NERVOUS

SYSTEM
Living things have a natural
ability to respond to
changes in their
environment.
A response is a natural
physiological activity.
This function enables
organisms to survive by
adjusting to internal and
external environments.
• The body's response is carried out by a nerve.
• The nervous system is the most complex yet
organized system in the body.
• Through its receptors, the nervous system keeps
us aware of both external and internal
environments.

3
• Sensory receptors detect
changes (stimuli) inside and
outside the body.
• They monitor temperature,
light, and sound from the
environment.
• Internally, they detect
pressure, pH, carbon dioxide,
and electrolytes.
• This collected information is
called sensory input.
 The Nervous System
• The nervous system is
made up of the brain,
spinal cord, nerves, and
ganglia.
• It consists of nerve,
blood, and connective
tissues.
• These work together to
perform complex nervous
system functions.
A. Central Nervous System (CNS)
• Brain & spinal cord
• Integrative and control center
-Receives, interprets and sends
signals to PNS

B. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Nerves (31 pairs of spinal nerves,12
pairs of cranial nerves)
Communication lines between CNS
and rest of body
 The Central
Nervous System
 The Central Nervous System
• The CNS consists of the brain and
spinal cord, located in the dorsal
body cavity.
• The brain is protected by the
cranium, and the spinal cord by the
vertebrae.
• The brain connects to the spinal
cord at the foramen magnum.
• The CNS is also protected by
meninges (connective tissue
membranes) and cerebrospinal
fluid.
 Neurons
▪ Neurons are specialized nerve
cells that conduct nerve
impulses, forming the basis of
the nervous system.
▪ Neurons do not undergo mitosis,
meaning they cannot regenerate
once destroyed (Amitotic Nature
)
 Nerve Impulses
Cell membrane at rest = polarized
▪ Na + outside cell, K +I nside cell
▪ Inside is (-) compared to outside
▪ Stimulus ---excited neuron (Na+rushes in)-
becomes depolarized
▪ Depolarization activates neuron to transmit
an action potential (nerve impulse)
▪ All-or-none response
▪ Impulse conducts down entire axon
▪ K+ diffuses out ---repolarization of membrane
▪ Na+/K+ ion concentrations restored by
sodium- potassium pump (uses ATP)
The following events are correct order of occurrence in Action
Potential:

• A stimulus of threshold strength is applied to the neuron

• Voltage-gated Na+ channels open and permit Na+ to rush
inside the neuron
• The membrane polarization changes from negative to
positive
• Voltage-gated K+ channels open, and K+ flows out of the
neurons
• The Na+/K+ pump restores the ions to their original sites
NOTE:

The depolarizing phase of a nerve

impulse is caused by a
Rush of Na into the neuron
+
 Key Concepts in Neuron Action Potential
✓All-or-Nothing Principle
✓Refractory Period (Recovery Phase)
✓Absolute Refractory Period
✓ Relative Refractory Period
 Synapse
▪ Neurons usually do not connect
directly to one another. A gap
called a synapse controls the
transmission of signals.
▪ Depending on the site of the
synapse, they are often referred to
as axodendritic, axosomatic, or
axoaxonic
▪ Types of synapse
Chemical
Neurotransmitter
Electrical
 Objectives
1. To demonstrate nerve functions
using kymograph recordings.
2. To assess and compare the normal
from abnormal nerve functions using
different stimuli.
3. To associate the nervous system
using peripheral nerve activities into
actual observed functions
The muscle-nerve used in the
experimental set - up
involves the:
Gastrocnemius AND Sciatic
nerve
Materials Kymograph - an instrument
for recording variations in
pressure. It drives or pulls
the trace of a stylus on a
Kymograph set-up rotating cylinder.

Kymograph paper
Filler paper
lnductorium - a battery-
Glass slides operated apparatus containing
induction coils used for
Inductorium producing a continuous pulsing
electric current or a single pulse
of current.
Other Materials

Reagents:

Ringer’s solution
1% HCI acid
2g NaCl crystals
Ether or Chloroform
The sciatic nerve arises from the roots of the spinal
cord that is the 7, 8 and 9
DIFFERENT TYPES OF
STIMULI
❖Mechanical Stimuli

❖ In nerves, it can reflect mechanoreceptor

activation.
❖ Records of fluctuations based on applied
pressure, stretching, or physical touch.
❖ Typically, there is a measurable shift indicating
tissue deformation, such as muscle contraction
or relaxation in response to mechanical force.
❖ Indicates how tissues react to mechanical forces.
❖ A muscle may show a contraction and relaxation
cycle due to applied force.
❖Thermal Stimuli

