Chapter 12 Electricity

Electric charge and its properties

• Electric charge, like mass, is a fundamental property of matter.

• Two types of charges- positive and negative.
• Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other.
• Electric charges are conserved, i.e, can neither be created or destroyed, but can be transferred
from one body to another. This means that the total charges in an isolated system remains the
constant.
• The SI unit of charge is Coulomb (C) .
• Charge of an electron is -1.6 x 10-19C.
• Charge of a proton is 1.6 x 10-19 C.
• Electric charge , Q = ne, where n= number of electrons and e = charge of 1 electron.
• One coulomb of charge is the charge carried by 6.25 X 10 18 electrons.

Electric current

Electric current is defined as the rate of flow of electric charges through any section of a conductor.
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔
Electric current = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

If a charge of Q flows through a conductor in time t, then the current through it is given by
𝑄
I= 𝑡

Electric current is a scalar quantity. Its unit is Ampere (A).

1𝐶
1A=
1𝑠

One Ampere: one Ampere is the amount of current passing, when one coulomb of charge flows through
any cross section of a conductor in one second.

The instrument used for measuring electric current in a circuit is called Ammeter. An ammeter is always
connected in series in a circuit. Ammeter is a low resistance equipment.

The Smaller units of current are

1 milliampere( mA) = 10-3A

1 microampere (µA) = 10-6A

The bigger units of current are

1 Kilo ampere ( 1KA) = 103 A

1 Mega ampere ( 1MA) = 106A

Electric circuit :- A continuous and closed path of electric current is called an electric circuit. An electric
circuit consists of various components like cell or battery, switch, ammeter, voltmeter etc
A simple electric circuit schematic diagram

Conventional direction of electric current : - In a cell or battery electrons flow from negative terminal to
positive terminal of the cell. However, the conventional direction of current is taken as opposite to the
direction of actual flow of electrons, that is from positive to negative terminal of the cell.

Electric potential and potential difference

The electrons move only if there is a difference of electric pressure called the potential difference along
the conductor. This difference of potential may be produced by a battery, consisting of one or more
electric cells. The chemical action within a cell generates the potential difference across the terminals of
a cell.

Electric potential difference :- Electric potential difference between two points in an electric circuit is
defined as the amount of work done to move one unit charge from one point to another.
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑊
Potential difference (V) = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
= 𝑄

The SI unit of potential difference is Volt (V) .

One Volt :- 1 Volt is the potential difference between two points in a current carrying conductor when
one Joule of work is done to move a charge of one coulomb from one point to another.
1 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 1𝐽
1 V = 1 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 = 1 𝐶

Potential difference is a scalar quantity.

The potential difference is measured by a voltmeter and it is connected parallel across the points
between which the potential difference is to be measured. It is a high resistance equipment.
Circuit diagram
OHM’S Law ( Relation between electric current and potential difference)

Ohms law states that at a constant temperature the potential difference, V, across the ends of a given
metallic wire in an electric circuit is directly proportional to the current flowing through it.

V α I, at constant temperature

V= IR, where R is a constant for the given metallic wire at a given temperature and is called its
resistance.

V-I graph :- A graph plotted between the potential difference (V) and current (I) is found to be a
straight line passing through the origin of the graph. The slope of this graph gives the value of electric
resistance.

Q. With the help of a circuit diagram, describe to verify ohms law. Include observation column and VI
graph in your answer.

If a graph is drawn between the potential difference (V) and current (I), the graph is found to be a
straight line passing through the origin. This shows that the current is directly proportional to the
potential difference.
Calculating the slope of the graph, V/I = 0.2/0.1 = 2 = R
Thus, the ratio V/I remains constant. The slope of the V-I diagram gives the resistance (R) of the
conductor.

Electric resistance :- Resistance is the property of a conductor to resist the flow of electric charges
through it.
𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑉
Resistance = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
i.e R = 𝐼

SI unit of resistance is Ohm(Ω)

One ohm is defined as the resistance of a conductor when the potential difference across its ends is 1V
and the current flowing through it is one ampere.
1𝑉
1Ω = 1 𝐴

Note :- Also from Ohms law , I = V/R. That is current through a resistor is inversely proportional to its
resistance. i.e If the resistance is double the current gets halved.

