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Water Coagulation and Flocculation Potential of Calamansi Peels
(Citrofortunella microcarpa): An Alternative Water Treatment
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A Scientific Investigatory Paper (Modified)

Junior High School – Science Curriculum

Mikaela Eunice P. Padinit

10-Echo

March 2025
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 A Scientific Investigatory Paper (Modified)
Presented to the Institution Review Committee of Department of Research, Gusa
Regional Science High School – X
In Fulfillment of the Requirements for Research 1
Junior High School – Science Curriculum

Mikaela Eunice P. Padinit

10-Echo

March 2025
 Department of Education Region X
Division of Cagayan de Oro City
GUSA REGIONAL SCIENCE HIGH SCHOOL-X
Gusa, Cagayan de Oro City

RESEARCH DEPARTMENT

CERTIFICATE OF INSTITUTION REVIEW COMMITTEE APPROVAL

This research paper entitled “WATER COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION

POTENTIAL OF CALAMANSI PEELS (Citrofortunella microcarpa): AN
ALTERNATIVE WATER TREATMENT” prepared and submitted by MIKAELA
EUNICE P. PADINIT in partial fulfilment of the requirements for JUNIOR HIGH
SCHOOL - Science Curriculum has been examined and recommended for defense.

JASMINE JOY I. TIEMPO (SELECTED ADVISER)

Language Editor Research Adviser

MARK RICHIE S. LASQUE

Research 1 Teacher

INSTITUTION REVIEW COMMITTEE

Approved by the Committee in partial fulfillment of the requirements for, JUNIOR

HIGH SCHOOL - Science Curriculum with a grade ____.

(EVALUATOR’S NAME) _ MARK RICHIE S. LASQUE__

Chair, Research Panel Research 1 Teacher

ADAM RAY H. MANLUNAS

Chair, JHS Research Department

Accepted and approved in partial fulfillment of the requirements for JUNIOR HIGH
SCHOOL - Science Curriculum.

______________________
Secondary School Principal
 ABSTRACT

The demand for high quality drinking water is growing as non-polluted water sources
become increasingly scarce. Through calamansi peels, this study aimed to create an
inexpensive natural coagulant that can improve water quality and is less hazardous to the
environment and human health. The peels were washed, dried, grind and sieved into
powder, ready to be used as a coagulant. And to determine the effect of varied coagulant
dosages on the water's pH, total dissolved solids, and electrical conductivity, a jar test
experimentation was conducted. Based on the findings, the different coagulant dosages
used on the water, respectively, 5 mg/150mL, 10 mg/150mL, and 15 mg/150mL, have
varied effects. The higher the coagulant dosage, the pH rose while the total dissolved solids
and electrical conductivity decreased, indicating improved water quality. Among the
coagulant dosage used, the results suggested that the optimum coagulant dosage is found
at 15 g/150ml, with a pH of 6.8, total dissolved solids (TDS) of 306 ppm, and electrical
conductivity (EC) of 477.7 ms/cm. Despite the improved water quality, the treated water
is not safe for human consumption. Coagulation-flocculation is merely a process part of
wastewater treatment; aeration and disinfection would still be necessary in eliminating
remaining pathogens. Therefore, it is highly recommended that future researchers should
further improve the whole process stage and come up with a much more complex way to
ensure that the water will be safe for human consumption while also not disregarding the
aim of the study to use a natural coagulant.

Keywords: coagulant, coagulation, flocculation, fruit peels, water treatment

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The researchers wish to extend their sincere gratitude and appreciation to people

giving such contributions towards the making until the completion of this study;

To our loving parents, for their moral and financial support, and for providing us

the encouragement to complete the research study;

To our research teachers, Mr. Adam Ray H. Manlunas, for guiding us day by day

on our research study, for their patience, motivation, and immense knowledge showed to

us;

To Ms. Shoji-an D. Daradal for letting us use the chem laboratory for our data

gathering, and for giving us advices on how to properly interpret data, graph, and tables;

To our dear adviser, Mr. Jerico V. Parreno for his support and continuous

guidance;

To all the aspiring researchers, for giving us knowledge and reference on

understanding our research study.

Most especially to the almighty God, for the wisdom He bestowed upon and for

giving us strength and good health to be able to complete this research work.

To God be the glory.

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
COVER PAGE
TITLE PAGE ……………………………………………………………. i
APPROVAL SHEET ……………………………………………………. ii
ABSTRACT …..…………………………………………………………. iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ….……………………………………………. iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS ….. ……………………………………………. v
LIST OF TABLES ….……………………………………………………. vi
LIST OF FIGURES ………………………………………………………. vii
CHAPTER
1 INTRODUCTION ….……………………………………………. 1

Conceptual Framework …………………………………... 2

Research Questions ....……………………………………. 4

Research Hypothesis ..……………………………………. 4

Scope and Limitation ……………………………………. 4

Significance of the Study ………………………………… 6

Operational Definition of Terms ………………………… 7

2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE .……………………… 9

3 METHODOLOGY ……………………………………………… 15

Research Design ………………………………………… 15

Research Setting ………………………………………… 15
Data Collection Method …… …………………………… 16
Data Analysis …………………………………………… 18
4 PRESENTATIONS, ANALYSIS AND
INTERPRETATION OF DATA ………………………………… 20
5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ……………… 29

REFERENCES ……..…………………………………………………… 30
APPENDICES
Appendix A. Documentation …………………………………… 32
Appendix B. Curriculum Vitae ……..…………………………… 35
 LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1 Flocculation Mixing Time and Flocculation Settling Time

of the Water ………………………………………………. 20

 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1 Schematic Diagram of the Study ……………………………… 3