❖ Used to study thermosensitivity in nerves and

heat shock effects on muscles.
❖ Response are slow shift depending on whether
the temperature increases or decreases.
❖ Higher temperatures may cause increased
activity, while lower temperatures slow
responses.
❖ Chemical Stimuli
❖ Shows changes in response to different
chemicals.
❖ May show increased amplitude (excitation) or
reduced amplitude (inhibition) based on the
chemical's effect.
❖ Helps study the effects of chemicals on nerves
and muscles.
❖ Excitatory chemicals (e.g., acetylcholine, hign
pH) increase response intensity.
❖ Inhibitory chemicals (e.g., curare) reduce or
block muscle response
❖Electrical Stimuli
❖ Shows sharp, rapid spikes due to
nerve or muscle depolarization.
❖ A steep upward peak (contraction)
followed by a sharp decline
(relaxation).
❖ Used to study nerve excitability and
muscle responsiveness.
❖ Higher voltage results in a stronger
contraction.
❖ Measures the threshold and latency
of nerve conduction.
❖ Osmotic Stimuli
❖ The tracing records shifts caused by osmotic
pressure variations affecting cell or tissue
volume.
❖ The response pattern may show swelling or
shrinkage effects, depending on whether the
solution is hypotonic or hypertonic
[Link] NaCl crystals on free end of nerve, is
the procedure performed in the experiment to
elicit an Osmotic stimulus
STIMULI TYPE
❖Subliminal stimulus: A
stimulus too weak to evoke a
detectable reaction.
❖Subliminal stimuli produce
little to no change, resulting in
a flat or barely noticeable
deviation on the graph.
❖Subliminal stimuli suggest that
the stimulus strength is
insufficient to activate a nerve
or muscle.
❖Liminal stimulus (Threshold
stimulus): The minimum
intensity required to generate
a noticeable response.
❖Liminal stimuli create a slight but
distinct upward deflection,
indicating the onset of a response.
❖The liminal stimulus represents the
minimum force needed to trigger
contraction or nerve activity.
❖ Maximal stimulus: is the lowest
stimulus intensity that generates the
strongest possible response in a
tissue.
❖ Increasing the stimulus beyond this
point does not result in a greater
reaction.
❖ Displays a sharp peak with high
amplitude, indicating a strong
contraction.
❖ Further increasing the stimulus
intensity does not produce additional
changes in response.
❖ Summation Stimulation a
phenomenon is a multiple
subthreshold stimuli occur in rapid
succession, they can combine to
produce a response, called.
❖ Two main types:
❖ Spatial summation: Signals from
multiple sources combine to
enhance the effect.
❖ Temporal summation: Repeated
stimuli over time lead to an
increasing response.
Action Potential (AP)
❖A rapid, temporary change in
electrical charge across a
nerve or muscle cell
membrane.
❖Enables signal transmission in
neurons and muscle cells.
Ether can stop the action
potential from forming because
the sodium channels would be
blocked and the wave of
depolarization would not
propagate
40
41
PRESENTATION TITLE 42
Number Cranial Nerve Function Type
I Olfactory Smell Sensory
II Optic Vision Sensory
III Oculomotor Eye movement, pupil constriction Motor
IV Trochlear Eye movement (superior oblique muscle) Motor
V Trigeminal Facial sensation, chewing muscles Both
VI Abducens Eye movement (lateral rectus muscle) Motor
Facial expression, taste (anterior 2/3 of
VII Facial Both
tongue)
VIII Vestibulocochlear Hearing, balance Sensory
IX Glossopharyngeal Taste (posterior 1/3 of tongue), swallowing Both
X Vagus Autonomic control of heart, lungs, digestion Both
Shoulder and neck movement (trapezius,
XI Accessory Motor
sternocleidomastoid)
XII Hypoglossal Tongue movement Motor
 ACTIVITY
CRANIAL NERVE

44
PROCEDURE

Cranial Nerve
1 (CNI) —
Olfactory
nerve
45
Loss of Smell (Anosmia) & Olfactory Pathway
Lesions
Loss of the ability to smell due to damage along the
olfactory pathway.
Possible Lesion Locations:
[Link] Nerve (Cranial Nerve I)
1. Damage leads to anosmia.
[Link] Bulb
1. Located above the nasal cavity.
[Link] Tract
1. Connects the olfactory bulb to the cortex.
[Link] Cortex (Temporal Lobe)
1. Less common but can affect olfactory
processing.
Cranial Nerve 2 (CNII) - Optic Nerve

47
Visual Acuity Test & Interpretation
•Results are recorded as a fraction (e.g., 20/20, 20/40)
•Fraction Components:
• Numerator (Top Number) - Distance from the
chart (20 feet in standard tests).
• Denominator (Bottom Number) - Distance at
which a person with normal vision can read the
same line.
Normal Visual Acuity:
•Left Eye: 20/20
•Right Eye: 20/20
The subject sees at 20 feet what a normal person
sees at 20 feet.
Reduced Visual Acuity:
•Left Eye: 20/40
•Right Eye: 20/60
Example: 20/40 → The subject sees at 20 feet what a
person with normal vision sees at 40 feet.
49
50
51
Visual Field Defects

(a) - Bitemporal Hemianopia

•Loss of temporal (outer) visual fields in
both eyes (shaded yellow)

(b) - Right Homonymous

Hemianopia
•Loss of the right visual field in both eyes.
 (a) Bitemporal (b) Right Homonymous
Feature Hemianopia Hemianopia
Right visual field lost in
Temporal fields lost in
Affected Areas both eyes
both eyes

Left optic tract or occipital

Cause Optic chiasm lesion lobe lesion

Stroke, tumor, trauma in

Common Condition Pituitary tumor left visual pathway
(a) Size of Pupil:
• Left pupil: ____ mm (Normally 2–3 mm in average lighting conditions)
• Right pupil: ____ mm

Expected (Normal): Pupils are equal in size (2–3 mm in diameter).

