LECTURE NOTES

OF
ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

Lecture notes for Graduation/Post-graduation Students

gh
in
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LPder

By
in

Dr. Narinder Singh

ar

narinder2467singh@[Link]
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Lovely Professional University

Phagwara

2024
 Dedicated to students
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LP r
de
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The author is not responsible for any kind loss due to mistakes in the text.
Contents

1 Matrix Algebra 1
1.1 Determinant of a Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Hints 1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Elementary Row Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2.1 Echelon Form and Rank of Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2 Problems of Finding Rank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.3 Hints 1.2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
h
1.2.4 Practice Problems Based on Finding Inverse using Elementary Row
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operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
U Si

1.2.5 Hints 1.2.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.3 Solving Linear system of Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
LP er

1.3.1 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.2 Hints to Problems 1.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
d

1.4 Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors of a Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

in

1.4.1 Hints of Problems 1.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

ar

1.5 Cayley-Hamilton Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

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1.5.1 Problems: Verification of Caylay Hamilton theorem . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.5.2 Hints to 1.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5.3 Problems Finding inverse using Cayley Hamilton theorem . . . . . . . 9
1.5.4 Hints to 1.5.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.6 MCQ Questions on UNIT 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2 Differential Equations 18
2.1 Basic Differentiation formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2 Degree, Order and Solution of Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.1 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.2 Hints to Problems 2.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3 Solution of Second Order Linear Homogeneous Equations with constant coef-
ficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3.1 Problems (Solution of Linear Homogeneous Equations with constant
coefficients) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4 Normal Differential equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.4.1 Problems based on Normal differential equations . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.4.2 Solution to Problems 2.4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

i
3 Non-Homogeneous Differential Equations 25
3.1 Non-Homogeneous Linear Differential Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.2 Non-Homogeneous Linear Differential Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2.1 Problems based on solving Non-homogeneous LDE with constant co-
efficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.2.2 Hints to Problems 3.1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.3 Method of undetermined Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.3.1 Table for choice of Particular solution in method of undetermined co-
efficients: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.4 Method of Variation of parameter (Formulas for 2nd order Equations) . . . . 34
3.5 Euler Cauchy Equations (Type of equation with variable coefficients) . . . . 35
3.6 MCQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

4 Fourier Series 43
4.1 Basic Formulas of Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.1.1 Basic Integration Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.2 Fourier series expansion in any interval [a, b] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.2.1 Problems: Fourier series in the interval [a, b] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
gh
4.2.2 Hints to Problems 4.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
U Sin

4.3 Conditions for a Fourier Series Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

4.3.1 Problems on Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.4 Functions with point of Discontinuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
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de

4.5 Problems on functions with discontinuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

4.6 Even and Odd Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
rin

4.6.1 Fourier Series expansion of Even or Odd functions in (−c, c) . . . . . 55

Na

4.6.2 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.6.3 Hints to Problems 4.6.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.6.4 Integrals that may be used in Fourier series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

5 Limits, Continuity,... 58
5.1 Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.1.1 Problems Based on Finding Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.1.2 Hints to Problems 5.1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.2 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.2.1 Problems Based on Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.2.2 Hints to Problems 5.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.3 Partial Derivatives & Jacobians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.3.1 Total Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.4 Euler Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.4.1 Homogeneous functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.4.2 Euler Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.4.3 Problems Based on Euler Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.5 Unit 5 MCQ Limit, Continuity and Differentiation of Function of several
variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
 5.5.1 Answer Key of 5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.6 Double and Triple Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

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Chapter 1

Matrix Algebra

1.1 Determinant of a Matrix

1. Find the determinant of following matrices
 
gh
  0 1 2 3
 
U Sin

1 1 1 0 3 0
 
(a)   (b) 



2 2 2
 3 0 1

LP r

 
de

3 0 1 2
rin

1.1.1 Hints 1.1

Na

1. (a) 0 (b) 88

1.2 Elementary Row Operation

Definition 1.2.1
There are three basic operations on rows of a matrix:

1. (Ri ↔ Rj ) Interchange of any two rows.

2. (Ri → kRj , k ̸= 0) Multiplication of all the elements of a row by a non-zero

element.

3. (Ri → Ri + kRj ) The addition to the elements of any row, the corresponding
elements of any other row multiplied by any number.

1
2 Narinder Singh 1. Matrix Algebra

1.2.1 Echelon Form and Rank of Matrix

Definition 1.2.2
A number r is called rank of a matrix A if

1. There exists atleast one minor of order r of A which does not vanish.

2. Every minor of order r + 1, if any vanishes.

The rank of a matrix A is denoted by ρ(A).

In other words, we can say that the rank of a matrix A is the largest order of any
non-vanishing minor of the matrix.

Definition 1.2.3: Echelon Form

A matrix A = [aij ] is said to be in echelon form if

1. The number of zeros before the first non-zero element in a row is less than the
gh
number of such zeros in the next row.
U Sin

2. The first non-zero entry in non-zero row is one.

LP r

3. The zero rows of A occurs below all the non-zero rows of A.

de
rin

The rank of a matrix A is denoted by ρ(A) = number of non-zero rows in echelon

form of a given matrix. An important remark here that first non zero entry
Na

in each row need NOT to be 1 for finding rank. (Echelon type is sufficient)

1.2.2 Problems of Finding Rank

 
x 0 1 
 
 1 2 x is less than 3. Also find the rank for
1. Find x so that rank of the matrix A =  
 
1 2 3
these values of x.

2. Find the rank of the following matrices: (Try to apply both methods and see whether
your answer is same!)
 
 0 6 6 1
 
1 2 −3 −1  
−8 7 2 3
 
 
(a) A1 = 3

−4 1 2 
 (b) A2 = 



  −2 3 0 1
 
5 2 1 3  
−3 2 1 1
3 Narinder Singh 1. Matrix Algebra

   
2 3 −1 −1 1 2 −1
   
1 −1 −2 −4 3 −1 2
   

(c) A3 = 


 (d) A4 = 



6
 3 0 −7

2
 −2 3 

   
3 1 3 −2 1 −1 1
 
0 1 3 −1 4
   
2

0 −4 1 2
 1 2 −1 3
   
(e) A5 = 
1 4 2 0 −1

(f) • A6 = 
2 4 1 −2

   
 
3

4 −2 1 1 
 3 6 3 −7
 
6 9 −1 1 6
   
 5 3 0  1 3 5
   
(g) • A7 = 
 1 2 −4
 (h) • A8 = 
 2 −1 4

   
−2 −4 8 −2 8 2
gh
 
U Sin

1 2 3 4
 
2 1 4 5
 
(i) A9 =
LP r

 
de

 
1 5 5 7
 
 
rin

8 1 14 17
Na

3. • Check whether the following vectors are Linearly independent or dependent?

(a) {(0, 1, 2), (0, 1, 0), (3, −1, 5)} (b) {(1, 2, 3, 4), (2, 0, 1, −2), (3, 2, 4, 2)}

(c) {(1, 1, 0, 1), (1, 1, 1, 1), (−1, 1, 1, 1), (1, 0, 0, 1)}

(d) {(0, 1, 2), (0, 1, 0), (3, −1, 5)}

4. Convert the following matrices into echelon form also in normal form...
   
2 2 −1 1 2 −1 5
   
(a) 4

−3 2  4

−4 6 6

(b)
  
   
2 −2 3 2
 −2 3 3

 
1 −1 1 5
4 Narinder Singh 1. Matrix Algebra

1.2.3 Hints 1.2.2

1. x = 0, 3 rank is 2 for x = 0, 3.
(a) ρ(A1 ) = 3. (b) ρ(A2 ) = 3.
2.
(c) ρ(A3 ) = 3. (d) ρ(A4 ) = 3.

(e) ρ(A5 ) = 3. (f) ρ(A6 ) = 2.

(g) ρ(A7 ) = 2. (h) ρ(A8 ) = 2.

(i) ρ(A9 ) = 2.

3. Check whether the following vectors are Linearly independent of dependent?

(a) Linearly independent(LI) (b) Linearly Dependent(LD)

(c) LI (d)
(a) rank = 3 (b) rank = 3
gh
4.
U Sin

1.2.4 Practice Problems Based on Finding Inverse using Elemen-

tary Row operations
LP r
de

1. Find the inverse of the following matrices using elementary row transformations:
rin

 
 1 1 3
 
Na

2 1  
(a)   (b) 
 1 3 −3

3 2  
−2 −4 −4
   
−5 3 −1 −5 3 −1
   
(c)  4

2 0 
 (d)  4

2 0

   
4 6 2 4 6 2

1.2.5 Hints 1.2.4

 
3
 3 1
 
1. 2 
 2 −1  
(a)   (b)  5 1 3
− 4 − 4 − 4 
−3 2  
− 14 − 14 − 14
   
−1/15 1/5 −1/30  1/7 3/14 −1/14
   
(c) 
 2/15 1/10 1/15 
 (d) 
−5/7 3/7 −1/7 

   
−4/15 −7/10 11/30 −5/7 −1/14 5/14
5 Narinder Singh 1. Matrix Algebra

1.3 Solving Linear system of Equations

1.3.1 Problems
1. Solve the following system of homogeneous system of equations AX = 0, where A is
given by
   
1 2 −3 1 1 −1 1
   
(a) 1

1 −1
 (b) 2

3 1 4

   
1 −1 1 3 2 −6 1

2. Does the following system of equations possess a non-zero solution?

x + 2y + 3z = 0, 3x + 4y + 4z = 0, 7x + 10y + 12z = 0
gh
3. Find the value of k so that the equations
U Sin

x − 2y + z = 0, 3x − y + 2z = 0, y + kz = 0 have
LP r
de

(a) unique solution

rin

(b) infinitely many solutions. Also find solutions for these values of k.
Na

4. Solve the following system of linear equations by matrix method:

a) x − 2y − 3z = 0 b) x + 2y − 2z + 2s − t = 0
−2x + 3y + 5z = 0 x + 2y − z + 3s − 2t = 0
3x + y − 2z = 0. 2x + 4y − 7z + s + t = 0.
x+y+z =0
c) 4x + 5y + 6z = 0 d)
2x − y − 3z = 0
5x + 6y + 7z = 0
3x − 5y + 4z = 0.
7x + 8y + 9z = 0.
x + 17y + 4z = 0

5. Solve the following system of linear equations by matrix method:

a) x−y+z =4 b) x − y + 3z = 3
2x + y − 3z = 0 2x + 3y − z = 2
x + y + z = 2. 3x + 2y + 4z = 5.
6 Narinder Singh 1. Matrix Algebra

c) 2x + 3y + 4z = 10 d) x+y+z =4
x + 2y + 3z = 14 2x + 5y − 2z = 3
x + 4y + 7z = 10. x + 7y − 7z = −6.
e) x+y+z =9
2x + 5y + 7z = 52
2x + y − z = 0.