2 Satellite Image of Captain F. Edrote Street ……………………… 14

3 Satellite Image of Gusa Regional Science Highschool ………… 15

4 Preparation of the Synthetic Wastewater ……………………… 16

5 Coagulation-Flocculation Process ……………………………… 16

6 Filtration Process ………………………………………………. 17

7 Data Analysis …………………………………………………. 18

8 The pH measured at different dosage of coagulant ………………. 22

9 The TDS measured at different dosage of coagulant …………… 24

10 The EC measured at different dosage of coagulant ……………. 26

A1 Preparation of Calamansi Peels ………………………………… 32

A2 Drying of Calamansi Peels ……………………………………… 32

A3 Grinding of Calamansi Peels ……………………………………. 32

A4 Preparation of Synthetic wastewater ……………………………… 32

A5 Making of the Synthetic Wastewater ……………………………… 32

A6 Sifting of Synthetic Wastewater ………………………………… 32

A7 Coagulation …………………………………………………… 33

A8 Jar Test Experimentation ………………………………………… 33

A9 Flocculation ……………………………………………………… 33

A10 Sedimentation …………………………………………………… 33

A11 Filtration …………………………………………………………… 33

A12 Water Samples …………………………………………………… 33

A13 Preparation for Data Collection …………………………………… 34

A14 Calibration of pH meter …………………………………………. 34

A15 Data Collection …………………………………………………. 34

A15 Determination of pH ……………………………………………… 34

A16 Determination of TDS ………………………………………………. 34

A16 Determination of EC ………………………………………………. 34

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
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One of the most decisive problems the society is experiencing today is the shortage

of potable water. Specifically, the Philippines, despite its growing economy, is suffering

from lack of proper sanitation. Out of 105 million Filipinos, nearly seven million rely on

unsustainable water sources, while those living in rural areas barely have access to clean

and safe water (Water Org, 2022). Wastewater treatment is crucial in the sanitation system,

and those people without a sanitary toilet facility at home face several unattractive choices.

Not everyone has access to water purification technologies available today, and this can

have serious consequences. Note: Double Spacing Chapters 1-5

In water and wastewater treatment, though does not constitute as the entirety, the

coagulation-flocculation process has great importance. And due to its simplicity and cost-

effectiveness, it is used by many water industries. Regardless of the nature of the water

sample, the overall treatment process would not matter. Coagulation and flocculation

would always be part of the treatment process, whether as a pre-or post-treatment step.

Turbidity has always been one of the main problems of water treatment processes, and the

efficiency of coagulation-flocculation can affect the overall performance of the water

treatment (Greenwood, 2022). Many impurities in wastewater are present as colloidal

solids. These finely dispersed colloidal particles cannot be easily removed using usual

sedimentation and filtration, only by a coagulant.

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Natural coagulants have been part of water treatment since ancient times. People

used plant extracts derived from seeds, leaves, roots, barks, and fruit peels. Even today,

many studies are leaning towards the experimentation of using natural coagulants. These

natural coagulants are overall more environment-friendly and less hazardous. One of the

advantages of the latter is its cheap cost. More importantly, they do not modify the pH of

the treated water, which makes alkalizing products such as sodium or calcium hydroxide

unnecessary (Choy, Prasad & Wu, 2014). Therefore, the researchers decided to conduct a

study making an alternative water treatment out of a natural coagulant.

This study generally aimed to make a natural coagulant made by calamansi peels.

Calamansi, also known as Calamondin or Philippine Lime, is an economically important

citrus hybrid predominantly cultivated in the Philippines. They can be seen everywhere,

are available, low cost, and feasible. Furthermore, it is common for people to throw the

peels away as they believe they hold no significance. Utilizing the use of peels will not

only be cost- effective but also beneficial to the environment.

Conceptual Framework

Coagulation is the process of destabilizing colloids by neutralizing the forces that

keeps them apart. Coagulants are used to withdraw these forces that makes the particles to

suspend in water and adsorbed simultaneously, the dissolved organic matter unto the

particulate aggregates to be removed as impurities (Zaidi, Muda, 2019). Typically,

colloidal particles in water are negatively charged. Hence, water treatment coagulants are

comprised of positively charged molecules that, when added to the water and mixed,

accomplish this charge neutralization (ChemTreat, 2022).

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Citrus fruits, specifically, are considered a sorbent material as it contains sucrose,

glucose, and fructose. Aside from being a sorbent material used in the process of

adsorption, it can act as a great natural coagulant. The benefits of citrus fruit - like

calamansi as a great coagulant have mainly been attributed to the presence of bioactive

compounds, such as phenolics (flavanone glycosides, hydroxycinnamic acids), ascorbic,

citric acids, and carotenoids. A phenol molecule is polar and acidic, it has a partial positive

charge and can be possibly made into a coagulant agent.

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

• Calamansi peels used Physicochemical

as coagulant parameters of water:
a. pH
• Synthetic wastewater b. EC
c. TDS

Figure 1. This is the schematic diagram of the study.

The diagram shows the schematic diagram for the study. It involves the independent

and dependent variables of the research study. The independent variable in the study are

the synthetic wastewater and calamansi peels. The peels were washed, sun-dried, and

ground into powder - this was then used as a natural coagulant. The dependent variables,

which include the quantitative analysis of the water’s change in pH, total dissolved solids,

and electrical conductivity was collected for data analysis.

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Research Questions
The main objective of this study was to create a natural coagulant out of

calamansi peels. Specifically, this study aimed to answer the following questions:

1. Can calamansi peels be used as a natural coagulant?

2. How long does flocculation and sedimentation occur?

3. Is there a difference of the synthetic wastewater with various dosage of coagulant

used in terms of:

3.1 pH;

3.2 Total Dissolved Solids;

3.3 Electrical Conductivity

Research Hypothesis

Ha: The calamansi peels can be used as a coagulant and have a significant effect on the

water quality.

