生態錐體) represents the flow of energy along trophic levels.

1 Pyramid of numbers
◼ (39) __Pyramid of numbers___ (數量錐體) is a bar diagram showing the number of
organisms at each trophic level. The (40) __area__ of each bar is proportional to the
number of organisms at that trophic level.
a For a food chain on a grassland: grass grasshopper toad eagle

tertiary consumer 1 eagle

secondary consumers 50 toads

primary consumers 80 grasshoppers

producers 200 000 grass

b For all organisms in a grassland habitat:

tertiary consumers 3 birds and moles

secondary consumers 35 000 spiders, ants, beeflies, etc.

primary consumers 700 000 herbivorous insects

producers 5 800 000 grass

 Examples of pyramid of numbers

◼ The size of the bars (41) ___decreases___ up the trophic levels because:
➢ less energy is available to organisms at higher trophic levels
➢ a predator usually requires more energy to maintain its life due to its larger body size.
Therefore, the number of organisms that can be supported at a higher trophic level is
usually (42) ___smaller_____ (larger / smaller).
◼ In some cases, an inverted pyramid of numbers is observed:

a oak tree caterpillar bird b dog flea

secondary consumers 6 birds parasites 1200 fleas

primary consumers 10 000 caterpillars host 1 dog

producer 1 oak tree

◼ A single tree can support a large number ◼ One host (dog) can support many
of insects such as caterpillars. parasites (fleas).

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Lesson worksheet Book 3, Ch 19

2 Pyramid of biomass
◼ A pyramid of biomass (生物量錐體) is a bar diagram showing the total (43) _dry mass_ of
organisms at each trophic level in a given unit area at a particular point of time. (The
amount of energy stored is usually proportional to the amount of living material.)
◼ The case of an inverted pyramid of numbers can be presented as a normal pyramid if a
pyramid of biomass is used.

secondary consumers birds (20 g m–2)

primary consumers caterpillars (80 g m–2)

producer oak tree (1600 g m–2)

 A pyramid of biomass for organisms living on an oak tree

◼ A pyramid of biomass may become inverted when organisms at a lower trophic level have a
much higher (44) __reproduction__ rate and shorter lifespan than organisms at a higher
trophic level. (The total amount of biomass produced by the phytoplankton per year is
much larger than that of zooplankton.)

For the food chain: phytoplankton zooplankton (浮游動物)

primary consumers zooplankton (21 g m–2)

producers phytoplankton (4 g m–2)

 An inverted pyramid of biomass for phytoplankton and zooplankton

3 Limitations of ecological pyramids

◼ The energy flow to (45) ___decomposers___ is not considered.
◼ The (46) ___trophic level___ of an organism, especially carnivores (肉食性動物), may vary
with the type of food eaten. Some organisms may also change their (47) ___diet___ as they
grow.

Drawing pyramid of numbers and pyramid of biomass (Book 3, p. 19-41)

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Lesson worksheet Book 3, Ch 19

19.5 Material cycling in an ecosystem (Book 3, p. 19-42)

A The carbon cycle (Book 3, p. 19-42)

carbon dioxide
in atmosphere and
oceans
combustion
 
carbonates in
 respiration and
decomposition
ocean bed (e.g. (by decomposers)
limestone 石灰石)
organic waste

deposition carbon in fossil
excretion/ fuels e.g. coal,
carbonate egestion crude oil,
skeletons of corals natural gas
and seashells carbon in consumers 
carbon in buried
death tertiary consumers underground
for a long
feeding time
respiration death dead
carbon in bodies
 secondary consumers

feeding 
carbon in
primary consumers


feeding
Key:
addition of carbon dioxide to
atmosphere and oceans carbon in producers
removal of carbon dioxide to
atmosphere and oceans

 The carbon cycle (碳循環)

 Carbon in producers is transferred to consumers in the form of organic by

(1) ___feeding___.
 Organic matter in dead bodies or waste material of organisms is used as food by
(2) _decomposers (e.g. bacteria, fungi)_ (saprophytes).
◼ Carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere and oceans through:
 (3) ___respiration___ of all organisms and (4) __decomposition__ by decomposers,
 combustion of (5) __fossil fuels__,
 reactions of carbonates in (6) ___limestone___ with acids in water, or volcanic eruption
during which carbonates are (7) ____heated___ under high pressure.
 Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and oceans is returned to the bodies of producers when the
producers carry out (8) ___photosynthesis___.