Abnormal Findings: Anisocoria (unequal pupil sizes), which may indicate neurological issues such
as cranial nerve III dysfunction, increased intracranial pressure
(b) Position of the Eye:
• Normal: Eyes should be centrally
aligned and move symmetrically.
• Abnormal:
oStrabismus (misalignment of the
eyes) → Suggests cranial nerve III,
IV, or VI dysfunction.
oPtosis (drooping eyelid) → Could
indicate oculomotor nerve (CN III)
damage or Horner’s syndrome.
(c) Direct Pupillary Reflex:
• Normal Response: When a light is
shined into one eye, the same pupil
constricts immediately (brisk
reaction, graded 4+).
• Abnormal Findings:
o No response or sluggish
constriction → May indicate optic
nerve (CN II) damage or
brainstem dysfunction.
Fixed and dilated pupil → Can be a sign
of severe brain injury or increased
intracranial pressure.
Consensual Reflex:
• Normal Response: When a light is
shined into one eye, the opposite
pupil also constricts at the same
time (due to interconnection in the
midbrain).
• Abnormal Findings:
o If the consensual reflex is absent
→ It may suggest damage to the
optic chiasm, optic tract, or
brainstem pathway.
o Asymmetrical response → May
indicate optic nerve or
oculomotor nerve dysfunction.
Cranial Nerves 3 (CNIII) - Oculomotor
nerve, 4 (CNIV) - Trochlear nerve and 6
(CNVI) - Abducens nerve
Cranial nerves that innervate the extrinsic muscles of the eye:
a. Inferior rectus → Oculomotor nerve (CN III)
b. Superior rectus → Oculomotor nerve (CN III)
c. Medial rectus → Oculomotor nerve (CN III)
d. Inferior oblique → Oculomotor nerve (CN III)
e. Lateral rectus → Abducens nerve (CN VI)
f. Superior oblique → Trochlear nerve (CN IV)

Mnemonic to Remember:
LR6,SO4, all others 3
• Lateral Rectus (LR) → CN VI (Abducens nerve)
• Superior Oblique (SO) → CN IV (Trochlear nerve)
• All other eye muscles → CN III (Oculomotor nerve)
Cranial Nerve 5 (CNV) – Trigeminal Nerve
61
62
 Manifestations of Right Facial Nerve (Cranial Nerve VII)
Damage

The facial nerve (CN VII) controls the muscles of facial

expression and carries sensory information for taste from the
anterior two-thirds of the tongue. Damage to the right facial
nerve would cause motor and sensory deficits on the right
side of the face.
Motor Loss (Right)
Expected Symptoms:
Facial Paralysis or Weakness
o Inability to move muscles on the right side of the
face.
o Drooping of the mouth and difficulty closing the
right eye.
Loss of Eye Closure (Lagophthalmos)
o The right eye may remain open due to weakness
of the orbicularis oculi muscle.
Weakness in Lip Movement
o Difficulty puffing out the cheeks or whistling.
Bell’s Phenomenon (if damage is peripheral)
o When attempting to close the eye, the eyeball
may roll upward.
Sensory Loss (Right)
Expected Symptoms:
Loss of Taste Sensation
o Impaired taste perception on the
anterior two-thirds of the right side of
the tongue.
Decreased Lacrimation and Salivation
o Reduced tear production on the right
side (dry eye). Decreased saliva
production from the right submandibular
and sublingual glands.
Hyperacusis (Sound Sensitivity)
o If the nerve to the stapedius muscle
(which dampens loud sounds) is
affected,
 Peripheral vs. Central Facial Nerve Damage
• Peripheral Facial Nerve Lesion (e.g.,
Bell’s Palsy)
• Affects the entire right side of
the face (forehead and lower
face).
• Cannot wrinkle the forehead,
close the eye, or smile.
•Central Facial Nerve Lesion (e.g.,
Stroke affecting the left motor cortex)
• Only the lower right face is
affected (forehead movement is
spared due to bilateral
innervation). The person can still
wrinkle the forehead but has
difficulty smiling on the right
side.
PROCEDURE
Cranial
Nerve 5
Corneal
reflexes test
Cranial nerves involved in each function along with their specific roles

a. Taste
• Facial nerve (CN VII) – Taste from the anterior
two-thirds of the tongue.
• Glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX) – Taste from
the posterior one-third of the tongue.
• Vagus nerve (CN X) – Taste from the epiglottis
and pharynx (minor role).
b. Salivation
• Facial nerve (CN VII) – Stimulates
submandibular and sublingual glands to
produce saliva.
• Glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX) – Stimulates
the parotid gland to produce saliva.
 Peripheral vs. Central Facial Nerve Damage
c. Mastication (Chewing)
• Trigeminal nerve (CN
V) – Mandibular branch
(V3) – Controls the
muscles of
mastication:
o Masseter,
temporalis, medial &
lateral pterygoid
muscles for
chewing.
 Peripheral vs. Central Facial Nerve Damage
d. Swallowing
• Glossopharyngeal nerve (CN
IX) – Controls part of the
pharyngeal muscles involved
in swallowing.
• Vagus nerve (CN X) –
Innervates most pharyngeal &
laryngeal muscles, crucial for
swallowing.
• Hypoglossal nerve (CN XII) –
Controls tongue movements
necessary for proper
swallowing.
A person can frown, smile and display a scornful or doubtful face but
cannot sense facial pain from the skin of the right cheek. Which facial
nerve could be damaged?