Ho: The calamansi peels cannot be used as a coagulant and have no significant effect on

the water quality

Scope and Limitation of the Study

This study was conducted at Upper Tambo, Macasandig, Cagayan de Oro City and

Gusa Regional Science Highschool. Specifically, the study’s objective was not to make

wastewater potable but to test the coagulation-flocculation potential of calamansi peels in

water treatment. Coagulation-flocculation is a process part of water treatment; but it does

not constitute the entirety of the treatment. Hence, it is important to note that even with
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coagulation and flocculation, the water treated was not purified to an extent where it is safe

for human consumption. Because the main objective was to make a natural coagulant, the

scope of study only focused on coagulation-flocculation, so aside from filtration,

disinfection and other processes were not part of the water treatment. Even if coagulation

and flocculation are vital and can affect the overall performance of water treatment, they

are only at the primary stage. And though coagulation-flocculation can reduce the

amounts of solids in a solution, it still requires the addition of chemicals to properly get rid

of bacteria, viruses, mold, cysts, or other pathogens. One of the non-chemical methods of

achieving this is through ultraviolet light disinfection, which the researchers did not

include.

There are some limitations of the analysis that should be noted. The data collection

analysis was limited to pH level determination, measurement of total dissolved solids

(TDS) and electrical conductivity (EC), and visual observation (Turbidity) – the overall

water clarity. Complete physico-chemical analysis of water quality was not included.

Though pH is a measure of hydrogen ion activity and tells one how acidic or basic the

water is, it cannot identify the specific heavy metals and chemicals in an aqueous solution.

pH is not a pollutant but is a chemical master variable. Turbidity is also only reliant on

visual observation and the overall quality of the water. The same thing can be said for the

measurement of total dissolve solids. TDS meters can only give you a rough idea of how

much ppm is in the water based on proprietary calculations from the manufacturer. TDS

meters from different brands will show different EC-TDS conversions depending on their

reference solutions. And though conductivity is useful in measuring water quality, it only

measures to a general extent. The precise ppm of ions in the solution cannot be determined
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using electrical conductivity (EC). EC meters can only measure the electric conductivity

as a whole; different ions have different electric conductivity when dissolved in water.

Moreover, EC meters do not measure non-charged molecules like some nitrogen. The

factors that influence coagulation-flocculation are, among others, temperature, pH, effluent

quality, dosage, coagulant type, speed, and time of mixing. While others are equally

important, the rate of speed and time can overall affect floc formation and turbidity

removal. Another limitation of the study is that aside from only testing various coagulant

dosages, the study did not include and consider the temperature, different mixing speeds

and mixing times while operating.

Significance of the Study

This study’s purpose is to create an inexpensive technique to improve water quality

and create a natural coagulant that is less hazardous to the environment and human health.

In the current time, one suffers from various problems relating to the environment. And

even back from years ago, water scarcity is one of the problems you constantly face because

clean and potable water is reducing yearly. Many rural areas suffer from severe water

scarcity due to water pollution; consequently, people then depend on unclean, unsafe, and

unsustainable water from rivers to continue living. Not just in the Philippines, billions of

people worldwide lack access to clean water, and a total of 2.7 billion find water scarce for

at least one month or a year. As a result, inadequate sanitation has become a problem for

many rural areas. The lack of sanitation has led to many diseases, such as cholera, typhoid

fever, and other water-borne illnesses.

Though coagulation alone cannot fully remove pathological bacteria and other
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viruses, creating a cheap natural coagulant at least helps neutralize negative charges of dirt

and other dissolved particles in the water; and improve water quality. And most

importantly, it is not hazardous to the environment and has no hazardous effect towards

human health. In accordance with this, the experiment has assisted the following:

To the Local government. This study could help the local government of Cagayan de Oro

City to create or make an innovation with the basis of the study to help the residents. They

could also propose the study to locals to help them with their water problems, especially

those near rivers and rural areas.

The community. This study will help the community greatly by using the method as a

simple way to improve water quality. Though it cannot get rid of pathogens to a great

extent, it can at least help them access clean water.

Future researchers. Future researchers and students can benefit from this study by using

it as a basis for creating a new water treatment method with innovations.

Operational Definition of Terms

Coagulant. Refers to the substance that brings out coagulation.

Coagulation. Refers the chemical process that involves neutralization of charge.

Conductivity. Refers to the measurement of a water's capability to pass electrical flow.

Electrical conductivity meter. Refers to an instrument measures the electrical

conductivity in a solution. EC is usually measured in units of electrical charge.

Flocculation. Refers to the process in chemistry wherein colloids are extracted from

suspensions which then take the form of flake or floc.

Filtration. Refers to the process of separating suspended solid matter from a liquid,
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by causing the latter to pass through the pores of some substance, called a filter.

pH level. Refers to the scale used to specify how acidic or basic a water-based solution is.

Acidic solutions have a lower pH, while basic solutions have a higher pH.

Pollutants. Refers to the substance or energy introduced into the environment that has

undesired effects, or adversely affects the usefulness of a resource.

Physico-chemical analysis. Refers to the wide variety of analysis techniques to know the

intrinsic properties of molecules or atoms, or their ability to react with specific reagents

or when under defined stress.

Salinity. Refers to the concentrations of salts in water or soils.

Sorbate. Refers to material that has been or is capable of being taken up by another

substance by either absorption or adsorption.

Total Dissolved Solid. Refers to the measurement of the total ions in a solution. It

comprises inorganic salts (principally calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium,

bicarbonates, chlorides, and sulfates) and some small amounts of organic matter that are

dissolved in water.

TDS meter. Refers to a small hand-held device used to indicate the Total Dissolved Solids

in a solution.