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 Lesson worksheet Book 3, Ch 19

 B The nitrogen cycle (Book 3, p. 19-44)

nitrogen in
 nitrogen fixation (固氮) atmosphere and  denitrification (反硝化)
(by nitrogen fixing oceans (by denitrifying bacteria
bacteria 固氮細菌) 反硝化細菌)
 lightning (閃電)
nitrogen oxides

 nitrogen in soil
nitrification (硝化) nitrification
ammonium compounds nitrites nitrates
(by nitrifying bacteria (by nitrifying bacteria)
硝化細菌)


decomposition nitrogen in consumers
(by decomposers)
nitrogen in
excretion/ tertiary consumers
egestion
organic waste feeding

nitrogen in
secondary consumers

feeding 
death
dead bodies nitrogen in  absorption
primary consumers and use

Key:
feeding
addition of nitrogen
to the soil
removal of nitrogen nitrogen in producers
to the soil

 The nitrogen cycle (氮循環)

 Nitrogen in producers is transferred to consumers in the form of organic matter (e.g. proteins)
by (9) __feeding__.
 Decomposers break down organic waste and dead bodies. The nitrogen inside them is
converted to (10) _ammonium compounds by decomposition (ammonification).
 The ammonium compounds are turned into nitrites, then changed into (11) ___nitrates__ by
nitrifying bacteria through (12) __nitrification__ in the soil.

nitrification

organic waste decomposition nitrification nitrification

ammonium nitrates
and dead nitrites
by compounds by nitrifying by nitrifying (in soil)
bodies
decomposers bacteria bacteria

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Lesson worksheet Book 3, Ch 19

the form of nitrates) is also added to the soil through (13) ___lightning___ .
dissolve in
nitrogen lightning nitrogen rainwater nitrates
(in atmosphere) oxides (in soil)

 (14) ___Nitrogen fixing bacteria____ (固氮細菌) in the soil convert nitrogen in soil air to
ammonium compounds by (15) __nitrogen fixation__. The ammonium compounds are
stored (or used for making proteins) in their body. When they **die, they are decomposed by
decomposers. The ammonium compounds in them are released into the soil and converted to
nitrates by (16) _nitrification_.
(dead bodies)
nitrogen fixation ammonium decomposition ammonium nitrification
nitrogen nitrates
(in soil air) compounds compounds
by free-living by by nitrifying (in soil)
(in bacteria) (in soil)
nitrogen fixing decomposers bacteria
bacteria

Nitrogen fixing bacteria are also present in the root nodules (根瘤) of (17) __leguminous__
plants (豆科植物). They convert nitrogen gas in the soil air to ammonium compounds for the
growth of the plants. (ecological relationship: ___________________)

root
nodules

 Root nodules of garden pea plant

◼ Nitrogen is removed from the soil when:

 (18) __nitrates__ are taken up by producers, and
 (19) __denitrifying bacteria__ change nitrates in the soil into nitrogen gas through
(20) __denitrification__ in poorly aerated soil.

nitrates denitrification nitrogen

(in soil) by denitrifying (in atmosphere)
bacteria

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Lesson worksheet Book 3, Ch 19

Q: Hydrogen and nitrogen are essential components of proteins. Compare and contrast the
processes by which non-leguminous plants acquire these two elements from the environment
and describe how they can be incorporated together to form proteins in mesophyll cells.

19.6 Conservation of ecosystems (Book 3, p. 19-49)

A Impact of human activities on ecosystems (Book 3, p. 19-49)

◼ Natural resources were exploited (開發) by humans rapidly in recent decades, leading to the
production of a large amount of waste. These have brought adverse impact on ecosystems:
Impact Description

Habitat ◼ The loss of habitats dramatically reduces (1) __biodiversity___

destruction (生物多樣性).

Overexploitation ◼ Over-hunting of many species leads to a rapid drop in the number of

of resources individuals, or even puts them in danger of (2) __extinction__ (滅絕).
◼ The continuous consumption of (3) __non-renewable__ resources
(不可再生資源) such as fossil fuels leads to depletion of such resources.

Pollution ◼ Pollutants (污染物) have undesirable effects on the environment, such as

reducing the quality of the air, water and land.

Global warming ◼ As carbon dioxide, methane and other (4) ___greenhouse gases____
(全球暖化) (温室氣體) accumulate in the atmosphere, more (5) ____heat____ is
trapped on earth and the global temperature increases.
◼ This may speed up the melting of icebergs in Polar regions and polar
organisms may therefore lose their habitats.

B Conservation of environment (Book 3, p. 19-52)

◼ (6) __Conservation___ (保育) is necessary for maintaining a sustainable (可持續的)

environment.
◼ Some principles in conservation:
➢ Protection of natural habitats
➢ Protection of (7) ___endangered___ species
➢ Use of (8) ___alternative___ energy sources
➢ Good management of the use of natural resources
➢ Reduction in the use of natural resources and waste
 Rhinos are in danger of
production extinction due to overhunting

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Lesson worksheet Book 3, Ch 19

19.7 Ecological study (Book 3, p. 19-53)

◼ (1) ___Ecological study___ (生態研習) allows us to see how abiotic and biotic factors affect
the distribution and abundance of different species in a habitat.