▪ There is likely damaged nerve is the

Trigeminal nerve (Cranial Nerve V),
specifically the Maxillary branch (V2).

▪ Since the loss of sensation is only in the

right cheek, the damage is localized to the
Maxillary branch (V2) of the right Trigeminal
nerve (CN V).
Cranial Nerve 7 (Cranial Nerve 8 (CN VIII) — Vestibulocochlear or
Auditory nerve
PROCEDURE
Cranial Nerve 8 (CN
VIII) —
Vestibulocochlear or
Auditory nerve

A. Weber test
Results of the Weber and Rinne Tests
▪ a. Weber Test
• Normal result: The sound is heard equally in both ears.
• Sensorineural hearing loss (e.g., inner ear or nerve damage): The sound is
heard louder in the unaffected (good) ear.
• Conductive hearing loss (e.g., blockage, infection, or damage to the
middle ear): The sound is heard louder in the affected (bad) ear.
Results of the Weber and Rinne Tests
Rinne Test
▪ Normal (Positive Rinne test): Air conduction (AC) is greater than bone conduction (BC). The
subject hears the sound longer when the tuning fork is placed near the ear than when placed
on the mastoid process.
▪ Conductive hearing loss (Negative Rinne test): Bone conduction (BC) is greater than or
equal to air conduction (AC), meaning the subject hears the sound longer on the bone than
in the air.
▪ Sensorineural hearing loss: Both AC and BC are reduced, but AC is still greater than BC.
 Cranial Nerve 8 (CN VIII) — Vestibulocochlear or Auditory nerve

1. Rinne test compares Air conduction (AC) and Bone conduction (BC)
sound.
2. A normal response is a positive Rinne test, or AC > BC.

A test of left ear function shows a Since the test shows a decrease in both
decrease in hearing for both bone bone conduction (BC) and air conduction
conduction and air conduction.
Assuming normal brain function, where
(AC), this suggests sensorineural hearing
is the lesion probably located? Why or loss, meaning the issue is likely in the inner
why not? ear or auditory nerve (Cochlear division of
CN VIII) rather than the outer or middle ear.
Cranial nerves 9 (CN IX) — Glossopharyngeal nerve and
10 (CNX) — Vagus nerve
PROCEDURE
Cranial nerves 9 (CN IX) —
Glossopharyngeal nerve and
10 (CNX) — Vagus nerve

1. Ask the subject to open his/her

mouth and say “ah”.
2. Note the position of the soft
palate and uvula at the rest and
with phonation.
3. Ask the subject to swallow and
note any difficulty.
81
CRANIAL NEWS 11 (CNXI) - SPINAL ACCESSORY NERVE

82
Cranial news 11 (CNXI) - Spinal accessory nerve

83
Cranial news 11 (CNXI) - Spinal accessory nerve

Normal Results:
Head Rotation Strength:
o The subject can turn their head against
resistance equally on both sides.
Sternocleidomastoid (SCM) muscle
contraction is equal bilaterally (when
palpated).
Shoulder Shrug Strength:
o The subject can elevate both shoulders
against resistance.
o The trapezius muscles contract symmetrically
and show no weakness or atrophy.
No Involuntary Movements:
o No fasciculations (muscle twitching) or
asymmetry in muscle tone.

84
Cranial news 11 (CNXI) - Spinal accessory nerve

• Abnormal Results (Indicating CN XI

Dysfunction):
• Weak or Asymmetrical Head
Rotation:
• Weak Shoulder Shrugging:
• Muscle Atrophy or Twitching
(Fasciculations):
• Pain or Discomfort:
• Some cases of CN XI damage (e.g., from
surgery, trauma, or compression) may
cause neck or shoulder pain

85
 Cranial news 11 (CNXI) - Spinal accessory nerve

• Unilateral weakness suggests CN

XI injury due to trauma, stroke, or
nerve compression.
• Bilateral weakness may indicate a
neuromuscular disease such as ALS
(Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis) or
Myasthenia Gravis.