1.3.2 Hints to Problems 1.3.1

1. (a) x = 0, y = 0, z = 0.
(b) Infinitely many solutions. x = 4z + t, y = −3z − 2t, z, t are free variables.

2. No. Only solution is zero.

1
gh
3. (a) k ̸= −
5
U Sin

1 3 1
(b) k = − , x = − k, y = k, z = k.
5 5 5
LP r

z = −s + t
de

4. (a) x = k, y = −k, z = k. (b)

x = −2y − 4s + 3t
rin

(c) x = −k, y = k, z = k (d) x = y = z = 0.

Na

5. (a) Unique solution (2, −1, 1). (b) x = 11/5, y = −4/5, z = 0.

(c) Inconsistent System. (d) Infinitely many. x = − 37 k + 17

3
,y =
4
3
k − 53 , z = k.
(e) unique solution. x = 1, y = 3, z = 5.
7 Narinder Singh 1. Matrix Algebra

1.4 Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors of a Matrix

Definition 1.4.1
Let A be a square matrix of order n over reals (complex) numbers. A real (complex)
number λ is called an eigenvalue of A iff there exists a non-zero n × 1 column matrix
 
 x1 
 
 x2 
 
X=  . 
  such that AX = λX.
 .. 
 
 
xn

The non-zero column matrix X is called the eigenvector of the matrix A correspond-
ing to eigenvalue λ of A.

Following theorem provide a way for finding eigenvalues:

gh
Theorem 1.4.1. λ is an eigenvalue of matrix A iff det(A − λI) = 0.
U Sin

Remark 1.4.1. The equation det(A − λI) = 0 is called characteristic polynomial or

LP r

characteristic equation of A.
de
rin

Methods to find Characteristic polynomial

Na

Method I Method II (Shortcut)

Find the determinant of (A − λI) and put it = 0

1. For 2 × 2 matrix characteristic eqn. is

λ2 − (trace(A))λ + det(A) = 0
2. For 3 × 3 matrix characteristic eqn. is
λ3 −(trace(A))λ2 +(M11 +M22 +M33 )λ−det(A) = 0

Figure 1.1

In figure 1.1 trace(A) = Sum of diagonal entries of matrix A.

(M11 + M22 + M33 ) = Sum of Principle Minors.
8 Narinder Singh 1. Matrix Algebra

1. Find the characteristic equation and eigenvalues of the following matrices:

 
  2 2 0
1 2

 
(a) A =   (b) A = 
 2 1 1

2 4  
−7 2 −3
   
1 2 3  8 −6 2
   
(c) A = 0

−4 2
 (d) A = −6

7 −4

   
0 0 7 2 −4 3
 
0 1 1
 
(e) A = 
1 0 1

 
1 1 0

2. Find the eigenvalues and corresponding eigenvectors of the matrices:

gh
   
 1 2 2 1 −1 −1
U Sin

   
(a) 
 0 2 1
 (b) 
1 −1 0

   
LP r

−1 2 2 1 0 −1
de

 
rin

 1 1 i
 
(c)
Na


 1 0 i

 
−i −i 1

1.4.1 Hints of Problems 1.4

1. (a) λ = 0, 5. (b) −λ3 + 13λ − 12 = 0.λ = 1, 3, −4

(c) (1 − λ)(−4 − λ)(7 − λ) = 0 (d) λ = 0, 3, 15.

(e) λ = −1, −1, 2.

T T
2. (a) λ = 1, 2, 2, (1, 1, −1) ; (2, 1, 0)
(b) λ = −1, i, −i, (0, −1, 1)T ; (1 + i, 1, 1)T ; (1 − i, 1, 1)T ;
√ √ √ √
(c) λ = 0, 1 + 3, 1 − 3(i, 0, −1)T ; (1, 3 − 1, −i)T ; (1, 3 − 1, −i)T ;
9 Narinder Singh 1. Matrix Algebra

1.5 Cayley-Hamilton Theorem

Theorem 1.5.1: Cayley-Hamilton Theorem
Every Matrix satisfies its characteristic equation.

Remark 1.5.1. The characteristics equation of a matrix square matrix A is |A − λI| = 0.

1.5.1 Problems: Verification of Caylay Hamilton theorem

1. Verify the Cayley-Hamilton theorem for the following matrices:
 
 2 2 0
 
1 2  
(a) A =   (b) A = 
 2 1 1

2 4  
−7 2 −3
   
1 2 3  8 −6 2 
gh
   
(c) A = 
0 −4 2 (d) A = 
−6 7 −4
U Sin
 
   
0 0 7 2 −4 3
LP r

 
de

0 1 1
rin

 
(e) A = 1

0 1

 
Na

1 1 0

1.5.2 Hints to 1.5

1. (a) λ = 0, 5. (b) −λ3 + 13λ − 12 = 0.λ = 1, 3, −4

(c) λ3 + 3λ2 − λ + 3I = 0 (d) λ = 0, 3, 15.

(e) λ = −1, −1, 2.

1.5.3 Problems Finding inverse using Cayley Hamilton theorem

1. Verify Cayley-Hamilton theorem and using it find inverse of the following matrices:
   
 1 2 0  1 1 2
   
(a) A = 
−1 1 2
 (b) A = 
 1 3 −1

   
1 2 1 −2 −1 1
10 Narinder Singh 1. Matrix Algebra

 
1 i i 
 
(c) A = 
i 1 i

 
i i 1

1.5.4 Hints to 1.5.3

 
1. −3 −2 4
3 2 −1 1
 
(a) A − 3A + A − 3I = 0 and A = 3  3

1 −2

 
−3 0 3
 
2 −3 −7
3 2 −1 1
 
(b) A − 5A + 9A − 13I = 0 and A = 13 1

5 3

 
5 −1 2
 
i − 1 1 1 
gh
−1
3 2
− 1+3i
 
(c) A − 3A + 6A − (4 − 2i)I = 0 and A = 10  1

i−1 1 

U Sin
 
1 1 i−1
LP r

1.6 MCQ Questions on UNIT 1

de
rin

 
0 0 1
Na

 
1. The inverse of the matrix A = 
0 1 0

 
1 0 0
(a) I (b) A

(c) −A (d) 2A
 
0 0 1
 
2. The inverse of the matrix A = 
0 −1 0

 
1 0 0
(a) I (b) A

(c) −A (d) 2A
 
1 0 1
 
3. The inverse of the matrix A = 
0 −1 0

 
1 0 0
11 Narinder Singh 1. Matrix Algebra

(a) A2 − 2I (b) 2I + A2

(c) A2 + I (d) A2 − I
 
 2 0 1
 
4. The inverse of the matrix A = 
 0 −1 0

 
−1 0 −1

(a) A2 − 2I (b) 2I + A2

(c) A2 + I (d) A2 − I
 
 2 0 1
 
5. The inverse of the matrix A = 
 0 −1 0

 
−1 0 −1

(a) A2 + 9I (b) 9I − A2
gh
U Sin

(c) A2 − 9I (d) A2 − I
LP r

6. If A is invertible symmetric matrix, then

de
rin

(a) A−1 is symmetric (b) A−1 is skew-symmetric

Na

(c) A2 − 2A + I = 0 (d) None of These

 
4 x + 2
7. If the matrix A = 
  is symmetric then x is equal to
2x − 3 x + 1

(a) 2 (b) 3

(c) 4 (d) 5

8. Suppose that A is a square matrix, then A + AT is

(a) Not a square matrix (b) a skew symmetric matrix

(c) a symmetric matrix (d) None of these.

 
4 2 17
 
9. The Eigenvalues of 
0 −3 23 is

 
0 0 3
12 Narinder Singh 1. Matrix Algebra

(a) −3, 4, 3 (b) 2, −3, 5

(c) −2, 6, 3 (d) 3, 3, 4

 
1 2 −2
 
10. The Eigenvalues of 
0 2  is
2
 
0 1 3

(a) −1, 4, 2 (b) 4, −3, 5

(c) 1, 2, 3 (d) 1, 1, 4
 
−2 2 0
 
11. The Eigenvalues of  2

 is
2 0
 
3 1 0
√ √
gh
(a) 0, 2 2, −2 2 (b) 0, −2, 2
√ √
U Sin

(c) 0, 1, 2 (d) 0, 2, − 2
LP r

 
1 1 1
de

 
2 2 2 is
12. The Eigenvalues of 
rin


 
3 3 3
Na

√ √
(a) 0, 6, − 6 (b) 0, 1, 5

(c) 0, 6, 6 (d) 0, 2, 3
 
1 0 0
 
13. The Eigenvalues of 
2 2 0 is

 
3 3 3

(a) 1, 1, 4 (b) 0, 1, 5

(c) 0, 0, 6 (d) 1, 2, 3
   
 3 0 1 −2
   
14. If for the matrix −1

1  one of eigenvector is  1 . Find the eigenvalue corre-
2  
   
0 0 −1 0
sponding to this vector.
13 Narinder Singh 1. Matrix Algebra

(a) 1 (b) 2

(c) 3 (d) 4
   
 3 0 1 −1/4
   
15. If for the matrix −1

1  one of eigenvector is −9/8. Find the eigenvalue
2  
   
0 0 −1 1
corresponding to this vector.

(a) 1 (b) 2

(c) 3 (d) 4
   
8 −4 2 −4.5
   
16. If for the matrix 
4 0  one of eigenvector is  −4 . Find the eigenvalue
2  
   
0 −2 −4 1
gh
corresponding to this vector.
U Sin

(a) -1 (b) -3
LP r
de

(c) 4 (d) 3
rin

   
−1
Na

2 3 0
   
17. If for the matrix 3

2 0 
 one of eigenvector is  .
1 Find the eigenvalue corre-
   
5 −3 3 3
sponding to this vector.