Water scarcity. Refers to the lack of sufficient water, or not having access to safe,

potable, unpolluted water supplies.

Water turbidity. Refers to the measurement of the degree to which the water loses its

transparency due to the presence of suspended particulates. The higher the intensity of

scattered light, the higher the turbidity.

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CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Coagulation and Flocculation

According to Bratby (2016), coagulation and flocculation have been extremely

important in water and wastewater treatment. Not just in the water industry, coagulation

and flocculation are essential in many diverse practices and areas - such as biochemistry,

cheese manufacturing, and rubber manufacturing. In the area of water treatment, the

purification of water with coagulant agents has been practiced since ancient times. In the

early 2000 BC, the Egyptians used almonds to purify river water. And although not

necessarily for water treatment, the Romans were also familiar with alum. Later in the year

1757, alum was used as a coagulant agent in England and was then introduced to the public

in 1881. Even today, with modern water treatment, coagulation and flocculation are still

essential components of the overall suite of treatment processes.

The economic growth and activities globally have led to a decrease in natural

sources of potable water, which caused wastewater to have high contents of pollutants. Due

to the dangerous effects of polluted water, most of the wastewater industries have set their

utmost priority on developing water-related technologies and materials. Among the

numerous purification methods, the use of coagulation along with filtration, sedimentation

or flotation have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater

industries where water quality is important. Even though essential in wastewater settings,

the chemical purification process, coagulation, is sometimes deemed as an expensive

technology due to the cost of the use of the chemical involved. The method of coagulation
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involves the precipitation of soluble metal ions by using coagulants. And in typical

wastewater treatment, the use of metal salts such as iron and aluminum are widely applied

as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter (Emmanuel &

Sudesh, 2020).

Water has suspended particles. These particles are called colloids and have a

negative charge when suspended in water. Hence, they repel each other, causing them to

remain suspended rather than clumping and settling out of the water. A coagulant has a

positive charge, and through coagulation, it neutralizes the charges of particles.

Flocculation is a different process that enables the particles to bind together, creating flocs

that can easily be separated from a liquid (Greenwood, 2022).

Studies on Coagulant

Two broad categories—those based on aluminum and those based on iron—define

the most widely used metal coagulants. According to numerous research, aluminum sulfate

is the most employed metal coagulant. Alum is commonly manufactured from sulfuric acid

with the reaction of bauxite ores and has been used for water treatment for decades. Alum

is supplied as a powder or in liquid form and can be applied to water or wastewater

treatment (IWA Publications).

According to Izabela Krupińska (2020), aluminum expands an indisputable risk to human

health, and its usage should be controlled in water treatments. One of the drawbacks of

using alum in water treatment is the decrease in the water pH due to the use of alum and

the possible appearance of toxic dissolved aluminum from an overdose and decreased pH.

Also, aluminum can bring immense danger to human health as it can result in brain
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characteristic changes that can eventually lead to Alzheimer’s disease. In the study, the

relationship between aluminum exposure and Alzheimer’s disease has been investigated

and found a strong correlation between both, including those people who frequently drink

tap water that is likely to contain high amounts of aluminum after being purified with

aluminum salts.

Studies on Fruit Peels and Natural Coagulants

Fruit waste can be utilized as a natural coagulant in wastewater treatment. A study

was conducted to investigate the potential of fruit waste. The latter were the jackfruit

(Artocarpus heterophyllus) seeds, banana trunk peduncles (Musa) and mango (Mangifera

indica) seeds. To identify the effects of the following coagulants on turbidity removal, pH

and coagulant dosage, a series of jar tests were performed. It was found that the optimum

solvent concentration of 2.5M of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) reacted with banana trunk

peduncles at optimum pH, respectively with turbidity removal of 90.2%, coagulation

activity of 83.4% and chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal of 94.8% (Shahzaiwa &

Shahimi, 2021).

In 2019, another study was made. The study investigated the potential of fruit peels

as a natural coagulant for wastewater treatment. The study focused on local materials. The

following materials used were banana peels, orange peels, and mango peels. The peels were

collected from the neighborhood and were prepared by washing, drying, grinding, and
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sieving. The powdered peel was used, and a jar test was then performed. It was found that

compared to the other natural coagulants and alum; the mango peels showed the greatest

removal turbidity of 92.7%. Based on the findings, it can be concluded that mango peels

have great potential in replacing alum as a coagulant in water treatment. Not just mango

peels, but many varieties of fruits can have varied potentials in treating wastewater

(Madarveran, Mokhtar, & Kristanti, 2019).

According to Mallampati (2016), fruit peels can remove heavy metal ions as it is

considered a sorbent material. It is considered a bio-sorbent as it contains sulfonate,

carbonyl, and carboxyl. In the study, avocado, Hami melon and dragon fruit peels were

selected as the three natural materials used for water purification as a new adsorbent. It was

founded in the study that all types of fruit peels were effective in removing dyes and toxic

metal ions from water though varied in efficiency. Dragon fruit peels showed the highest

extraction efficiency toward alcian blue (71.85 mg/g) and methylene blue (62.58 mg/g).

Hami melon peels and avocado peels showed moderate extraction capacity for Pb2+ (7.89

mg/g, 9.82 mg/g) and Ni2+ (9.45 mg/g, 4.93 mg/g) cations.