86
88
89
The cranial nerves that
contain only sensory fibers
are the olfactory nerve (I),
the optic nerve (II), and the
vestibulocochlear nerve
(VIII)
Vagus is the cranial
nerve responsible for the
regulation of the visceral
organs.
Failure of a patient to execute
lateral eye movements could
indicate dysfunction of which
Abducens and trochlear cranial
nerves
REFLEXES
Human Reflexes is an involuntary response
of an organ to a stimulus.
Somatic reflexes function by means of a
reflex arc, in which signals travel along the
following pathway:
(1) Somatic receptors
(2) Afferent nerve fibers
(3) Interneurons
(4) Efferent nerve fibers
(5) Skeletal muscles,

94
The sequence best represents a reflex
arc from the stimulus to the response?
[Link]
[Link] neuron
[Link] center
[Link] neuron
[Link]
 REFLEX ARC
A reflex arc can be either:
(1) Monosynaptic – containing
only two neurons (a sensory
neuron and a motor neuron),
or
(2) Polysynaptic – involving
multiple interneurons (also
called relay neurons) that
interface between the sensory
and motor neurons in the
reflex pathway.
96
Motor neuron is a part of
the reflex arc that sends
an electrical signal from
the CNS to the effector.
 A.) MONOSYNAPTIC B.)
POLYSYNAPTIC
PRESENTATION TITLE 98
Reflex testing is an important
diagnostic tool for assessing the
condition of the nervous
system. Distorted, exaggerated,
or absent reflex responses may
indicate degeneration or
pathology in portions of the
nervous system, often before
other signs become apparent.
The muscle groups tested ‘or
reflexes represent the spinal
cord segmental levels.
99
C2-C3 SEGMENT — NECK
C4 — DIAPHRAGM
C5 — DELTOID
C6 — BICEPS
C7 – TRICEPS
C7-C8 – WRIST
C8-T1 — INTRINSIC HAND
T1-TB - THORACIC/CHEST SYMMETRY
T9-T10 — UPPER ABDOMEN
T11-T12 — LOWER ABDOMEN
L1-L2 — THIGH ADDUCTORS AND HIP FLEXORS
L3-L4 — QUADRICEPS OR LEG EXTENSORS
L5-SI — HAMSTRINGS, ANKLE DORSI, PLANTAR
FLEXION, FOOT EVERSION AND INVERSION,
MUSCLES
100
 ACTIVITY 2
HUMAN REFLEXES
101
Grade Description of the Elicited Reflex
0 = no response, always abnormal
1+ = a slight but definitely present response; may
or may not be normal
2+ = a brisk response; normal
3+ = a very brisk response; may or may not be
normal
4+ = a tap elicits a repeating reflex (clonus);
always abnormal

102
 1. Jaw Jerk (CNS)
Jaw Jerk:
Normal Response: A slight upward
movement of the jaw (1+ or 2+).
Abnormal Response: An exaggerated or
hyperactive response (3+ or 4+), which
may indicate an upper motor neuron
lesion.
Components: The trigeminal nerve (CN V) is
responsible for the jaw jerk, involving the
masseter muscle

A lack of response in the jaw jerk reflex can be normal in most individuals. The jaw jerk reflex is a deep tendon
reflex mediated by the trigeminal nerve (CN V), specifically the mandibular branch (V3).
PRESENTATION TITLE 104
2. Biceps reflex
(C5 – C6)
Biceps Reflex:
o Normal Response: A brisk
flexion of the forearm at the elbow
(2+).
o Abnormal Response: A
diminished or absent response (0
or 1+) suggests damage to the
C5 or C6 nerve roots, while
hyperreflexia (3+ or 4+) could
indicate an upper motor neuron
lesion.
1. Brachioradialis reflex (C5 – C6)
Brachioradialis Reflex:
o Normal Response: Flexion and
slight supination of the forearm
(2+).
o Abnormal Response: Absence
or decreased response (0 or 1+),
or hyperactive response (3+ or
4+), may indicate dysfunction of
the C5 and C6 nerve roots or
central nervous system damage.
107
[Link] jerk (C6 – C8)
Finger Jerk:
o Normal Response: Flexion of the
fingers (1+ or 2+).
o Abnormal Response: An absent or
diminished response may suggest
issues with the C6-C8 nerve roots. A
hyperactive response might be seen in
upper motor neuron lesions.

Lack of response in finger flexion reflexes can be normal in many individuals..

109
5. Triceps reflex (C7 – C9)

o Normal Response: Extension of

the forearm at the elbow (2+).
o Abnormal Response: Diminished
or absent response (0 or 1+),
suggesting damage to the C7 or
C8 nerve roots. A hyperactive
response (3+ or 4+) may indicate
an upper motor neuron lesion.
6. Patellar reflex (Knee jerk)
(L2 – L4)

Patellar Reflex (Knee Jerk):

o Normal Response: Extension of the
lower leg (2+).
o Abnormal Response: A diminished or
absent response (0 or 1+), indicating
issues with the L2-L4 nerve roots, or a
hyperactive response (3+ or 4+) which
may suggest central nervous system
issues (e.g., upper motor neuron
lesion).
7. Ankle jerk (Achilles
reflex) (L5 – S2)
Ankle Jerk (Achilles Reflex):
o Normal Response: Plantar flexion of
the foot (2+).
o Abnormal Response: Diminished or
absent response (0 or 1+) indicating
damage to the L5-S2 nerve roots.
Hyperactive response (3+ or 4+) may
indicate an upper motor neuron lesion.
Components: Gastrocnemius and soleus
muscles (plantar flexion), innervated by the
L5-S2 nerve roots
[Link] reflex (L4 – S2)
o Normal Response: Plantar flexion of the
toes (2+).
o Abnormal Response: Dorsiflexion of the
toes (Babinski sign, 3+ or 4+), indicating an
abnormal response, which may suggest
upper motor neuron pathology (e.g., damage
to the corticospinal tract).
o Components: Flexor muscles of the toes
(plantar flexion), innervated by the L4-S2
nerve roots.