(a) 1 (b) 2

(c) 3 (d) 4
 
3 2 9
 
18. The characteristic equation of the matrix 
7 5  is given by
13
 
6 17 19

(a) λ3 − 27λ2 + 167λ − 285 = 0 (b) λ3 − 27λ2 − 122λ − 313 = 0

(c) λ3 − 27λ2 + 167λ + 285 = 0 (d) λ3 − 23λ2 + 167λ + 313 = 0

14 Narinder Singh 1. Matrix Algebra

 
2 3 −1
 
19. The characteristic equation of the matrix 
3 2  is given by
0
 
5 −3 3

(a) −λ3 + 7λ2 − 12λ + 4 = 0 (b) −λ3 + 7λ2 + 12λ + 4 = 0

(c) −λ3 − 7λ2 − 12λ + 4 = 0 (d) −λ3 + 7λ2 − 12λ − 4 = 0

20. The eigenvalues of 3 × 3 matrix A are given as 1, 2, 3. The det(A) is given by

(a) -6 (b) 5

(c) 6 (d) None of these.

21. The eigenvalues of 4 × 4 matrix A are given as 4, −5, 3, 13. The det(A) is given by

(a) -780 (b) 520

gh
U Sin

(c) 630 (d) None of these.

LP r

22. If one of the eigenvalues of A is zero, it implies

de
rin

(a) The solution of linear equations AX = 0 is non-trivial.

Na

(b) The determinant of A is non-zero.

(c) The solution to AX = 0 is unique.

(d) The matrix is non-singular.

 
3 5
23. Find the eigenvector for value of λ = −2 for the given matrix A =  
3 1
   
0 1
(a) A = 
  (b) A = 
 
−1 −1
   
−1 1
(c) A = 
  (d) A = 
 
−1 0

24. If A is a 3 × 3 matrix having all entries as 2023, then rank of A is

15 Narinder Singh 1. Matrix Algebra

(a) 3 (b) 2

(c) 1 (d) 0

25. For which values of k, the system of equations x−2y +z = 0, 3x−y +2z = 0, y +kz = 0
have infinitely many solutions

1 1
(a) k = 5
(b) k ̸= 5

(c) k = − 15 (d) k ̸= − 15
 
3 0 1 
 
1 2 x is less than 3.
26. Find x for which rank of the matrix A =  
 
1 2 3

(a) k = 3 (b) k = −3
gh
(c) k = 0 (d) None of these
U Sin

 
3 0 1
LP r
de

 
27. What is rank of the matrix 
1 2 4

rin

 
1 2 3
Na

(a) 0 (b) 1

(c) 2 (d) 3
 
2023 2023 2023
 
28. What is rank of the matrix 2023

2023 2023

 
2023 2023 2023

(a) 0 (b) 1

(c) 2 (d) 3
 
2024 2023 2023
 
29. What is rank of the matrix 2024

2023 2023

 
2024 2023 2023
16 Narinder Singh 1. Matrix Algebra

(a) 0 (b) 1

(c) 2 (d) 3
 
3 −1 2
 
30. What is rank of the matrix 2

4 2
 
1 2 1

(a) 0 (b) 1

(c) 2 (d) 3

31. What is rank of the identity matrix of order 4 × 4 ?

(a) 1 (b) 2

(c) 3 (d) 4
gh
U Sin

32. What is rank of the identity matrix of order 10 × 10 ?

LP r

(a) 100 (b) 10

de
rin

(c) 1 (d) 0
Na

33. For which value of k the following system of linear equations have no solution:

4x + 2y + z = 0
3x − y + 3z = −1
x + ky + 2z = 0

13 9
(a) k = 9
(b) k = 13

(c) k = − 13
9
9
(d) k = − 13

34. For which value of k the following system of linear equations have no solution:

4x + 2y + z = 3
3x − y + 3z = −1
x + y + kz = −2
17 Narinder Singh 1. Matrix Algebra

1
(a) k = 5
(b) k = − 15

(c) k = −5 (d) k = 5

35. Which of the following vectors in R3 are linearly independent ?

(a) {(1, 2, 1), (2, 1, 1), (1, 1, 2)} (b) {( 12 , 3), (2, 12)}

(c) {(2, 2, 2), (2, 1, 1), (1, 1, 1)} (d) {(2, 2, 1), (2, 1, 2), (2, 3, 0)}

36. Which of the following vectors in R3 are linearly independent ?

(a) {(4, 3), (12, 9)} (b) {(1, 2, 1), (−1, 1, 1), (1, −1, −1)}

(c) {(5, 5, 5), (2, 1, 1), (1, 1, 1)} (d) {(8, 20), (2, 4)}
gh
U Sin
LP r
de
rin
Na
Chapter 2

Differential Equations

2.1 Basic Differentiation formulas

d d n
(a) dx
c =0 (b) dx
x = nxn−1
d x d 1
(c) e = ex (d) ln x =
gh
dx dx x
d d
(e) sin x = cos x (f) cos x = − sin x
U Sin

dx dx
d d d
(g) dx
tan x = sec2 x (h) dx
(cf (x)) = c dx f (x)
LP r
de

d df dg d d d
(i) dx
(f + g) = dx
+ dx
(j) dx
(f g) = f dx g + g dx f
rin

vu′ −uv ′
(k) d u
( )
dx v
= v2
(l) d
dx
(sin−1 x) = √ 1
1−x2
Na

(m) d
dx
(cos−1 1
x) = − √1−x2 (n) d
dx
(tan−1 x) = 1
1+x2

2.2 Degree, Order and Solution of Differential Equa-

tions
Definition 2.2.1
The order of a differential equation is defined to be order of the highest order deriva-
tive it contains.
The degree of the differential equation is represented by the power of the highest
order derivative in the given differential equation. The differential equation must be
a polynomial equation in derivatives for the degree to be defined.

2.2.1 Problems
1. Find the order and degree of the following Differential Equations. State whether they
are linear or non-linear

18
19 Narinder Singh 2. Differential Equations

(a) y ′′ + 3y ′ + 4y = 0. (b) x2 y ′′ + xy ′ + 3y = 5x.

√ √
(c) (y ′ )2 + 3xy ′ + y = 0. (d) 1 + 2x2 dx + 1 + 2y 2 dy = 0

(e) [1 + (y ′ )2 ]1/2 = x2 + y. (f) yy ′′ + t2 y ′ + 4y = cos t.

(g) (y ′′ )2 + 3y ′ + x = 0 (h) y ′ y ′′ + y ′ + 5y = sin x

(i) (1 + y ′ )1/2 = y ′′ . (j) y ′ = sin y.

2. Verify that the given function satisfies the differential equation.

(a) y = ce−x ; y ′ + 2xy = 0 (b) y = x log x − x; y ′ = log x.

(c) y = sin−1 x; y ′′ = x/(1 − x2 )3/2 . (d) y = sec x + tan x, (1 − sin2 x)2 y ′′ =

cos x

3. Find all values of m for which y = emx is solution of the following differential equations.
gh
(a) y ′′ + 3y ′ + 2y = 0. (b) y ′′′ − 6y ′′ + 11y ′ − 6y = 0.
U Sin

(c) y ′′′ − 2y ′′ − y ′ + 2y = 0. (d) y ′′ − 4y ′ + y = 0.

LP r
de

(e) y ′′ − 2y ′ + 4y = 0.
rin

4. From the following equations, find the constant coefficient and variable coefficient
Na

equations.

(a) y ′′ − a2 y = 0. (b) y ′ = y/x.

(c) y ′′′ + 3y ′′ + 6y ′ + 12y = x2 . (d) x3 y ′′′ + 9x2 y ′′ + 18xy ′ + 6y = 0.

(e) (1 − x)y ′′ + xy ′ − y = 0. (f) y ′′ − (1 + x2 )y = 0.

5. Verify that given functions are solution of associated differential equations.

(a) 1, x, ex ; y ′′′ − y ′′ = 0. (b) ex , e−2x ; y ′′ + y ′ − 2y = 0.

(c) e−x cos 2x, e−2x sin 2x; y ′′ + 2y ′ + 5y =

0.

6. Examine whether the following functions are linearly independant for x ∈ (0, ∞).
20 Narinder Singh 2. Differential Equations

(a) 2x, 6x + 3, 3x + 2. (b) x2 − x, 3x2 + x + 1, 9x2 − x + 2.

(c) x2 − 2x, 3x2 + x + 2, 4x2 − x + 1. (d) sin x, sin 2x, sin 3x

(e) 1, sin x, cos x. (f) ex , sinh x, cosh x.

(g) x2 , 1/x2 (h) ln x, ln x2 , ln x3 .

(i) x − 1, x + 1, (x − 1)2 .

7. Show that e2x and xe2x are solution of the equation y ′′ − 4y ′ + 4y = 0 on any interval.
Show that these solutions are independent.

2.2.2 Hints to Problems 2.2.1

1. (a) two, one, linear (b) two, one, linear

(c) one, two, non-linear gh (d) one, one, non-linear

(e) one, two, non-linear (f) two, one, non-linear

U Sin

(g) two, two, non-linear (h) two, one, non-linear

LP r

(i) two, two, non-linear (j) one, one, linear

de
rin

3. Find all values of m for which y = emx is solution of the following differential equations.
Na

(a) m = −1, −2. (b) m = 1, 2, 3

√
(c) m = −1, 1, 2 (d) m = 2 ± 3.
√
(e) m = 1 + 3i

4. (a) constant coeff. (b) variable coeff.

(c) constant coeff. (d) variable coeff.

(e) variable coeff. (f) variable coeff.

6. (a) Linearly dependant (b) Linearly dependant

(c) Linearly Independant, W = 14 (d) Linearly Independant, W = −16 sin6 x

(e) Linearly Independant, W=1 (f) LD

(g) LI (h) LD

(i) LI
21 Narinder Singh 2. Differential Equations

2.3 Solution of Second Order Linear Homogeneous Equa-

tions with constant coefficients
Consider the linear homogeneous second order equation

ay ′′ + by ′ + cy = 0, a, b, c are constants. (2.1)

ay ′′ + by ′ + cy = 0, a, b, c are constants.
d d2
In operator notation by taking D = dx
, D2 = dx2
we write this equation as

aD2 y + bDy + cy = 0
(aD2 + bD + c)y = 0.

The equation aD2 + bD + c = 0 is known as auxiliary equation. The solution of equation

(2.1) depends upon roots of auxiliary equation. Following table Highlights rules for writing
gh
solution:
U Sin
LP r
de
rin

Roots of Auxiliary Equation Solution

Na

m1 ̸= m2 (real and distinct roots of AE) y = c1 em1 x + c2 em2 x

m1 = m2 (real and same roots of AE) y = (c1 + xc2 )em1 x
roots = α ± iβ (complex roots of AE) y = eαx (c1 cos βx + c2 sin βx).
m1 , m2 , m3 three distinct roots y = c1 em1 x + c2 em2 x + c3 em3 x
m1 = m2 ̸= m3 roots, then y = (c1 + xc2 )em1 x + c3 em3 x
m1 = m2 = m3 same roots (For three degree y = (c1 + xc2 + x2 c3 )em1 x
equations)

Example 2.3.1. Solve the differential equation:

y ′′ + 4y ′ + 5y = 0

d d2
Solution: Using D = dx
and D2 = , we have
dx2
D2 y + 4Dy + 5y = 0
(D2 + 4D + 5)y = 0
22 Narinder Singh 2. Differential Equations

The auxiliary equation is given by

D2 + 4D + 5 = 0
√
−4 ± 16 − 20 −4 ± 2i
D= = = −2 ± i.
2 2

Therefore the solution of given equation is

y = e−2x (A cos x + B sin x).