Fruit peels have pectin which is the major reason why fruit peels act as an

impressive sorbent material for removing heavy metals. Pectin is the methylated powder

of Poly-galacturonic acid. It can be extracted from citrus peels and apple pomace. Majority

of the citrus fruits are rich in pectin as they are rich in acid. Pectin is one of those

compounds which is widely found in plant cell walls or specifically, in peels. The

carboxylic groups of pectin can be applied to bind heavy metals by forming complex

compounds that are insoluble in water. In a series of research, the recommendations for the

application of pectin or pectin-containing substances as efficient adsorption remedies

 13

fixing heavy metal ions were suggested (Khotimchenko, 2007). Pectin may serve as a

coagulant-flocculant agent as it is a linear macromolecule with carboxylate and

methoxylated groups. At the same time, it can also act as an absorbent material or chelating

agent where it can entrap heavy metals. In the study, nopal pectin was tested to treat

contaminated wastewater with metal ions. The water was extracted and characterized by

FT-IR and NMR. To determine the surface charge of the macromolecule and the

percentage removal of metallic ions, potential measurements were done. It was

determined that a dose of 0.019 mg/mL, was removed to 99% of all metallic ions (Diana,

Jaime, Eduardo, & Mercedes, 2017).

The availability of the compounds, cost-effectiveness, high biodegradability, safety

for human health, and environmental friendliness are the key advantages of using naturally

occurring plant-based coagulants as water treatment materials. Additionally, less

substantial, non-toxic sludge is produced. The researcher brought forth a paper that claimed

fruit waste is utilized to cleanse wastewater, raw surface water, and synthetic turbid water.

In the study, results show that the peel extract using katsura lime performed well in terms

of improving water quality in terms of turbidity removal (Dollah, 2019).

Calamansi

Calamansi is a type of citrus fruit which is abundant in the Philippines. Calamondin

peels are rich in pectin. It contains acids such as pantothenic, Hydroxycinnamic, Oxalic,

ferulic, and phenolic. Calamansi peels also contain atoms of nitrogen, sulfur and carboxylic

acids which attract metals and pollutants. Calamansi contains carbon due to its acidity. In

the study, the researcher concludes that the microparticle-size bio sorbent from the peel
 14

wastes of calamansi is a good and promising biomaterial for the removal of copper from

tainted water based on the screening results as well as the calculated efficiency and capacity

(Torres & Laurante, 2018).

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CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

Research Design

The design that the researchers used for this study was experimental. This design

is a quantitative research approach where the researchers will manipulate one or more

variables and control and measure any change in other variables. In the study, the water

samples used were treated with varying coagulant doses using calamansi peels. And to

prove the potential of calamansi peels as a natural coagulant, the pH, total dissolved solids,

and electrical conductivity of the water samples were assessed and quantified.

Research Setting

The study was conducted on Captain F. Edrote Street, Upper Tambo, which is

located at Macasandig, Cagayan de Oro City. Specifically, it is where the experimentation

took place. With average temperatures between 69°F and 82°F, the peels were dried

outside from March 6 to 16, 2023.

Figure 2. Map of Captain F. Edrote Street showing where the peels were
dried and turned into fine powder.
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The data analysis, on the other hand, took place at Gusa Regional Science High

School-X - located along the Justiniano R. Borja (J.R. Borja) Extension in Gusa, Cagayan

de Oro City. With the convenience of the researchers in mind, the location was chosen for

the availability of a laboratory and the necessary equipment for the study. Specifically, the

data analysis was conducted on March 21, 2023, at a room temperature of 74°F.

Figure 3. Map of Gusa Regional Science Highschool showing where the

process of data collection occurred.

Data Collection Method

Preparation of Natural Coagulant. To create the natural coagulant, two kilos of

Calamansi were bought from several marketplaces around Cagayan de Oro City. After

collecting the materials, only fruit peels of good quality were selected and washed

thoroughly with deionized water. The selected peels were kept at room temperature for 2

hours. To reduce moisture content and further improve its ability to break into a fine

powder, the peels were sun-dried for ten days outside. The dried fruit peels were then

ground and sieved into fine powder.

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Preparation of Synthetic Turbid Water. The water samples were prepared by adding 5

grams of glucose powder, 67 grams of clay, 15 grams of sand, 30 mL of oil and wood

debris, and 37 mL of concentrated yeast solution into 1 litter of tap water. To achieve a

uniform dispersion of dirt particles, the mixture was continuously stirred for 3 minutes.

Figure 4. The materials and the preparation of the synthetic wastewater

Coagulation-Flocculation Process. Coagulation and flocculation were carried out. The

natural coagulant was added to the water sample to neutralize the negative charges held

by solids, including dirt, clay and dissolved organic particles. The water was then rapidly

mixed to promote the formation of flocs. Water mixing was continuously executed for 10

minutes until total flocculation occurred. Following it was sedimentation. The colloidal

particles were left to settle below the glass for 30 minutes.

Figure 5. This is the coagulation-flocculation process

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Filtration Process. After the floc particles have settled down, filtration followed. Using

filter paper and a strainer, filtration was executed by pouring the water sample in it.

Figure 6. This is the filtration process

Jar-test Experiment. The Jar test was used to determine the best values of coagulant dosage

that can affect the success of water treatment. As to investigate the effect of varied

coagulant dosages, three synthetic wastewater samples of 150 mL were prepared. Different

dosages of the calamansi coagulant powder were used. Consecutively, the following

measurements were 5, 10, and 15 mg/150mL. To have precise measurements, a weighing

scale and measuring cup were used. Furthermore, to ensure accurate results, the same

process was repeated three times.

Data Analysis

The primary data that were collected were the pre-test and post-test pH, total

dissolved solids (TDS), and electrical conductivity (EC) of the water sample. The data

were analyzed and quantified using tools such as a pH meter, TDS meter, and EC meter.