No response in the plantar reflex can be normal in some individuals. Some healthy adults may not exhibit a
clear response. Reflexes can be diminished with age. Fatigue, deep sleep, or relaxation may reduce the
reflex. Some individuals may have a naturally weak reflex.
114
THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM
 SKELETAL MUSCLE TISSUE

• Muscle includes: muscle fibers, connective tissue,

nerves & blood vessels
• Wrapped in Epimysium
• Perimysium surrounds fiber bundles called
fascicles
• Endomysium surrounds each individual fiber
 SKELETAL MUSCLE TISSUE
• Well-supplied with blood vessels and
nerves
• Terminal of a neuron on each
muscle fiber
Figure 8.1
[Link]
[Link] fascia
[Link]
[Link]
[Link] fascia

1 Wraps an entire muscle -

2. Lies immediately under the skin -
3. Separates muscle into functional groups -
Epimysium
Wraps an entire muscle
Superficial fascia
Lies immediately under the skin
Deep fascia
Separates muscle into functional
groups
 MUSCLE HISTOLOGY
• elongated cylindrical cells = muscle
fibers
• plasma membrane = sarcolemma
• Transverse (T- tubules) tunnel from
surface to center of each fiber
• Multiple nuclei lie near surface
• Cytoplasm = sarcoplasm
The sarcolemma is the
equivalent of the Plasma
membrane
Figure 8.2a
A motor unit consists
of a motor neuron
and all the muscle
fibers it stimulates
 MUSCLE HISTOLOGY (CONT.)
• Throughout sarcoplasm is sarcoplasmic reticulum
Stores Calcium ions
• Sarcoplasm contains myoglobin
Red pigmented protein related to Hemoglobin that carries
oxygen
• Along entire length are myofibrils
• Myofibrils made of protein filaments
Come in thick and thin filaments
Figure 8.2b
 SARCOMERE

• Filaments overlap in repeating patterns

• Unit structure is called sarcomere
• Separated by Z-discs
• Darker area = A-band associated with thick filaments
• H-zone has no thin filaments
• I-band has thin filaments no thick filaments
Figure 8.2c
I band - Striated zone of the sarcomere composed of thin filaments
only
Motor End Plate-Region of sarcolemma near the adjoining axon
terminal
Z disc - Dense area that separates sarcomeres

Dystrophin - A protein that links thin filaments of the sarcomere to

the integral proteins of the sarcolemma.
Figure 8.3a
Figure 8.3b
 FUNCTIONAL STRUCTURE

• Thick filament (myosin) has moveable heads

• Thin filaments (actin) are anchored to Z-
discs
Contain myosin binding sites for myosin head
Also contain tropomyosin & troponin
• Tropomyosin blocks myosin binding site at rest
 SLIDING FILAMENT MECHANISM

• During contraction myosin heads bind actin sites

• Pull and slide actin molecules (and Z-discs) toward
H-zone
• I-bands and H-zones narrow
• Sliding generates force and shortens sarcomeres and
thus fibers.
Figure 8.4
Thick filaments Have
myosin heads
(crossbridge) used for the
powerstroke
 NEUROMUSCULAR INTERACTION

• Nerve signal triggers muscle action potential

• Delivered by motor neuron
• One neuron can trigger 1 or more fibers at
the same time
• Neuron plus triggered fibers = motor unit
 NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION

• neuronal ending to muscle fiber =

Neuromuscular junction
• Synaptic end bulbs (at neuron terminal)
Release neurotransmitter
• Muscular area = Motor end plate
• Between is synaptic cleft
Figure 8.5
. Which of the following statements about skeletal
muscle tissue is NOT true?
[Link] muscle requires a large blood supply
[Link] muscle fibers have many mitochondria
C.A skeletal muscle fiber has many nuclei
[Link] arrangement of thick and thin filaments
produces the striations in the skeletal muscle
E. Skeletal muscle fibers contain gap junctions that help
conduct action potentials from one fiber to another
Skeletal muscle fibers
DOES NOT contain gap
junctions that help conduct
action potentials from one
fiber to another
 ACTION AT NMJ
1. Release of acetylcholine (ACh)
Diffuses across cleft
2. Activation of ACh receptors
3. Generation of Muscle Action Potential Repeats
with each neuronal action potential
4. Breakdown of ACh
 CONTRACTION TRIGGER
• Muscle action potential=> Ca2+ release from
Sacroplasmic Reticulum (SR)
• Ca2+ binds to troponin =>
• Moves tropomyosin off actin sites =>
• Myosin binds & starts cycle
 CONTRACTION CYCLE
• Myosin binds to actin & releases phosphate group
(Forming crossbridges)
• Crossbridge swivels releasing ADP & shortening
sarcomere (Power stroke)
• ATP binds to Myosin => release of myosin from
actin
• ATP broken down to ADP & Pi => activates myosin
head to bind and start again
• Repeats as long as Ca2+ concentration is high
Figure 8.6
 RELAXATION
• Breakdown of Ach to stop muscle Action potentials
• Ca2+ ions transported back into SR lowering
concentration=>
This takes ATP
• tropomyosin covers actin binding sites
Figure 8.7
Acetylcholinesterase
Is the chemical that
prevents the continuous
stimulation of a muscle
fiber is
 NEUROMUSCULAR INTERACTION