2.3.1 Problems (Solution of Linear Homogeneous Equations with

constant coefficients)
1. Find the general solution of the following system of linear equations:

(a) y ′′ − 4y = 0. (b) y ′′ − y ′ − 2y = 0.
gh
(c) y ′′ + y ′ − 2y = 0. (d) y ′′ − 4y ′ − 12y = 0.
U Sin

(e) y ′′ + 4y ′ + y = 0. (f) 4y ′′ − 9y ′ + 2y = 0.
LP r
de

(g) 4y ′′ + 8y ′ − 5y = 0. (h) y ′′ + 2y ′ + y = 0.
rin

(i) y ′′ + 2πy ′ + π 2 y = 0. (j) 9y ′′ − 12y ′ + 4y = 0.

Na

(k) 4y ′′ + 4y ′ + y = 0. (l) 25y ′′ − 20y ′ + 4y = 0.

(m) y ′′ + 25y = 0. (n) y ′′ + 4y ′ + 5y = 0.

(o) y ′′ − 2y ′ + 2y = 0. (p) (4D2 − 4D + 17)y = 0.

2. Show that in the following problems, {yi (x)} forms a set of fundamental solutions
(basis) to the corresponding differential equation:

(a) 1, x2 , x2 y ′′ − xy ′ = 0, x > 0. (b) e2x cos 3x, e2x sin 3x; 2y ′′ − 8y ′ + 26y =
0.
(c) ex , ex cos x, ex sin x; y ′′′ − 3y ′′ + 4y ′ − (d) x1/4 , x5/4 ; 16x2 y ′′ − 8xy ′ + 5y = 0, x >
2y = 0. 0.
(e) sin(ln x2 ), cos(ln x2 ); x2 y ′′ +xy ′ +4y =
0, x > 0.
23 Narinder Singh 2. Differential Equations

2.4 Normal Differential equation

Theorem 2.4.1
If the functions a0 (x), a1 (x), . . . , an (x) and r(x) are continuous over I and a0 (x) ̸= 0
on I, then there exists a unique solution to the initial value problem

a0 (x)y (n) + a1 (x)y (n−1) + · · · + an−1 (x)y ′ + an y = r(x), (2.2)

y(x0 ) = c1 , y ′ (x0 ) = c2 , . . . , y (n−1) (x0 ) = cn .

where x0 ∈ I, and c1 , c2 , . . . , cn are n unknown constants.

Remark 2.4.1. If the condition of Theorem 2.4 are satisfied, then the Differential Equation
2.2 is called normal on I.

Remark 2.4.2. A point xo ∈ I, for which a0 (x) ̸= 0, called ordinary point or a regular
point of the differential equation 2.2.
gh
Example 2.4.1. Find the intervals in which the following differential equations are normal
U Sin

1. (1 − x2 )y ′′ − 2xy ′ + n(n + 1)y = 0, n is an integer.

LP r
de

2. x2 y ′′ + xy ′ + (n2 − x2 )y = 0, n real.
rin

√ ′′
3. xy + 6xy ′ + 15y = ln(x4 − 256).
Na

Solution:

1. Here a0 (x) = (1 − x2 ), a1 (x) = −2x, and a2 (x) = n(n + 1). Now, a0 , a1 and a2 are con-
tinuous everywhere in (−∞, ∞). Also, a0 (x) = 1 − x2 ̸= 0 for all x ∈ (−∞, ∞) except
at the points x = −1, 1. Hence differential equation is normal on every subinterval of
the open intervals (−∞, −1), (−1, 1), (1, ∞),

2. Here a0 (x) = x2 , a1 (x) = x, and a2 (x) = (n2 − x2 ). a0 , a1 and a2 are continuous

everywhere in (−∞, ∞). Also, a0 (x) = x2 ̸= 0 for all x ∈ (−∞, ∞) except at the
points x = 0. Hence differential equation is normal on every interval which does not
contains 0.
√
3. Here a0 (x) = x, a1 (x) = 6x, and a2 (x) = 15, r(x) = ln(x4 − 256). a0 , a1 , a2 and r(x)
√
are continuous for all x > 4. Also, a0 (x) = x ̸= 0 and real for all x ∈ (0, ∞). Hence
differential equation is normal on (4, ∞).
24 Narinder Singh 2. Differential Equations

2.4.1 Problems based on Normal differential equations

1. Find the intervals on which the following differential equations are normal.

(a) y ′ = 3y/x. (b) (1 + x2 )y ′′ + 2xy ′ + y = 0

√
(c) x2 y ′′ − 4xy ′ + 6y = x (d) y ′′ + 3y ′ + xy = sin x.

(e) y ′′′ + 9y ′ + y = log(x2 − 9) (f) y ′′ + |x|y ′ + y = x ln x.

(g) x(1 − x)y ′′ − 3xy ′ − y = 0. (h) y ′′ + xy ′ + 6y = ln sin(πx/4).

2.4.2 Solution to Problems 2.4.1

1. (a) Any subinterval of (−∞, 0), (0, ∞). (b) Any subinterval of (−∞, ∞).

(c) Any subinterval of (−∞, 0), (0, ∞). (d) Any subinterval of [0, ∞) .

(e) Any subinterval of (3, ∞). (f) Any subinterval of (0, ∞).
gh
(g) Any subinterval of (−∞, 0), (0, 1), (1, ∞).
U Sin

(h) 4m < x < 4(m + 1), m = 0, 2, 4, . . .

LP r
de
rin
Na
Chapter 3

Non-Homogeneous Differential
Equations

CO2: understand the use of different methods for the

solution of linear differential equations.
gh
U Sin

3.1 Non-Homogeneous Linear Differential Equation

LP r

Consider a non-homogeneous linear differential equation of order 2 with constant coefficients

de
rin

d2 y dy
c0 2
+ c1 + c2 y = r(x). (3.1)
dx dx
Na

The solution of equation (3.1) is a function

y = yc + yp

where yc is called complimentary solution (CS) is solution of the corresponding homo-

geneous equation
d2 y dy
c0 2
+ c1 + c2 y = 0,
dx dx
and yp is called particular solution (PS) or particular integral (PI) is given by
1
yp = r(x).
c0 D2 + c1 D + c2
The particular solution depends upon the function r(x) in equation (3.1). Following picture
gives a better illustration.

25
26 Narinder Singh 3. Non-Homogeneous Differential Equations

d2 y dy
Solution of c0 + c 1 + c2 y = r(x).
dx2 dx

y = yc + yp

yc complimentary solution yp particular solution (PS)

d2 y dy 1
yc is solution of c0 + c1 + c2 y = 0 yp = r(x)
dx 2 dx c0 D2 + c1 D + c2

Figure 3.1
gh
Following are the formulas for finding particular Integral/Solution:
U Sin
LP r

Rule. Particular Solution/Particular Integral

de

No.
rin

1.
Na

1 ax 1 ax
e = e ; provided F (a) ̸= 0
F (D) F (a)

Sub-case 1: F (a) = 0, F ′ (a) ̸= 0 then

1 ax x
e = ′ eax
F (D) F (a)

Sub-case 2: F (a) = 0, F ′ (a) = 0, F ′′ (a) ̸= 0 then

1 ax x2
e = ′′ eax
F (D) F (a)
27 Narinder Singh 3. Non-Homogeneous Differential Equations

2.
1 1
2
sin(ax + b) = 2
sin(ax + b); F (−a2 ) ̸= 0
F (D ) F (−a )

Sub-case 1: F (−a2 ) = 0, F ′ (−a2 ) ̸= 0 then

1 x
2
sin(ax + b) = ′ sin(ax + b)
F (D ) F (−a2 )

3.
1 1
2
cos(ax + b) = cos(ax + b); F (−a2 ) ̸= 0
F (D ) F (−a2 )
Sub-case 1: F (−a2 ) = 0, F ′ (−a2 ) ̸= 0 then
1 x
2
cos(ax + b) = ′ cos(ax + b)
F (D ) F (−a2 )
gh
U Sin

4.
1
xm = [F (D)]−1 xm
F (D)
LP r
de

In this case, the following two formulas will be helpful:

rin

(1 + X)−1 = 1 − X + X 2 − X 3 + X 4 − . . .
Na

(1 − X)−1 = 1 + X + X 2 + X 3 + X 4 + . . .

5.
1 ax 1
e V (x) = eax V (x)
F (D) F (D + a)
After this, we will apply one of the rules from rule 1 to 4 depending upon type
of function V (x)

3.2 Non-Homogeneous Linear Differential Equation

Example 3.2.1. Solve y ′′ + 5y ′ + 6y = ex .
d d2
Solution: Using D = dx and D2 = 2 , we have
dx
D2 y + 5Dy + 6y = ex .
28 Narinder Singh 3. Non-Homogeneous Differential Equations

(D2 + 5D + 6)y = ex .

For finding the complimentary solution: the auxiliary equation is given by

D2 + 5D + 6 = 0
√
−5 ± 25 − 24 −5 ± 1
D= = = −3, −2.
2 2

Therefore the complimentary solution of given equation is

yc = c1 e−3x + c2 e−2x .