A component used for regulating current without changing the voltage source is called a variable
resistance . In an electric circuit a device called Rheostat is often used change the resistance in the
circuit.

Factors on which the resistance of a conductor depends on

Resistance of a conductor is

1. Directly proportional to the length of the conductor ,R α l

1
2. Inversely proportional to the area of cross section, R α 𝐴
3. On the nature of the material of the conductor
4. Directly proportional to the temperature, R α T

from 1 and 2
𝑙
Rα 𝐴
𝑙
R = ρ𝐴 , where rho (ρ ) is a constant called resistivity of the material of the conductor.

Resistivity :- resistivity of a conductor is defined as the resistance of the conductor having unit length
and unit area of cross section.

SI unit of resistivity is ohm meter(Ωm)

Q. Why is tungsten used almost exclusively for filaments of electric lamps?

Tungsten is used almost exclusively because

• high Resistance :- Tungsten has a high value of electrical resistivity. Due to this the amount of
heat and light produced is large.
• High melting point :- Tungsten has a high melting point due to which it produces an
incandescent light.
• Highly ductile :- Tungsten can be drawn into thin wires which in turn offers high resistance.

Q. Why are coils of electric toasters and electric irons made-up of an alloy rather than a pure metal?

Alloys have

• Much higher electrical resistivity than that of their constituent metals. Due to this, the amount
of heat energy produced in the heating coil is more.
• Alloys do not oxidize readily at high temperatures.
• The resistance of an alloy does not change considerably with the rise in temperature.
Q. Why are copper and aluminum wires usually used for electrical transmission?

Metals like copper and aluminum have very low electrical resistance. Due to this, they are good
conductors of electricity and can transfer electrical energy from one place to another easily.

Q. Will current flow more easily through a thick wire or a thin wire of the same material, when
connected to the sea voltage? Why?

Current will flow more easily through a thick wire. Since the resistance is inversely proportional area of
cross section. The resistance offered by the thick wire is less than the resistance offered by the thin wire.
Electric current is inversely proportional to resistance offered by the conductor. Thus as resistance
decreases current increases. Due to this current will flow more easily through thick wire than a thin
wire.

Q. Under what condition charges flow through a conductor? How is this condition achieved in a
metallic conductor?

Electric charges flow through a conductor only when there is a constant potential difference between
the ends of the conductor. A constant potential difference is maintained across a conductor by
connecting a battery across the ends of the conductor. The chemical reaction within the battery
generates a potential difference across its terminals which sets the charges in motion in the conductor
and produces an electric current.

Combination of resistors

1. serious combination of resistor

A number of resistances are said to be connected in series if they are joined end to end and the same
current flows through each one of them.

Q. Derive an expression for the equivalent resistance when three resistors are connected in series.

Consider 3 resistors R1,R2 and R3 connected in series with a battery and a switch. Let I be the total
current in the circuit and V be the voltage of the battery applied. let the potential difference across R1,
R2 and R3 be V1, V2 and V3 respectively whereas constant current flowing through each resistance
remains the same.

By Ohms law , V1 = I R1 , V2 = I R2 and V3 = I R3

Total potential difference , V = V1 + V2 + V3

= I R 1 + I R2 + I R3

= I( R1+ R2+ R3)---------------( 1 )

Let the three resistors in series, be replaced by an equal and single resistance Rs so that the current I
passes through the circuit and the potential difference V across it remains the same.

V = I Rs ------------------------------ ( 2 )

From (1) and (2)

I Rs = I( R1+ R2+ R3)

Rs = R1+ R2+ R3

Thus, when a number of resistors are connected in series, the effective resistance is equal to the sum of
individual resistances. This is called the law of series combination of resistors.

Note :-

• When resistors are connected in series the current passing through each resistor remain same.
• Potential difference is different across each resistor or potential difference gets distributed
• In a series combination, the equivalent resistance is greater than the greatest resistance in the
combination.