• Nerve signal triggers muscle action potential

• Delivered by motor neuron
• One neuron can trigger 1 or more fibers at
the same time
• Neuron plus triggered fibers = motor unit
 NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION

• neuronal ending to muscle fiber =

Neuromuscular junction
• Synaptic end bulbs (at neuron terminal)
Release neurotransmitter
• Muscular area = Motor end plate
• Between is synaptic cleft
Figure 8.5
 ACTION AT NMJ
1. Release of acetylcholine (ACh)
Diffuses across cleft
2. Activation of ACh receptors
3. Generation of Muscle Action Potential Repeats
with each neuronal action potential
4. Breakdown of ACh
 CONTRACTION TRIGGER
• Muscle action potential=> Ca2+ release from
Sacroplasmic Reticulum (SR)
• Ca2+ binds to troponin =>
• Moves tropomyosin off actin sites =>
• Myosin binds & starts cycle
 CONTRACTION CYCLE
• Myosin binds to actin & releases phosphate group
(Forming crossbridges)
• Crossbridge swivels releasing ADP & shortening
sarcomere (Power stroke)
• ATP binds to Myosin => release of myosin from
actin
• ATP broken down to ADP & Pi => activates myosin
head to bind and start again
• Repeats as long as Ca2+ concentration is high
Figure 8.6
The following are the correct order for skeletal
muscle fiber
• Acetylcholine is released from the axon
terminal
• Action potential travels into transverse
tubules
• Sarcoplasmic reticulum releases Ca2+
• Ca2+ combines with troponin
• Energized myosin heads attach to actin
• Thin filaments slide toward the center of the
sarcomere
 RELAXATION
• Breakdown of Ach to stop muscle Action potentials
• Ca2+ ions transported back into SR lowering
concentration=>
This takes ATP
• tropomyosin covers actin binding sites
Figure 8.7
 FATIGUE
• Inability to contract forcefully after
prolonged activity
• Limiting factors can include:
Ca2+
Creatine Phosphate
Oxygen
Build up of acid
Neuronal failure
 Neural Control of Muscular Contraction

Another name for a muscle cell is a muscle __________________.

The electrical events in the muscle cell that stimulates contraction are known as
________________________.
The basic repeating subunits of contraction within the muscle cell are known as
________________________
Associated with the thin filaments within skeletal muscle sarcomere are two inhibitory
proteins known as _______________ and ___________________.
What substance couple’s electrical excitation to muscle contraction _______________.
 Neural Control of Muscular Contraction
Another name for a muscle cell is a muscle fiber.
The electrical events in the muscle cell that stimulate contraction are known as action
potentials.
The basic repeating subunits of contraction within the muscle cell are known as
sarcomeres.
Associated with the thin filaments within skeletal muscle sarcomere are two inhibitory
proteins known as tropomyosin and troponin.
What substance couples electrical excitation to muscle contraction?
Calcium ions (Ca²⁺) couple electrical excitation to muscle contraction.
• Solution A (ATP only): This solution provides ATP, which is essential for muscle
contraction.
• You will likely see a strong contraction of the muscle fiber, with significant
shrinking of the I band and disappearance of the H zone.

• Solution B (ATP + KCl + MgCl2): This solution provides ATP, along with
potassium and magnesium, which may enhance or modify the contraction.
• You may observe a more significant or prolonged contraction compared to ATP
alone, with similar changes in the I band and H zone disappearing.
• Solution C (KCl + MgCl2): This solution lacks ATP, so you might observe little to
no contraction or a weak contraction of the muscle fiber.
• The bands may not show as much change as in solutions A and B.
Role of ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)
•Essential for muscle contraction
• Powers the sliding filament mechanism. Enables myosin
heads to detach, re-cock, and reattach to actin.
•Absence of ATP
• Myosin heads remain attached, preventing contraction.
• Muscle fibers fail to contract effectively, even with K⁺ and
Mg²⁺ present.
Role of Potassium (K⁺)
•Action potential generation
• Helps maintain resting membrane potential. Essential
for triggering muscle contraction.
•Potassium without ATP
• Muscle remains excitable but cannot contract.
• Highlights ATP's primary role in contraction.
Role of Magnesium (Mg²⁺)
•Enzyme function and ATP utilization
• Activates ATPase for ATP hydrolysis. Stabilizes ATP
binding to myosin.
•Magnesium without ATP
• No contraction observed.
• ATP remains the key driver of contraction, with Mg²⁺
aiding in utilization.
 MODULE 5.3
MUSCLE TWITCH, SUMMATION, TETANUS, FATIGUE
 MUSCLE TWITCH, SUMMATION, TETANUS, FATIGUE
 The contraction of the skeletal and cardiac muscle
fibers can be considered in terms of three events;
(1) electrical excitation of the muscle cell
(2) excitation-contraction coupling
(3) shortening of the muscle cell due to sliding of
the myofilaments within it.
 RESTING POTENTIAL
 At rest, all cells maintain a potential
difference, or voltage across the plasma
membrane; the inner face of the plasma
membrane is approximately -60 to -90 mV
compared to the exterior.
 POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
 The potential difference is a result of differences in
membrane permeability to cations, most importantly
sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) ions.
 Intracellular potassium concentration is much greater than
its extracellular concentration, and intracellular sodium is
considerably less than its extracellular concentration.
 RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL
 The resting membrane potential is of particular
interest in excitable cells, like muscle cell and
neuron, because they change in that voltage
underlie their ability to do work (to contract or
signal respectively in muscle cell and
neurons).
 Muscle contraction occurs only if the muscle is
stimulated with a stimulus of threshold or super threshold
intensity.
 A threshold stimulus is the minimum strength stimulus
necessary to initiate a contraction. Under normal
physiological conditions this is accompanied by a nerve
impulse being transmitted to the skeletal muscle cell via a
nerve called a motor neuron.
•Skeletal Muscle Contractions
Vary based on the intensity and frequency of
the stimulus applied
 Phases of Muscle Contraction