Now we will find particular solution (PS or PI)

(D2 + 5D + 6)y = ex .
1
gh
yp = ex
D2
+ 5D + 6
U Sin

1
yp = 2 ex Rule 1, Putting D = 1
1 + 5(1) + 6
LP r

1
de

yp = ex
12
rin

Therefore complete solution or general solution is given by

Na

1 x
y = yc + yp = c1 e−3x + c2 e−2x + e
12

Sr. No. Formula

ex − e−x
1 sinh x =
2
ex + e−x
2 cosh x =
2
eix − e−ix
3 sin x =
2i
eix + e−ix
4 cos x =
2
Example 3.2.2. y ′′′ − 3y ′ + 2y = e−2x + 2 sinh x

d d2
Solution: Using D = dx
and D2 = dx2
, we have

D3 y − 3Dy + 2y = e−2x + 2 sinh x

29 Narinder Singh 3. Non-Homogeneous Differential Equations

(D3 − 3D + 2)y = e−2x + ex − e−x

For finding the complimentary solution: the auxiliary equation is given by

D3 − 3D + 2 = 0 (3.2)

Cubic equation, we will apply HIT & TRIAL, D = 0 not satisfying eqn. (3.2), D = 1 is
satisfying (3.2). Therefore, one root is D = 1. Now we apply synthetic division to find other
two roots:

D3 D2 D constant
1 1 0 -3 2
0 1 1 -2
1 1gh -2 0

Therefore other two roots are given by:

U Sin

D2 + D − 2D = 0
LP r

(D − 1)(D + 2) = 0
de
rin

∴ D = 1, 1, −2
Na

Therefore the complimentary solution of given equation is

yc = (c1 + xc2 )ex + c3 e−2x .

Now we will find PI

(D3 − 3D + 2)yp = e−2x + ex − e−x

1 
−2x x −x

yp = e + e − e
(D3 − 3D + 2)
1 1 1
yp = e−2x + ex − e−x
(D − 3D + 2)
3 (D − 3D + 2)
3 (D − 3D + 2)
3

Let us apply rule 1:

1 1 1
yp = e−2x + ex − e−x
− 3(−2) + 2)
((−2)3 ((1) − 3(1) + 2)
3 ((−1) − 3(−1) + 2)
3

1 1 1
yp = e−2x + ex − e−x
0 0 4
30 Narinder Singh 3. Non-Homogeneous Differential Equations

We have to evaluate first two terms separately as rule 1 fails on them. We will apply Rule
1 Sub-case 1 for first term

1 −2x x −2x x −2x xe−2x

e = e = e = .
(D3 − 3D + 2) 3D2 − 3 3(−2)2 − 3 9
We have to apply rule 1 sub-case 2 as 1 is repeated root.
1 x x2 x x2 x x2 x
e = e = e = e
(D3 − 3D + 2) 6D 6(1) 6
2
x x x 1 −x
yp = e−2x + e + e .
9 6 4

Therefore complete solution is

y = yc + yp
x x2 1
y = (c1 + xc2 )ex + c3 e−2x + e−2x + ex + e−x .
9 6 4
gh
U Sin

Example 3.2.3. Find PI of (D3 + 1)y = cos(2x − 1).

LP r
de

Solution: (D3 + 1)y = cos(2x − 1).

rin

1 1
PI = cos(2x − 1) = cos(2x − 1)
(D3+ 1) 2
(D .D + 1)
Na

1
= 2
cos(2x − 1) [Rule 3 PuttingD2 = −22 ]
((−2 ).D + 1)
1
yp = cos(2x − 1)
(−4D + 1)
1
= (1 + 4D) cos(2x − 1)
(1 + 4D)(1 − 4D)
1
= (1 + 4D) cos(2x − 1)
(1 − 16D2 )
1
= (1 + 4D) cos(2x − 1)
(1 − 16(−22 ))
1
= (1 + 4D) cos(2x − 1)
65 !
1 d
= cos(2x − 1) + 4 cos(2x − 1)
65 dx
1
= (cos(2x − 1) − 8 sin(2x − 1))
65
31 Narinder Singh 3. Non-Homogeneous Differential Equations

3.2.1 Problems based on solving Non-homogeneous LDE with con-

stant coefficients
1. Solve the following differential equations:
d2 y dy
(a) 2
− 6 + 9y = 6e3x + 7e−2x − log 2.
dx dx
2
dy dy dy
(b) 2
+ 4 + 5y = −2 cosh x. Also find y when y = 0, = 0 at x = 0.
dx dx dx
d2 y
(c) + n2 y = k cos(nx + α) here n, α are constants.
dx2
d2 x dx
(d) 2
+ 2 + 3x = sin t
dt dt
2
dy dy
(e) 2
+ 3 + 2y = 4 cos2 x
dx dx
2
(f) (D − 4D + 3)y = sin 3x cos 2x
d3 y d2 y dy
gh
(g) + 2 + = e−x + sin 2x
dx3 dx2 dx
U Sin

d2 y dy
(h) 2
+ 2 + y = e2x − cos2 x
dx dx
LP r

(i) (D − 5D2 + 7D − 3)y = e2x cosh x

3
de

d2 y
rin

(j) − y = e x + x2 e x
dx2
Na

(k) (D3 − D)y = 2x + 1 + 4 cos x + 2ex

d2 y dy
(l) 2
− 6 + 25y = e2x + sin x + x
dx dx

3.2.2 Hints to Problems 3.1.1

7 −2x
3x 2 3x
1. (a) y = (c1 + c2 x)e + 3x e + 25
e − 19 log 2.
ex e−x
(b) y = 15 e−2x (3 cos x + 4 sin x) − 10
− 2
.

(c) y = c1 cos nx + c2 sin nx + kx

2n
sin(nx + α)
√ √
(d) y = e−x (c1 cos 2x + c2 sin 2x) + 14 (sin x − cos x).

(e) y = c1 e−x + c2 e−2x + 1 + 1

10
(3 sin 2x − cos 2x)
1 1
(f) y = c1 ex + c2 e3x + 884
(10 cos 5x − 11 sin 5x) + 20
(sin x + 2 cos x)
x2 −x
(g) y = c1 + (c2 + c3 x)e−x − 2
e + 3
50
cos 2x − 2
25
sin 2x.

(h) y = (c1 + c2 x)e−x + 91 e2x − 12 + 1

50
(3 cos 2x − 4 sin 2x)
32 Narinder Singh 3. Non-Homogeneous Differential Equations

(i) y = (c1 + c2 x)ex + c3 e3x + 81 (xe3x − x2 ex )

ex
(j) y = c1 ex + c2 e−x + 12
(2x3 − 3x2 + 9x)

(k) c1 + c2 ex + c3 e−x + xex − (x2 + x) − 2 sin x

1 2x 2 1 x 6
(l) y = e3x (c1 cos 4x + c2 sin 4x) + 17
e + 51
sin x + 102
cos x + 25
+ 625

3.3 Method of undetermined Coefficients

In method of undetermined coefficients on the basis of non-homogeneous part r(x) we choose
appropriate particular solution with some undetermined coefficients in it.

Example 3.3.1. Solve using method of undetermined coefficients y ′′ + y = 5x3 .

Solution: The given differential equation is

gh
y ′′ + y = 5x3 (3.3)
U Sin

d d2
Put D = , D2 = . Given equation becomes (D2 + 1)y = 5x3 . The characteristic
LP r

dx dx2
de

2
equation is m + 1 = 0 =⇒ m = ±i. So the complementary solution is
rin

yc = e0x (c1 cos x + c2 sin x)

Na

= c1 cos x + c2 sin x

Since r(x) = 5x3 so the choice of yp is

yp = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d

Since yp is also a solution of equation (3.3) so it must satisfy it.

yp′ = 3ax2 + 2bx + c

yp′′ = 6ax + 2b

Substitute in equation equation (3.3 )

6ax + 2b + ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 5x3

ax3 + bx2 + (6a + c)x + 2b + d = 5x3
33 Narinder Singh 3. Non-Homogeneous Differential Equations

Comparing the coefficients of various powers of x, we get

a = 5, b = 0, 6a + c = 0, 2b + d = 0
c = −30, d = 0
Therefore, yp = 5x3 − 30x = 5x(x2 − 6)
So y = yc + yp = c1 cos x + c2 sin x + 5x(x2 − 6)

3.3.1 Table for choice of Particular solution in method of unde-

termined coefficients:
The important point in method of undetermined coefficients is correct choice of particular
solution. The following table gives few examples where various choices of particular solution
are shown. gh
Sr. No. r(x) CHOICE OF yp Reason for Different
U Sin

Choices
1 y ′′ + y = 5x3 yp = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d
LP r
de

2 y ′′ + 6y ′ + 8y = 5x2 + 2x yp = ax2 + bx + c
rin

3 y ′′ + 9y = cos x yp = A cos x + B sin x

Na

4 y ′′ + 9y = cos 2x yp = A cos 2x + B sin 2x

5 y ′′ + 9y = cos 3x yp = x(A cos 3x + B sin 3x) ∵ ±3i is a root
of A.E. so A cos 3x +
B sin 3x already occur
in yc so we multiplied
with x.
6 y ′′ + 2y ′ + 5y = 2e3x yp = Ae3x
7 (D − 1)(D − 2)y = 2e3x yp = Ae3x
8 (D − 1)(D − 2)y = 7e2x yp = Axe2x ∵ 2 is root of charac-
teristic equation so e2x
already occur in yc so
we multiplied with x.
34 Narinder Singh 3. Non-Homogeneous Differential Equations

9 (D − 2)(D − 2)y = 7e2x yp = Ax2 e2x As 2 is repeated root

of characteristic equa-
tion so e2x , xe2x al-
ready occur in yc so we
multiplied with x2
10 (D − 2)(D − 2)y = 7e5x yp = Ae5x e5x does not occurred
in yc so no need to
multiply with x.
11 y ′′ + 3y ′ + 4y = ceax sin bx yp = eax (A cos bx + B sin bx) Provided a ± ib is
not root of Auxiliary
equation.
12. a0 y ′′ + a1 y ′ + a2 y = ceax sin bx yp = xeax (A cos bx + B sin bx) Provided a ± ib is
a root of Auxiliary
gh equation.
U Sin

3.4 Method of Variation of parameter (Formulas for

LP r
de

2nd order Equations)

rin
Na

The particular solution of the following differential equation

a0 (x)y ′′ + a1 (x)y ′ + a2 (x)y = r(x)

is given as

yp (x) = A(x)y1 (x) + B(x)y2 (x)

Z
y1 (x)r(x)
Here, A(x) = − dx
a0 (x)W (y1 , y2 )
Z
y2 (x)r(x)
B(x) = dx
a0 (x)W (y1 , y2 )
y1 y2
W (y1 , y2 ) =
y1′ y2′
35 Narinder Singh 3. Non-Homogeneous Differential Equations

3.5 Euler Cauchy Equations (Type of equation with

variable coefficients)
An equation of the form ao x2 y ′′ + a1 xy ′ + a2 y = r(x), where ao , a1 , a2 are constant is known
as Euler Cauchy equation.