A Studying distribution and abundance of organisms (Book 3, p. 19-53)

1 Sampling plants and immobile animals

i) Quadrat
◼ A (2) ___quadrat___ (樣方) is a square frame of fixed area.
◼ It is thrown randomly onto the ground. The number of different kinds of organisms in the
area enclosed by the quadrat is recorded.
◼ (3) ___Repeated___ sampling (重複取樣) and calculating a mean value are necessary to make
the estimation more reliable.
◼ The density of the organism can be calculated using the formulae below:

number of individuals of a species in the quadrat

Absolute density =
area of the quadrat

number of individuals of a species in the quadrat

Relative density = × 100%
number of individuals of all species in the quadrat

◼ The percentage of area covered by the species is more useful for studying the density of
certain vegetation and immobile organisms that cover a large area. It is calculated by:

area covered by a species in the quadrat

Percentage cover = × 100%
total area of the quadrat

◼ The chance to find a particular species by randomly throwing a quadrat (relative frequency)
can be calculated by:

number of quadrats in which a species can be found

Relative frequency = × 100%
total number of quadrats

◼ Limitations:
➢ Quadrats cannot be used to sample (4) ___fast-moving___ (fast-moving /
slow-moving) organisms.
➢ The size of the organisms must be small enough so that a reasonable number of
individuals is enclosed by the quadrat.
➢ Quadrats can be used alone only when the habitat is fairly (5) ___uniform___.

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Lesson worksheet Book 3, Ch 19

ii) Line transect (TB P.13 & 14 coastal ecosystems VR 19.1 & 19.2)
◼ A (6) ___transect___ (樣條) is a piece of inelastic string with markings at 1-m intervals.
◼ In the (7) _line transect_ (樣線) method, a transect is placed along a specific direction.
◼ All organisms covered by or touching the line are identified and recorded.
◼ A distribution graph can be drawn to present the positions of the organisms along the transect.

species D

species B species C

species A

sea

transect

 Using the line transect method in a mangrove

Key:
species A species B species C species D
1.5

1.0
height (m)

0.5

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
distance along the transect (m)

 A distribution graph showing the positions of different plant species along the transect in the
diagram above

◼ This method is most suitable for studying the range of (8) ___distribution___ of a species in
a habitat.
◼ Limitation:
➢ It only shows the presence or absence of species. It cannot show the
(9) ___abundance___ of different species as no area is measured.

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Lesson worksheet Book 3, Ch 19

iii) Belt transect

◼ In the belt transect (樣帶) method, a (10) ___transect___ is laid down along the area to be
studied, and (11) __quadrats__ are placed continuously or at fixed intervals on one side of
the transect.
◼ The positions of the quadrats and the organisms enclosed by the quadrats are recorded. The
data can be presented using a (12) __kite diagram__ (鳶形圖).

transect

5m

0.5 m

0.5 m
quadrat

 The belt transect method

Distance Number of organisms

along the
transect (m) Species A Species B Species C
species A
0 2 0 0
number of individuals

5 2 0 0
species B
10 0 0 0

15 0 8 0
species C
20 0 4 0

25 0 0 4

30 0 0 2 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
distance along the transect (m)
35 0 0 8

 Presenting the data recorded in a table with a kite diagram

◼ The belt transect method can be used to study the (13) ___abundance___ of a certain species
at different points along the transect, as well as its range of (14) ___distribution____ in
relation to specific environmental conditions.

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Lesson worksheet Book 3, Ch 19

Quadrat Line transect Belt transect

Suitable for Fairly uniform habitats Habitats that show (15) ___transitions___ in
studying environmental conditions

Sampling (16) ___Random___ (17) ___Systematic___, i.e. carefully chosen for

strategy specific environmental conditions of interest

Information (18) __Abundance__ of Presence or absence of Abundance of species

obtained species in a habitat species along the line at different positions
along the line, and the
range of distribution of
the species

2 Sampling freely-moving animals

◼ We can use nets and traps in standard ways for sampling small, freely-moving animals.

◼ Mark-and-recapture method (P.58)

B Measurement of abiotic factors (Book 3, p. 19-59)

◼ Abiotic factors in a habitat can be measured by using suitable instruments. For example,
thermohygrometers (温濕度計) can be used to measure air temperature and humidity.
◼ We can also make measurements using sensors connected to a portable
(19) ____data logger____ (數據收集儀).

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