•Latent Period (Lag Phase)

•Short delay of 1–2 ms after the action potential reaches the muscle
•Time for:
•Calcium diffusion from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)
•Calcium binding to troponin
•Movement of tropomyosin off active sites
•Formation of cross bridges
•Contraction Phase
•Muscle generates tension
•Involves the cycling of cross bridges
•Relaxation Phase
•Muscle returns to its normal length
Point of contraction
•Twitch Contractions
Do not naturally occur in the body
Useful for demonstrating the phases of muscle contraction

•Myogram
A record or graph of muscle contraction
 TETANUS

[Link] TETANUS

[Link] a maximal stimulus and medium speed drum.

[Link] a rate of one per second deliver 10-12 stimuli.
[Link] the lever returns to its original resting level, stop the
drum and deliver 20 shocks at a rate of two per second.
B. COMPLETE TETANUS

[Link] a slow-moving drum.

[Link] the muscle with a very rapid series of shocks
by the inductorium lined for continuous stimulation,
approximately at rate of 60 stimuli per second.
[Link] the stimulation about 10 seconds.
[Link] the drum to continue operating until the lever
reaches its baseline.
the kind of contraction in the picture below is an
Incomplete tetanus
CONTROL OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION
Single Action Potential(AP) =>twitch
 Smaller than maximum muscle force
Total tension of fiber depends on
 frequency of APs (number/second)
 Require wave summation Maximum = tetanus

 Total tension of muscle depends on number of fibers

contracting in unison
 Increasing numbers = Motor unit recruitment
Figure 8.9
Figure 8.10
 MODULE 5.3
CAPACITY OF SKELETAL MUSCLE TO DO WORK
 DEMONSTRATING MUSCLE PROPERTIES WITH LOAD
APPLICATION
• Extensibility
• Muscle fibers elongate when progressively heavier weights are applied
• Within limits, a heavier load results in a greater stretch of the muscle

• Elasticity
• The muscle's elastic component can be pre-stretched by the applied
load
• This pre-stretch enhances the muscle's work potential, allowing it to
perform more effectively
•Measuring Muscle Work
•Work is calculated by multiplying the load (grams) by the height
lifted (millimeters)
•The result is expressed in gram-millimeters

Formula for Work:

Work = Force × Distance

In your case, this becomes:

The result is expressed in gram-millimeters (g·mm).

•Load and Work Relationship
•Up to a certain point, increasing the load leads to an increase in the
work done
•No measurable work occurs when:
•The muscle contracts without a load
•The load is too heavy to be lifted
7. Calculation of the amount of work performed by the muscle.
The amount of work performed by the muscle is calculated by multiplying
the actual distance of the muscle contraction by the actual lifting force.

AB = Distance pivot to muscle

AC = Distance from pivot to writing tip
AF = Distance from pivot to weight
CD height of recorded contraction
BE = Height of actual muscular
contraction

Figure 1. Muscle-work Geometry

GIVEN

• AB = 30 mm (Distance from pivot to muscle)

• AF = 15 mm (Distance from pivot to weight)
• AC = 60 mm (Distance from pivot to writing tip)
• Weight = 10 g
The amount of work performed by the muscle maybe calculated from
the recorded height of each contraction and the weight lifted.

Measure in millimeters the distance from the pivot to the point where
the muscle is attached, AB. Measure the distance from the pivot to
the writing tip, AC. From this data and the height of each contraction
recorded on the kymograph drum, calculate the ACTUAL
contraction, BE, for each weight lifted.
If the weight is suspended in a distance, AF, which is different from
the point at which the muscle is attached, AB, the ACTUAL lifting force
will not be equal to the weight, the ACTUAL lifting force will be
calculated as follows:

Record the height of each contraction and weight in the appropriate

column of the worksheet. Calculate the load force, actual contraction
and work done for the stretched and unstretched muscle.