3.6 MCQ
1. If f1 , f2 are linearly dependent functions, then which of the following is true?
′ ′ ′ ′
(a) f1 f2 − f1 f2 = 0 (b) f1 f2 − f1 f2 = 0
′ ′
(c) f1 f1 − f2 f2 = 0 (d) None of these

2. What is Wronskian of {1, − sin x, − cos x}?

gh
(a) 0 (b) 1
U Sin

(c) π (d) −1
LP r
de

3. solve y ′′ = 4y?
rin

(a) y = c1 e2x + c2 e−2x (b) y = (c1 + xc2 )e2x

Na

(c) y = c1 + c2 e2x (d) None of these

4. Which of the following set of functions is linearly dependent?

(a) {x, x2 } (b) {ex , e−x }

(c) {ex , eπx } (d) None of these

5. Wronskian of e2 x, e−2x is

(a) 4 (b) −4

(c) 0 (d) None of these

dy
6. The general solution of dx
+ 4x = 0 is
36 Narinder Singh 3. Non-Homogeneous Differential Equations

(a) y = e−4x (b) y = Ce−4x

(c) y = −2x2 + C (d) None of these

7. The general solution of homogeneous linear differential equation with constant coeffi-
cients whose auxiliary equation has roots ±2i, ±2i is

(a) y = c1 sin 2x + c2 cos 2x (b) y = c1 cos 2x + xc2 sin 2x

(c) c1 e2ix + c2 e−2ix (d) None of these

8. Which of the following is a homogeneous linear differential equation?

(a) x3 sin xy ′′′ + x2 cos xy ′′ + 4xy ′ + 7y = 0

(b) y ′′′ + 2y ′′ + +4xy ′ + y 2 = 0

(c) y ′′′ + 6y ′′ + 25y ′ + 8y − 6 = 0

gh
U Sin

(d) All of these

LP r

9. Which of the following is a homogeneous linear differential equation with constant

de

coefficients?
rin

!2 !2
d2 y dy d2 y dy
Na

(a) 4 2 + 2 + 5y = 0 (b) 2 +7 + 2y = sin(x2 + 2)

dx dx dx2 dx
d3 y d2 y dy
(c) 3 3
+ 2 2
+ 7 + 9y − x = 0 (d) None of these
dx dx dx

10. The solution of (D4 − 81)y = 0 is

(a) (c1 + xc2 )e3x + (c3 + xc4 )e−3x

√ √
(b) c1 e3x + c2 e−3x + c3 cos( 3x) + c4 sin( 3x)
√ √ √ √
(c) c1 e 3x + c2 e− 3x + c3 cos( 3x) + c4 sin( 3x)

(d) c1 e3x + c2 e−3x + c3 cos 3x + c4 sin 3x

11. Which of the following is general solution of y ′ = y?

(a) y = ex (b) y = e−x

(c) y = Aex (d) None of these

37 Narinder Singh 3. Non-Homogeneous Differential Equations

dy
12. Which of the following are solutions of x2 dx +y =0

(a) y = Aex (b) y =

(c) y = Ae−1/x Ax (d) y = Ae−1/x

13. Which of the following is solution of y ′′ + 6y ′ + 9y = 0

(a) y = (c1 − xc2 )e−3x (b) y = c1 e−3x + c2 e3x

(c) y = c1 e3x + c2 e3x (d) None of these

14. Which of the following functions are linearly dependent?

(a) 1, x2 (b) x + 2, x + 23, 2x + 21

(c) sin x, cos x (d) None of these

gh
√
15. The differential equation 2xy ′′ + xy ′ + 2y = ln(x2 − 25) is normal in
U Sin

(a) (0, ∞) (b) (−∞, ∞)

LP r
de

(c) (−5, ∞) (d) None of these

rin

1
Na

16. Find particular solution e2x =?

D2 + 2D + 7
1 3x 1 x
(a) e (b) e
15 15
1 −3x
(c) e (d) None of these
15
1
17. Find particular solution cos x =?
D2 +1
x
(a) 2
sin x (b) − x2 cos x

(c) − x2 sin x (d) None of these

18. Find particular solution of y ′′′ + 6y ′′ + 12y ′ + 8y = e−2x

1 −2x x −2x
(a) 8
e (b) 12
e
x2 −2x x3 −2x
(c) 12
e (d) 6
e
38 Narinder Singh 3. Non-Homogeneous Differential Equations

19. Find particular solution of y ′′ + y ′ + y = ln 5

1
(a) 3
ln 5 (b) ln 5

(c) − 31 ln 5 (d) None of these

20. Solve (D2 + 1)y = e2

(a) c1 cos x + c2 sin x (b) y = c1 cos x + c2 sin x + e2

(c) c1 cos x + c2 sin x + 12 e2x (d) None of these

1
21. Solve D3 +1
3x .
1 1 x
(a) 3x (b) 28
3
1 + (ln 3)3
1 1
(c) e27 +1
3x (d) ln 3+1
3x
gh
U Sin

22. In method of undetermined coefficients what will be choice of particular integral for
y ′′ + y = 32x3
LP r
de

(a) yp = ax3 (b) yp = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d

rin

(c) 32x3 (d) ax2 + bx + c

Na

23. The complementary function of (D4 − a4 )y = 0 is

(a) c1 eax + c2 e−ax (b) (c1 + xc2 )eax

(c) (c1 + xc2 + x2 c3 + x3 c4 )eax (d) c1 eax + c2 e−ax + c3 cos ax + c4 sin ax

24. P.I. of the differential equation (D2 + D + 1)y = sin 2x is ....

1 1
(a) − 13 (3 sin 2x + 4 cos 2x) (b) 13
(3 sin 2x + 4 cos 2x)
1 1
(c) − 13 (3 sin 2x + 2 cos 2x) (d) − 13 (2 sin 2x + 3 cos 2x)

25. PI of y ′′ − 3y ′ + 2y = 12 is

(a) 12 (b) 1/12

(c) 6 (d) None of these

39 Narinder Singh 3. Non-Homogeneous Differential Equations

26. The Wronskian of x and ex is ...

(a) ex (x − 1) (b) e−x (x − 1)

(c) ex (x + 1) (d) e−x (x + 1)

27. The Wronskian of 1, x, x2 is ...

(a) ex (x − 1) (b) e−x (x − 1)

(c) ex (x + 1) (d) e−x (x + 1)

28. Which of the following functions are linearly independent ?

(a) x2 , 3x2 (b) 1, sin x, cos x

(c) x + 2, x + 7, x gh (d) None of these

29. If roots of auxiliary equation of a homogeneous linear differential equation are 1, 2, ±i,
U Sin

then solution is
LP r

(a) c1 ex + c2 e−2x + c3 cos x + c4 sin x (b) c1 ex + c2 e−x + c3 cos x + c4 sin x

de
rin

(c) c1 e−x + c2 e2x (d) None of these

Na

30. The complementary function of y ′′ − 2y ′ + y = xex sin x is

(a) c1 ex + c2 e−x (b) (c1 x + c2 )ex

(c) (c1 + xc2 )e−x (d) None of these

31. The complementary function of (D4 − 6D3 + 12D2 − 8D)y = 0 is...

32. The particular integral of (D2 + a2 )y = sin ax is

x x
(a) − 2a cos ax (b) 2a
cos ax

(c) − ax
2
cos ax (d) ax
2
cos ax

33. Solution of the differential equation (D2 − 2D + 5)2 y = 0, is ...?

34. The solution of the differential equation y ′′ + y = 0 satisfying the condition y(0) = 1
and y( π2 ) = 2, is
40 Narinder Singh 3. Non-Homogeneous Differential Equations

(a) cos x + sin x (b) cos x − sin x

(c) cos x (d) None of these

√ √
35. e−x (c1 cos 3x + c2 sin 3x) + c3 e2x is the general solution of
d3 y d3 y
(a) + 4y = 0 (b) − 8y = 0
dx3 dx3
d3 y d3 y d2 y dy
(c) + 8y = 0 (d) − 2 + −2=0
dx3 dx3 dx2 dx

36. The solution of the differential equation (D2 + 1)2 y = 0 is ...

d2 y
37. The particular integral of + y = cosh 3x is...
dx2
38. The solution of x2 y ′′ + xy ′ = 0 is ...

39. The general solution of (D2 − 2)2 y = 0 is ...

gh
40. P.I. of (D + 1)2 y = xe−x is ...
U Sin

1 3 −x 1 2 −x
(a) xe (b) xe
LP r

6 6
de

(c) 1
xe−x (d) None of these
rin

6
Na

1
41. If f (D) = D2 − 2, f (D)
e2x = ...

1 2x 1 −2x
(a) 4
e (b) 4
e
1 2x 1 −2x
(c) 2
e (d) 2
e

1
42. If f (D) = D2 + 5, f (D)
sin 2x = ...

(a) sin 2x (b) cos 2x

(c) − sin 2x (d) − cos 2x

43. The particular integral of (D + 1)2 y = e−x is ...

1 3 −x 1 2 x
(a) 2
xe (b) 2
xe

(c) 1
2
xe−x (d) None of these

44. The general solution of (4D3 + 4D2 + D)y = 0 is ...

41 Narinder Singh 3. Non-Homogeneous Differential Equations

45. P.I. of (D2 + 4)y = cos 2x is ...?

1 1
(a) 2
sin 2x (b) 2
x sin 2x
1 1
(c) 4
sin 2x (d) 2
x cos 2x

46. By method of undetermined coefficients yp of y ′′ + 3y ′ + 2y = 12x2 is of the form

(a) a + bx + cx2 (b) a + bx

(c) ax + bx2 + cx3 (d) None of these

dx dy
47. In the equation + y = sin t + 1, + x = cos t if y = sin t + 1 + e−t , then x =?
dt dt
48. (x2 D2 + xD + 7)y = 2/x converted to a linear differential equation with constant
coefficients is .... gh
d2 y dy
49. The PI of + = x2 + 2x + 4 is
dx2 dx
U Sin

x2 x3
(a) 3
+ 4x (b) 3
+4
LP r
de

x3 x3
(c) 3
+ 4x (d) 3
+ 4x2
rin

d2 y dy
50. The solution of − 3 + 2y = e3x is given by
Na

dx 2 dx
(a) C1 ex + C2 e2x + 12 e3x (b) C1 e−x + C2 e−2x + 21 e3x

(c) C1 e−x + C2 e2x + 12 e3x (d) C1 e−x + C2 e2x + 21 e−3x

51. The complementary function of the differential equation is

(a) ... (b)

x3
(c) (d) 3
+ 4x2

52. The homogeneous linear differential equation whose auxiliary equation has roots 1, -1
is...

(a) (b)
x3 x3
(c) 3
+ 4x (d) 3
+ 4x2
42 Narinder Singh 3. Non-Homogeneous Differential Equations

53. The PI of the differential equation (D2 − 6D + 9)y = ln 2 is

1
(a) 9
ln 2 (b) − 19 ln 2
1
(c) 4
ln 2 (d) None of these

d2 y dy 1
54. Transform x 2
+ = x
into linear differential equation with constant coefficients,
dx dx
put x =....