2. Parallel combination of resistors.

A number of resistors are said to be in a parallel connection if one end of each resistance is connected to
one point and the other is connected to another point. The potential difference across each resistor is
the same and is equal to the applied potential difference between the two points.

Derive an expression for effective resistance when three resistors are connected in parallel

Consider three resistors R1, R2 and R3 are connected in parallel to one another between the common
points A and B. Let I be the total current in the circuit and V be the voltage of the battery applied. In a
parallel circuit, the potential difference remains the same across all the three resistors while the current
gets split up. Let I1, I2 and I3 be the currents flowing through R1,R2 and R3 respectively.
according to Ohm's law
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
I 1 = 𝑅1 , I2 = 𝑅2 , I3 = 𝑅3

Total current, I = I1 + I2 + I3
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
= 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
+ 𝑅3
1 1 1
I=V( + + ) ---------------(1)
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

Let the three resistors in parallel be replaced by an equivalent single resistance Rp such that the current I
and the potential difference V across it remains the same.
𝑉
I= ---------------------------(2)
𝑅𝑝

From (1) and (2

𝑉 1 1 1
𝑅𝑝
= V ( 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
+ 𝑅3
)

1 1 1 1
𝑅𝑝
= 𝑅1
+ 𝑅2
+ 𝑅3

When a number of resistors are connected in parallel, then the reciprocal of the effective resistance is
equal to the sum of the reciprocals of individual resistances. This is called the law of parallel
combination of resistors.

Note

• The potential difference across each resistance is the same and is equal to the total potential
difference across the combination.
• The total current divides itself and different current flows through each resistor.
• In a parallel combination, the equivalent resistance is lesser than the least of all the resistances.
Characteristics of

Series combination parallel combination

1. The current through each resistance Current through different resistors are
remains the same in a series circuit. different and the total current in the
circuit is given by, I = I1 + I2 + I3

2. The potential difference across each There is a constant potential difference

resistance will be different in a series across all the components in a parallel
circuit. The total potential difference in circuit.
a series circuit is given by ,
V = V1 + V2 + V3
3. The effective resistance is maximum in The effective resistance is the lowest in a
a series circuit and this is given by, parallel circuit and is given by
Rs = R1+ R2+ R3 1 1 1 1
𝑅𝑝
= 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3

Q. Why is parallel combination preferred in domestic circuit?

Parallel combination is preferred because

1. In a parallel circuit, all the appliances work at a constant potential difference, which is same as
that of the power supply line.
2. In parallel circuits, the effective resistance is lowest due to which the current from the power
supply is high. Therefore, every appliance can draw the required amount of current.
3. In parallel circuit, each electrical appliance has its own switch due to which it can be turned on
or off independently.
4. In a parallel circuit, if one electrical appliance stop working due to some defect, then all other
appliances keep working normally.

Q. List the disadvantages of a series circuit

The disadvantages are

1. In a series circuit the appliances do not get the same voltage as that of power supply line
because voltage is shared by all appliances.
2. Since the overall resistance of a series circuit is very high, current drawn by appliances from
the power supply line is low.
3. In series circuit, all the electrical appliances have only one switch, due to which they cannot
be turned on or off separately.
4. If one appliance stops working due to some defect, then all other appliances also stop
working because the whole circuit is broken.
5. Since the amount of current flowing through the series circuit is the same, appliances of
different power ratings cannot draw sufficient current for their proper working.

Q. Why is an ammeter connected in series in a circuit?

An ammeter is a low resistance instrument. If it is connected in parallel in a circuit majority of the

current will flow through the ammeter due to its low resistance. Since the ammeter coil cannot
withstand such extremely high currents the coil gets burned off easily. Therefore an ammeter
should be connected in series in a circuit.

Q. Why is a voltmeter connected in parallel in a circuit?

A voltmeter Is a high resistance equipment. It should be connected in parallel in a circuit so that it

may draw appreciable current from the main circuit. On the other hand, if it is connected in series in
a circuit, the current flowing through the circuit is reduced too much due to its the high resistance.