To ensure accurate results, the instrument was calibrated and cleaned with distilled water.
 19

a) Preparation of materials b) Preparation of water samples

c) Calibration of instruments d) Measuring of pH

e) Measuring of TDS f) Measuring of EC

Figure 7. The data analysis (a) preparation of materials (b) preparation of water samples
(c) calibration of instruments (d) measuring of pH (e) measuring of TDS (f) measuring of EC.
 20

CHAPTER 4

PRESENTATIONS, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

1. Can calamansi peels be used as a natural coagulant?

Based on visual observation, the water turbidity gradually became translucent as

the dirt settled at the bottom of the container for about an hour after the coagulant was

added, following rapid mixing. Because of the sedimentation and coagulation-flocculation

process, the dirt particles were visibly settled at the very bottom of the container. In

addition, the more coagulant dosage was added, the more translucent the results were. For

this reason, the researcher could conclude that calamansi peels do have the potential to be

a natural coagulant.

Turbidity occurs when particles suspended or dissolved in water scatter light,

causing the water to appear cloudy or murky. Particulate matter is a broad category that

includes sediment, particularly clay and silt, fine organic and inorganic matter, soluble

colored organic compounds, algae, and other microscopic organisms. The improved clarity

of the water indicated that there were fewer suspended sediments, suggesting that the

coagulant used in the water treatment was effective.

 21

2. How long does flocculation and sedimentation occur?

Table 1.
The Flocculation mixing time and Flocculation settling time of the water samples.

Flocculation mixing time Flocculation

settling time

Coagulant mixing time time (min)

dosage (min)
(mg/150ml)

5 10 30
10 10 30
15 10 30

As part of the water treatment, rapid mixing was conducted in the experiment. The

three samples with different coagulant dosages - 5, 10, and 15 mg/150ml - were mixed at

a constant rate of 10 minutes. Through the observation of the water clarity, most of the floc

quickly settled down in the first 10 minutes. Nonetheless, as the table shows, each water

sample took 30 minutes to settle fully, regardless of its coagulant dosage.

3. Effect of Dosages on the Efficiency of Natural Coagulant

Coagulation dosage does affect the efficiency of water treatment. It is best to obtain

an optimum coagulant dosage that is sufficiently able to treat the water well and, at the

same time, does not adversely affect the quality of the water. In the study, the coagulant

dosages used varied from 5 mg/150mL, 10 mg/150mL, and 15 mg/150mL. Each resulted

in different pH, total dissolved solids, and electrical conductivity.

 22

3.1 Is there a difference of the synthetic wastewater with various dosage of

coagulant used in terms of pH?

This part of the paper presents the findings and analysis derived from the

experiment. To test the changes made in pH, a calibrated pH meter was used. The

independent variable represented four water samples with different coagulant dosages: 1.

The synthetic wastewater (150 mL) added with none; 2. Synthetic wastewater (150 mL)

with a dosage of 5 milligrams; 3. Synthetic wastewater (150 mL) with a dosage of 10

milligrams; and 4. Synthetic wastewater (150 mL) with a dosage of 15 milligrams. Each

water sample has three replicates, and the data sets were analyzed by finding the standard

deviation. The dependent variable was the physicochemical parameters identified upon

quantitative analysis of the pH.

Like temperature, pH is a determined value based on a defined scale. This indicates

that the pH of water is not considered a physical parameter that can be quantified as

concentration. The scale goes from 0 to 14, with 7 representing neutral. A pH less than 7

indicates acidity, while a pH greater than 7 indicates basicity. Water with a pH of less than

6.5 is considered acidic. As an operational definition, an acid is a substance that will

decrease pH when added to pure water. In the same manner, a base is a substance that will

increase the pH of the water.

The relative amount of free hydrogen and hydroxyl ions in water is measured by

pH. Water with a higher concentration of free hydrogen ions is acidic, whereas water with

a higher concentration of free hydroxyl ions is basic. Because chemicals in water can affect
 23

pH, it is an important indicator of chemical changes in the water. It is expressed in

logarithmic units. Each number represents a 10-fold increase or decrease in the acidity or

basicity of the water. Water with a pH of 5 is ten times as acidic as water with a pH of 6.

6.8
7
6.1
6.5
5.6
pH Level

6
pH
5.5

5 4.7
4.5

4
0 5 10 15
Dosage of Coagulant (mg/150mL)

Figure 9. The pH measured at different dosage of coagulant from the water samples

The figure shows the result of the experiment. As shown by the results, calamansi

peels as a coagulant demonstrated satisfactory performance in improving water quality in

terms of pH. This indicated that the coagulant could modify pH. The line going up denoted

that, as more coagulant dosages got added, the higher the water's pH goes. This also

indicated that adding too much coagulant will turn the water basic.

Because pH is considered an aesthetic water quality, there is no legally enforceable

standard for drinking water pH levels. However, the United States Environmental

Protection Agency (EPA) recommends that drinking water must have a pH between 6.5

and 8.5. And as seen from the data, the performance of the coagulant dosage – 15 mg/150ml

with a pH of 6.8, had met the recommended standards.

 24

3.2 Is there a difference of the synthetic wastewater with various dosages of

coagulant used in terms of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)?

Quantitative analysis of total dissolved solids was conducted. To test the changes

made in Total Dissolved Solids, a calibrated TDS meter was used. The independent

variable represented four water samples with different coagulant dosages: 1. The synthetic

wastewater (150 mL) added with none; 2. Synthetic wastewater (150 mL) with a dosage

of 5 milligrams; 3. Synthetic wastewater (150 mL) with a dosage of 10 milligrams; and 4.

Synthetic wastewater (150 mL) with a dosage of 15 milligrams. Each water sample has

three replicates, and the data sets were analyzed by finding the standard deviation.

Because of its ability to dissolve and absorb molecules from various substances,

water is considered a universal solvent; the number of dissolved particles in a volume of

water is called the total dissolved solids. Hence, understanding TDS levels in water is

critical for determining overall water quality.