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

gh
U Sin
LP r
de
rin
Na
Chapter 4

Fourier Series

4.1 Basic Formulas of Integration

4.1.1 Basic Integration Table
It is under-stood that we need to add constant c if we are computing indefinite integrals.
gh
U Sin

xn+1 R 1
xn dx = n ̸= −1 dx = ln |x|
R
1. n+1
, 2. x
R  du R 
u v dx −
R R
3. uv dx = v dx dx
LP r

dx
de

R x 1 x
= ex ax dx =
R
4. e dx 5. a
rin

ln a

ln x dx = x ln x − x sin x dx = − cos x
R R
6. 7.
Na

tan x dx = ln | sec x|
R R
8. cos x dx = sin x 9.

sec x dx = ln | sec x + tan x| sec2 x dx = tan x

R R
10. 11.
a
dx = tan−1 x
R R
12. sec x tan x dx = sec x 13. a2 +x2 a
a
dx = 21 ln x+a √ 1 dx = sin−1 x
R R
14. a2 −x2 x−a
15. a2 −x2 a

√ a dx = sec−1 x
R
16. x x2 −a2 a
ax
R ax e
17. e sin bx dx (a sin bx − b cos bx)
=
+ b2 a2
R ax eax
18. e cos bx dx = 2 (a cos bx + b sin bx)
a + b2

Shortcut for Integration by Parts

Z Z ZZ ZZZ ZZZZ
uv = u v − u′ v + u′′ v − u′′′ v + ...

43
44 Narinder Singh 4. Fourier Series

4.2 Fourier series expansion in any interval [a, b]

A Fourier series expansion designed to represent a given function f(x) defined over a finite
interval [a, b], is a sum of terms

∞ h
X    i
a0 nπx nπx
f (x) = 2
+ an cos c
+ bn sin c
n=1

b−a
here c = 2
and the Fourier coefficients an , bn are

1 Zb
a0 = f (x) dx
c a
1 Zb nπx
 
an = f (x) cos dx,
c a c
1 Zb nπx
 
bn = f (x) sin dx
c a c
gh
Whether or not you are working with a function which is periodic, the Fourier expansion
U Sin

will represent a periodic function for all x.

LP r

Particular Case A: Interval is [0, 2π]. The Euler’s formulas for Fourier series expansion in
de

[0, 2π] are given as:

rin
Na

1 Z 2π
a0 = f (x) dx
π 0
Z 2π
1
an = f (x) cos(n x) dx,
π 0
Z 2π
1
bn = f (x) sin(n x) dx.
π 0
Particular Case B: Interval is [−π, π]. The Euler’s formulas for Fourier series expansion
in [−π, π] are given as:

1 Zπ
a0 = f (x) dx
π −π
1 Zπ
an = f (x) cos(n x) dx,
π −π
1 Zπ
bn = f (x) sin(n x) dx.
π −π
45 Narinder Singh 4. Fourier Series

Example 4.2.1. The function f (x) = x in the interval (0, 2π), and with periodic
extension f (x) = f (x + 2π), can be represented by a Fourier series. Let’s find the
Fourier series expansion of f (x) on the interval (0, 2π).

Solution: The Fourier series expansion of f is given as

∞
a0 X nπx nπx
    
f (x) = + an cos + bn sin (4.1)
2 n=1 c c
a=0
b = 2π
b−a 2π − 0
c= = =π
2 2

where the coefficients are given by:

1 Z 2π
a0 = f (x) dx
π 0
gh
1 Z 2π
nπx
 
an = f (x) cos dx
U Sin

π 0 c
1 Z 2π nπx
 
bn = f (x) sin dx
LP r

π 0 c
de

Finding a0 :
rin
Na

" #2π
1 Z 2π 1 x2 1 (2π)2
a0 = x dx = = · = 2π
π 0 π 2 0 π 2
Finding an :
1 Z 2π nπx 1 Z 2π
 
an = x cos dx = x cos(nx) dx
π 0 c π 0

Using integration by parts (ILATE Rule), let u = x and v = cos(nx). Then

1 Z b
nπx
 
an = f (x) cos dx
c a c
1 Z 2π
nπx
 
= x cos dx
π 0 π
1 Z 2π
= x cos (nx) dx
π 0
" Z ! #2π
1 Z
d Z
= x cos (nx) dx − (x) cos (nx) dx dx
π dx 0
" #2π
1 x sin (nx) 1 Z
= + sin (nx) dx
π n n 0
46 Narinder Singh 4. Fourier Series

" #2π
1 x sin (nx) 1
= + 2 cos (nx)
π n n 0
" #
1 2π sin (2nπ) 1 1

= + 2 cos (2nπ) − 0 + 2
π n n n
1 1 1
  
= 0+ 2 − 2
π n n
=0
an = 0

Finding bn :
1 Z b
nπx
 
bn = f (x) sin dx
c a c
1 Z 2π
nπx
 
= x sin dx
π 0 π
1 Z 2π
= x sin (nx) dx
π
gh
0
" Z ! #2π
1 Z
d Z
U Sin

= x sin (nx) dx − (x) sin (nx) dx dx

π dx 0
" #2π
1 x cos (nx) 1 Z
LP r

= − + cos (nx) dx
de

π n n 0
rin

" #2π
1 x cos (nx) 1
= − + 2 sin (nx)
π n n
Na

0
" #
1 2π cos (2nπ) 1
= − + 2 sin (2nπ) − (0 + 0)
π n n
2π(−1)n
" #
1
= − +0
π n
2
=−
n
Fourier Series Representation:
Putting it all together, the Fourier series for f (x) = x in (0, 2π) is:

∞
X
f (x) = π + bn sin(nx)
n=1

where bn = − n2 .

Example 4.2.2. Expand f (x) = x, −π ≤ x ≤ π, and f (x) = f (x + 2π) as Fourier

series.
47 Narinder Singh 4. Fourier Series

Solution: The Fourier series expansion of f is given as

∞ 
a0 X nπx nπx
   
f (x) = + an cos + bn sin (4.2)
2 n=1 c c
a = −π
b=π
b−a π − (−π)
c= = =π
2 2
As f (−x) = −x = −f (x) so f is an odd function in [−π, π] so a0 = an = 0.
1 Z b
nπx
 
bn = f (x) sin dx
c a c
1 Z π
nπx
 
= x sin dx
π −π π
1 Z π
= x sin (nx) dx
π −π
2 Z π
= x sin (nx) dx [∵ x sin nx is an even function]
gh
π "0 Z ! #π
2 Z
d Z
U Sin

= x sin (nx) dx − (x) sin (nx) dx dx

π dx 0
" #π
2 x cos (nx) 1 Z
LP r

= − + cos (nx) dx
de

π n n 0
rin

" #π
2 x cos (nx) 1
= − + 2 sin (nx)
π n n
Na

0
" #
2 π cos (nπ) 1
= − + 2 sin (nπ) − (0 + 0)
π n n
π(−1)n
" #
2
= −
π n
2
= − (−1)n
n
Therefore, the Fourier series expansion of f is given as
∞ 
2

− (−1)n sin (nx)
X
x=
n=1 n

Example 4.2.3. Expand f (x) = x2 , −π ≤ x ≤ π, and f (x) = f (x + 2π) as Fourier

series.

Solution: The Fourier series expansion of f is given as

∞ 
a0 X nπx nπx
   
f (x) = + an cos + bn sin (4.3)
2 n=1 c c
48 Narinder Singh 4. Fourier Series

a = −π
b=π
b−a π − (−π)
c= = =π
2 2

As f (−x) = (−x)2 = x2 = f (x) so f is an even function in [−π, π] so bn = 0.

1Z b
a0 = f (x)dx
c Za
1 π 2
= x dx
π −π
2Zπ 2
= x dx ( As x2 is an even function)
π "0 #
π
2 x3
=
π 3 0
2π 2
=
3
gh
1 Zb nπx
 
an = f (x) cos dx
U Sin

c a c
1 Z π
nπx

= x2 cos dx
LP r

π −π π
de

1 Z π
= x2 cos (nx) dx
rin

π −π
2 Zπ 2
[∵ x2 cos nx is an even function]
Na

= x cos (nx) dx
π "0 ! #π
2 2Z Z
d 2 Z
= x cos (nx) dx − (x ) cos (nx) dx dx
π dx 0
" #π
2 x2 sin (nx) 2 Z
= − x sin (nx) dx
π n n 0
" !#π
2 x2 sin (nx) 2 −x cos (nx) 1
= − + 2 sin(nx)
π n n n n
" !0 #
2
2 π sin (nπ) 2 −π cos (nπ) 1
= − + 2 sin(nπ) − 0
π n n n n
4
= 2 (−1)n
n

Therefore, the Fourier series expansion of f is given as

∞
π2 X 4
 
x2 = + 2
(−1)n cos (nx)
3 n=1 n
49 Narinder Singh 4. Fourier Series

Example 4.2.4. Expand f (x) = x + x2 , −π ≤ x ≤ π, and f (x) = f (x + 2π) as

Fourier series.