Heating effect of electric current

when an electric current is passed through a higher resistance wire, the temperature of the wire
increases and heat is developed in it. In this case, the source energy continuously gets dissipated
and entirely in the form of heat. This is known as heating effect of electric current. This effect can
be utilized in devices such as electric toaster electric iron, electric kettle etc

To derive expression for heat energy developed in a resistor ( derive joules law)

Consider a current, I flowing through a resistor of resistance,R under a potential difference, V across
it. Let a charge, Q flow through the resistor in time t seconds.

The amount of work done in moving the charge Q through a potential difference V is given by

W = VQ , since Q=It

W = VIt ------------------------ (1)

Since the entire electrical work done is dissipated in the form of heat, the expression for heat energy
is written as H = VIt , since V= IR

H = IR It

H = I2Rt ----------------------- (2)

𝑉
Sub I = 𝑅 in eqn (1)

𝑉 𝑉 2𝑡
H=V𝑅 t = 𝑅
------------- (3)

Joules Law of Heating

The law states that the heat energy produced in a resistor is

1. Directly proportional to the square of current in a given resistance.

2. Directly proportional to resistance for given current.
3. Directly proportional to the time for which current flows through the circuit

The mathematical expression for joules law of heating is, H = I2Rt

 Electric power

It is defined as the rate at which electric energy is consumed or dissipated in an electric circuit. The
electric power is given by
𝑤 𝐸 𝐻 𝑉𝐼𝑡
P= = = = = VI
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡

The various equations for electric power are

𝐻
1. P = 𝑡
2. P = VI
3. P = I2R
𝑉2
4. P = 𝑅

The SI unit of electric power is Watt (W)

The bigger units of power are

1. 1 KW = 103 W
2. 1 MW = 106W
3. 1 HP = 746 W

Commercial unit of energy

The SI unit of energy is Joule. Since the unit Joule is very small, in actual practice, we use a much larger
unit called kilowatt hour (KWh). KWh is called the commercial unit of energy or practical unit of energy.
One kilowatt energy is known as one unit of energy.

Relation between kWh and Joule

1 KWh = 1000W x 3600 s

𝐽
= 1000 𝑠 x 3600 s

= 3.6 x 106 J

Thus one unit of energy = 3.6 x 106 J

One kilowatt energy is defined as the electric energy consumed by a device when one kilowatt of
power is used in one hour.

Practical application of heating effect of electric current

1. The heating effect of current is utilized in the working of electrical heating appliances such
as electric iron electric toaster water heater etc. All these heating appliances contain coils of
high resistance wire made of nichrome alloy. When these appliances are connected to a
power supply, then a large amount of heat is produced in the heating coils due to their high
resistance.
 2. The heating effect of electric current is utilized in electric bulbs for producing light. When
electric current passes through a very thin wire, high resistant tungsten filament of an
electric bulb, the filament becomes white hot and emits light
3. The working principle of an electric fuse is heating effect of electric current. Electric fuse is
the most important safety device used in domestic circuits for protecting electrical
appliances and household wiring.

A fuse is a thin wire made of a metal or an alloy having high resistance and a low melting
point. The fuse is placed in series with the live wire of the circuit. If a current larger than the
specified value flows through the circuit, the temperature of the fuse wire increases. This
melts the fuse wire and breaks the circuit and hence prevents damage to various electrical
appliances.

Q. What determines the rate at which energy is delivered by a current?

Electric power

Q. Why does the cord of an electric heater not glow while the heating element does?

This is due to the difference in the resistance of heating element and cord. The heating element of an
electric heater is made-up of nichrome alloy. Due to the high resistance of the heating coil, the amount
of heat produced in it is large. On the other hand, the cord of an electric heater is made of copper. Due
to the low resistance of the cord, the heat produced in it is negligible and that is why it does not glow.

Q. An electric bulb is filled with argon or nitrogen. why?

Gases like argon and nitrogen are chemically unreactive. Hence they do not react with the hot tungsten
filament and thus prolong the life of the filament of an electric bulb.