Total dissolved solids (TDS) are essentially a measure of anything dissolved in

water that isn't an H2O molecule. TDS are the quantity of organic and inorganic

components, such as metals, minerals, salts, and ions, dissolved in a specific volume of

water. Because water is a solvent, soluble material particles are absorbed into the water

when it encounters them, resulting in total dissolved solids.

 25

750 695.0

650

TDS (ppm)
550 485.0 TDS (Total
Dissolved Solids)
450
367.7
350 306.0

250
0 5 10 15
Dosage of Coagulant (g/150mL)

Figure 10. The TDS measured at different dosage of coagulant from the water samples

The figure shows a study of the TDS reduction efficiency of coagulants using

calamansi peels and corresponding various dosages. As the figure shows, coagulant

dosages have varied results in TDS reduction. Between the coagulant dosages used in water

treatment, 15 mg/150ml showed the most outstanding results. Results indicated that the

more coagulant dosage was used, the more dissolved particles were reduced, and water

quality improved.

While coagulant dosage did not directly affect TDS reduction, coagulation and

flocculation allowed smaller dispersed particles to agglomerate into larger particles. Once

these large particles were filtered, they consequently reduced dissolved solids in water.

Hence, improving water quality.

Parts per million (PPM) is the measurement used for measuring TDS level in the

water. And according to the EPA secondary drinking water regulations, the

recommended maximum amount of TDS for drinking water is 500 ppm. Any TDS

measurement higher than 1000 ppm is considered unsafe. As seen from the data, the
 26

result of the coagulant dosages – 485 ppm, 367.7 ppm, and 306 ppm, have both met the

required and recommended standards.

3.3 Is there a difference between synthetic wastewater with various dosages of

coagulant used in terms of Electrical Conductivity (EC)?

A quantitative analysis of electrical conductivity was conducted on the water

samples. To test the changes made in electrical conductivity, a calibrated EC meter was

used. The independent variable represented four water samples with different coagulant

dosages: 1. The synthetic wastewater (150 mL) added with none; 2. Synthetic wastewater

(150 mL) with a dosage of 5 milligrams; 3. Synthetic wastewater (150 mL) with a dosage

of 10 milligrams; and 4. Synthetic wastewater (150 mL) with a dosage of 15 milligrams.

Each water sample has three replicates, and the data sets were analyzed by finding the

standard deviation. The dependent variable was the physicochemical parameters identified

upon quantitative analysis of the electrical conductivity.

Conductivity is a measure of water's ability to conduct electrical current. This

ability is proportional to the concentration of ions in the water. These conductive ions are

formed by dissolved salts and inorganic materials such as alkalis, chlorides, sulfides, and

carbonate compounds. Electrolytes are substances that dissolve into ions. The greater the

number of ions present, the greater the conductivity of water. Correspondingly, the fewer

ions are in the water, the less conductive it is. Due to its low, if not negligible, conductivity

value, distilled or deionized water can act as an insulator. Sea water, on the other hand, has

very high conductivity.

 27

Conductivity can tell you a lot about water quality. It is used in a variety of

industries and applications, including measuring the quality of drinking water and

aquaculture systems. It can tell you how many dissolved substances, chemicals, and

minerals are in the water. Higher concentrations of these impurities result in higher

conductivity.

1200 1,085.3

1000
EC (ms/cm)

757.7 EC (Electrical
800 Conductivity)

574.0
600
477.7

400
0 5 10 15
Dosage of Coagulant (g/150mL)

Figure 11. The EC measured at different dosage of coagulant from the water samples

Based on the findings, all three natural coagulant dosages showed effective results

in reducing salinity. As salts and other inorganic chemicals dissolved in water, they broke

down into ions. When ions and dissolved salts are present in the water, its ability to conduct

electricity increases. Hence, when conductivity increases in the water, so does salinity.

Among the three coagulant dosages, 15 mg/150mL showed the most outstanding

results. The line going down indicated that more coagulant added induced lower electrical

conductivity and concurrently - reduces salinity. Substantially, the reduction of salinity and

electrolytes indicated improved water quality. Micro siemens per centimeter (uS/cm) is the

unit of measurement for electrical conductivity. The conductivity of freshwater is typically

 28

between 0 and 1,500 uS/cm, while that of seawater is often around 50,000 uS/cm. The limit

for drinking water conductivity is 2500 micro-Siemens per centimeter (µS/cm). The range

800 - 2500 µS/cm is considered drinkable and potable for humans. Based on the data, the

result of the coagulant dosages – 757 µS/cm, 574 µS/cm, and 477.7 µS/cm, have met both

the required and recommended standards.

 29

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the findings from the study, the following conclusions are generated:

1. The study demonstrated that the citrus fruit peel, calamansi (Citrus microcarpa), has the

potential to be used as a substitute for a chemical-based coagulant as a future alternative in

water treatment;

2. Different coagulant dosages used on the water have varied effects on the physicochemical

parameters like pH, electrical conductivity (EC), and total dissolved solids (TDS);

3. As the coagulant dosage used in the water increased, the total dissolved solids and

electrical conductivity decreased and subsequentially, the pH rose, indicating improved

water quality;

4. Among the coagulant dosage used, the results indicated that the optimum coagulant dosage

is found at 15 mg/150ml, with a pH of 6.8, total dissolved solids (TDS) of 306 ppm, and

electrical conductivity of 475 ms/cm. If too much or not enough coagulant was added to

water, the removal of suspended water would be less efficient. Underdosing would not be

able to destabilize the charge of the water particles. On the other hand, overdosing would

cause charge reversal, resulting in the restabilization of the suspended solids and

5. Despite the improved water quality, the treated water is not safe for human consumption.

Coagulation-flocculation is merely a process part of wastewater

 30

treatment; aeration and the use of disinfectant would still be necessary to get rid of

remaining pathogens. In addition, EC, TDS, and pH did not tell one the exact

concentration and composition of the water, including other elements and pathogens

unseen.

Recommendations

Based on the findings and conclusions drawn from the study, the following

recommendations are hereby proposed.

1. Laboratory analysis is recommended. The data analysis should not only be limited to the

determination of pH, total dissolved solids (TDS), and electrical conductivity (EC). To

fully gauge the water’s potability, the complete chemical composition of the water and

particular chemical properties should be tested and evaluated;

2. It is highly recommended that future researchers should see further towards improving

the whole process stage and come up with a much more complex way to ensure that the

water will be safe for human consumption but at the same time, not disregarding the aim

of the study to use a natural coagulant;

3. The jar test experiment should not only be limited to three coagulant dosages. To have

more precise findings – temperature, various mixing speeds (ppm) and mixing time should

be considered and tested and

4. To test how long the coagulant’s efficiency would last, it is suggested that a coagulation-

flocculation activity test should be conducted multiple times over a specific time frame.
 31

REFERENCES

Bratby, J. (2016). Coagulation and Flocculation in Water

and Wastewater Treatment (3rd ed.). IWA
Publishing Alliance house.

ChemTreat, Inc. (2022). Flocculants and

Coagulants.
[Link]
s-flocculants/

Dollah, Z. (n.d.). Citrus fruit peel waste as a source of natural

coagulant for water turbidity removal. IOP science.
[Link]
6596/1349/1/012011

Ibarra-Rodríguez, D., Lizardi-Mendoza, J., López-Maldonado, E. A., &

Oropeza- Guzmán, M. T. (2017). Capacity of ‘nopal’ pectin as a
dual coagulant-flocculant agent for heavy metals removal.
Chemical Engineering Journal, 323, 19–28.
[Link]

IWA Publications. (n.d.). Coagulation and Flocculation in Water and

Wastewater Treatment | IWA Publishing.
[Link] and-
flocculation-water-and-wastewater-treatment

Krupińska, I. (2020). Aluminium Drinking Water Treatment

Residuals and Their Toxic Impact on Human Health.
Molecules, 25(3), 641.
[Link]

Kweinor Tetteh, E., & Rathilal, S. (2020). Application of Organic

Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment. Organic
Polymers. Published. [Link]

Mallampati, R., Xuanjun, L., Adin, A., & Valiyaveettil, S. (2015). Fruit
Peels as Efficient Renewable Adsorbents for Removal of
Dissolved Heavy Metals and Dyes from Water. ACS Sustainable
Chemistry & Engineering, 3(6), 1117– 1124.
[Link]

Priyatharishini, M., Mokhtar, N.M., Kristanti, N.L., (2019). Study on the

Effectiveness of Banana Peel Coagulant in Turbidity Reduction
of Synthetic Wastewater.
 32

Faculty of Engineering
Technology. Published.
[Link]
[Link]

Shahimi, N. S. W., Zaidi, N. S., Bahrodin, M. B., & Amran, A. H. (2021).

Utilization of Fruit Wastes (Jackfruit and Mango Seeds and
Banana Trunk) as Natural Coagulants in Treating Municipal
Wastewater. IOP Conference Series:

Materials Science and Engineering,

1144(1), 012049.
[Link]
899x/1144/1/012049

Torres, J., Laurante, C. (2018). Application and Characterization of

Microparticle Size Biosorbent from Peel Waste for the Removal
of Copper from Contaminated water. Asian Journal of Basic and
Applied Sciences, 1(5), 2313-779. Retrieved from
[Link]
e24a753ca031dac3ebe29 8ae0972.

Tzoupanos, N.D., Zouboulis, A.I. (2008). Coagulation and

Flocculation Processes in Water/Wastewater treatment: The
Application of New Generation Agents.
[Link]
tion-
flocculation_processes_in_waterwastewater_treatment_the_ap
plication_of_ new_generation_of_chemical_reagents
 33

APPENDIX A

Documentation

Figure A1. Preparation of Calamansi peels Figure A2. Drying of

Calamansi peels

Figure A3. Grinding of Calamansi peels Figure A4. Preparation of

synthetic wastewater

Figure A5. Making of the synthetic Figure A6. Sifting of synthetic

wastewater wastewater
 34

Figure A7. Coagulation Figure A8. Jar test

experimentation

Figure A9. Flocculation Figure A10. Sedimentation

Figure A11. Filtration Figure A12. Water Samples

Figure A13. Preparation for Data Collection Figure A14. Calibration of pH meter
 35

Figure A15. Data Collection Figure A16. Determination of pH

Figure A17. Determination of TDS Figure A18. Determination of EC

 APPENDIX B

Curriculum Vitae

MIKAELA EUNICE P. PADINIT

Upper Tambo, Macasandig Cagayan de Oro City
Cell Number: 09151512065 Email: Seagullgalaxy@[Link]

PERSONAL INFORMATION
Date of Birth: January
6, 2006 Place of Birth:
Cagayan de Oro City
Age: 16
Gender: Female Nationality: Filipino Civil Status: Single

EDUCATION
Secondary: GUSA REGIONAL SCIENCE HIGH SCHOOL-X
Purok 4-A, Gusa, Cagayan de Oro,
Misamis Oriental 2019- 2023

Primary: NOAH’S ARK CHRISTIAN SCHOOL

Tablon Street, Cagayan de Oro City,
Misamis Oriental 2013-2019

ACHIEVEMENTS
• 2017 CAL Quiz Bee 1st Placer
• 2018 Division Level Chess Participant
• 2018 Regional Philippine Bible Society Quiz Bee 1st Placer
• 2019 National Philippine Bible Society Quiz Bee Qualifier
• 2022 Provincial Consumer Bowl Quiz Bee 1st Placer
• Consistent High Honor Student