Solution: The Fourier series expansion of f is given as

∞
a0 X nπx nπx
    
f (x) = + an cos + bn sin (4.4)
2 n=1 c c
a = −π
b=π
b−a π − (−π)
c= = =π
2 2
1Z b
a0 = f (x)dx
c Za
1 π 1
Z π Z π 
= (x + x2 )dx = xdx + x2 dx
π −π π −π −π
1 Z π
 
= 0+2 x2 dx ( As x is an odd function and x2 is even)
gh
π" # 0
π
2 x3
U Sin

=
π 3 0
2π 2
LP r
de

=
3
rin

1 Zb nπx
 
an = f (x) cos dx
c a c
Na

1 Zπ nπx

= (x + x2 ) cos dx
π −π π
1
Z π Z π 
= x cos (nx) dx + x2 cos (nx) dx
π −π −π
1 Z π
 
2
= 0+2 x cos (nx) dx [∵ x2 cos nx is even and x cos nx is odd.]
π" 0
! #π
2 2Z Z
d 2 Z
= x cos (nx) dx − (x ) cos (nx) dx dx
π dx 0
" #π
2 x2 sin (nx) 2 Z
= − x sin (nx) dx
π n n 0
" !#π
2
2 x sin (nx) 2 −x cos (nx) 1
= − + 2 sin(nx)
π n n n n
" !0 #
2 π 2 sin (nπ) 2 −π cos (nπ) 1
= − + 2 sin(nπ) − 0
π n n n n
4(−1)n
=
n2
50 Narinder Singh 4. Fourier Series

1 Z b
nπx
 
bn = f (x) sin dx
c a c
1 Z π
nπx

2
= (x + x ) sin dx
π −π π
1
Z π Z π 
2
= x sin (nx) dx + x sin (nx) dx
π −π −π
1
 Z π 
= 2 x sin (nx) dx + 0 [∵ x2 sin nx is odd and x sin nx is even.]
π " Z
0
! #π
2 Z
d Z
= x sin (nx) dx − (x) sin (nx) dx dx
π dx 0
" #π
2 −x cos (nx) 1 Z
= + cos (nx) dx
π n n
" #π 0
2 −x cos (nx) 1
= + 2 sin (nx) dx
π n n 0
#π
n
"
2 −π(−1)
= + 0 − (0 + 0)
π n 0
−2(−1)n
gh
=
n
U Sin

Therefore, the Fourier series expansion of f is given as

LP r
de

∞
4(−1)n −2(−1)n
" #
π2 X
2
x+x = + cos (nx) + sin(nx)
rin

3 n=1 n2 n
Na

4.2.1 Problems: Fourier series in the interval [a, b]

1. Find the Fourier series for f (x) = k in (0, 2π), f (x) = f (x + 2π) for x ∈ R.

2. Find the Fourier series for f (x) = x in (0, 2π), f (x) = f (x + 2π) for x ∈ R.

3. Find a Fourier series to represent x − x2 from x = −π to x = π. Using it also prove

π2 1 1 1 1
that 12
= 12
− 22
+ 32
− 42
+ ...

4. (No need to do this problem for CA) Expand f (x) = x sin x as a Fourier series in the
interval 0 < x < 2π.

5. Find the Fourier series expansion for the function


πx, 0≤x≤1

f (x) =  .
π(2 − x), 1≤x≤2
1 1 1 π2
Deduce that 12
+ 32
+ 52
+ ··· = 8
51 Narinder Singh 4. Fourier Series

∞
π2
X
6. Prove that x2 = 3
+4 (−1)n cosn2nx , −π < x < π. Hence show that
n=1
P 1 π2 P 1 π2
(a) n2
= 6
(b) (2n−1)2
= 8
1 1 1 1 π2 P 1 π4
(c) 12
− 22
+ 32
− 42
+ ··· = 12
(d) n4
= 90
.

4.2.2 Hints to Problems 4.2.1

1. a0 = 2k, an = 0, bn = 0.

2.
2 −4(−1)n −2(−1)n
3. a0 = − 2π3 , an = n2
, bn = n
.

2
4. a0 = −2, an = n2 −1
. (n ̸= 1), a1 = −1/2, bn = 0, (n ̸= 1). b1 = π

5.
gh
6. See example 4.2.2.
U Sin

Remark 4.2.1. While solving integration of uv (two functions so integration by parts) we

LP r
de

have to substitute limits after solving complete integration.

rin

Example 4.2.5. Expand f (x) = x sin x as a Fourier series in the interval 0 < x < 2π.
Na

Solution: The Fourier series expansion of f is given as

∞
a0 X
f (x) = + (an cos nx + bn sin nx) (4.5)
2 n=1
a0 = −2 (Do Yourself)
1 Z 2π 1 Z 2π
an = f (x) cos nxdx = x sin x cos nxdx
π 0 π 0
 2π
1 Z
 Z  Z
= x sin x cos nxdx − 1. sin x cos nxdx dx
π 0
 2π
1 xZ 1Z
  Z
= (sin(1 + n)x + sin(1 − n)x)dx − 1. (sin(1 + n)x + sin(1 − n)x)dx dx
π 2 2 0
" ! Z ! #2π
1 − cos(1 + n)x − cos(1 − n)x − cos(1 + n)x cos(1 − n)x
= x + − − dx
2π (1 + n) (1 − n) (1 + n) (1 − n) 0
" ! !#2π
1 cos(1 + n)x cos(1 − n)x sin(1 + n)x sin(1 − n)x
= −x + + +
2π (1 + n) (1 − n) (1 + n)2 (1 − n)2 0
" ! !! #
1 cos 2(1 + n)π cos 2(1 − n)π sin 2(1 + n)π sin 2(1 − n)π
= −2π + + + −0
2π (1 + n) (1 − n) (1 + n)2 (1 − n)2
52 Narinder Singh 4. Fourier Series

! !
1 1 1
= −2π + + (0 + 0) (∵ cos 2mπ = 1; sin 2mπ = 0)
2π (1 + n) (1 − n)
!
1 1
=− +
(1 + n) (1 − n)
−2
= (n ̸= 1)
1 − n2
We have to find a1 separately
1 Z 2π 1 Z 2π
a1 = x sin x cos xdx = x sin 2xdx
π 0 2π 0
 2π
1
 Z Z Z
= x sin 2xdx − 1. sin 2xdx dx
2π 0
2π
1 cos 2x − cos 2x
 Z
= −x − dx
2π 2 2 0
2π
1 cos 2x sin 2x

= −x +
2π 2 4 0
1 cos 4π sin 4π
 
gh
= −2π + −0
2π  2 4
U Sin

1 1

= −2π
2π 2
1
LP r

=−
de

2
rin

In a similar way we will find the value of bn and then we will substitute these values in
equation (4.5).
Na

4.3 Conditions for a Fourier Series Expansion

Drichlet’s Conditions
Any function f (x) can be developed as a Fourier series, provided:
1. f (x) is periodic, single-valued and finite;
2. f (x) has a finite number of discontinuties in any one period;
3. f (x) has at the most finite number of maxima and minima over one period.

4.3.1 Problems on Conditions

1. State giving reasons whether the following functions be expanded in Fourier series in
the interval −π ≤ x ≤ π.
53 Narinder Singh 4. Fourier Series

(a) cosecx

(b) sin 1/x

4.4 Functions with point of Discontinuity

In deriving Euler formulas function f was assumed to be continuous. However Fourier series
is also valid for functions which has finite number of discontinuity as we have seen in the
Dirichlet’s conditions. For instance if function f is discontinuous at d and defined in the
interval (a, b) as

ϕ(x),

a<x<d
f (x) = 
ψ(x), d<x<b

∞
f (d+ ) + f (d− )
gh
1 nπ x nπ x
X     
= a0 + an cos + bn sin
2 2 c c
U Sin

n=1
LP r
de

4.5 Problems on functions with discontinuity

rin
Na

1. Find the Fourier series expansion for f (x), if


−π,

−π < x < 0
f (x) = .
x, 0<x<π


Deduce that
1 1 1 π2
+ + + · · · = .
12 32 52 8

∞
0, −π ≤ x < 0
 X
2. If f (x) = , prove that f (x) = 1
π
+ sin2 x − π2 cos 2nx
4n2 −1
. Hence show
sin x, 0≤x≤π

n=1
that
1 1 1 1
− + − · · · − ∞ = (π − 2)
1.3 3.5 5.7 4
54 Narinder Singh 4. Fourier Series


x, 0≤x≤π

3. Find the Fourier series expansion of f (x) =  . Hence show that
2π − x, π ≤ x ≤ 2π

1 1 1 π2
+ + + ··· = .
12 32 52 8




 −1 for −π ≤ x < −π/2

4. Find the Fourier series for the function If f (x) = 0 for −π/2 < x < π/2 .




1 for π/2 < x < π

4.6 Even and Odd Functions

Definition 4.6.1. A function f (x) is said the be even if

f (−x) = f (x).
gh
e.g. cos x, sec x, x2 , x4 , . . . are all even functions. Graphically an even function is symmetrical
U Sin

about y−axis.
LP r

A function f is said to be odd if

de
rin

f (−x) = −f (x).
Na

e.g. sin x, tan x, x, x3 , x5 , . . . are odd functions.

If f is even function in interval (−l, l), then

Rl Rl
−l f (x)dx = 2 0 f (x)dx

IF f is odd function in the interval (−l, l), then

55 Narinder Singh 4. Fourier Series

Rl
−l f (x)dx = 0

4.6.1 Fourier Series expansion of Even or Odd functions in (−c, c)

1. If f is a even function, then

∞ h
X    i
1 nπ x nπ x
f (x) = 2
a0 + an cos c
+ bn sin c
n=1

and the constant coefficients (an , bn ) are

2 Zc
a0 = f (x) dx
c 0
gh
2 Zc nπ x
 
an = f (x) cos dx,
c 0 c
U Sin

bn = 0
LP r
de

2. If f is a odd function, then

rin
Na

∞ h
X  i
nπ x
f (x) = bn sin c
n=1

and the constant coefficients (an , bn ) are

a0 = 0
an = 0
2 Zc nπ x
 
bn = f (x) sin dx.
c 0 c

4.6.2 Problems

(a) If f (x) = | cos x|, expand f (x) as a Fourier series in the interval (−π, π).
56 Narinder Singh 4. Fourier Series

(b) Obtain Fourier series for the function f (x) given by


1 + 2x/π, −π ≤ x ≤ 0,

f (x) = .
1 − 2x/π,

0≤x≤π

(c) Obtain the Fourier series expansion of f (x) = x2 in (0, π). Hence show that

π2 1 1 1
= 2 + 2 + 2 + ...
6 1 2 3

4.6.3 Hints to Problems 4.6.2

−4 cos nπ
2
(a) a0 = 4/π; an = , (n ̸= 1), a1 = 0, bn = 0.
π(n2 − 1)
4
(b) a0 = 0, an = n2 π 2
[1 − (−1)n ], bn = 0.
gh
∞
π2
X 4
(c) + (−1)n cos nx
U Sin

3 2
n=1 n
LP r

4.6.4 Integrals that may be used in Fourier series

de
rin

R α+2π
1. α cos nx dx = 0 (n ̸= 0)
Na

R α+2π
2. α sin nx dx = 0 (n ̸= 0)
R α+2π
3. α cos mx cos nx dx = 0 (n ̸= m)
R α+2π
4. α cos2 nx dx = π (n ̸= 0)
R α+2π
5. α sin mx cos nx dx = 0 (n ̸= m)
R α+2π
6. α sin nx cos nx dx = 0 (n ̸= 0)
R α+2π
7. α sin mx sin nx dx = 0 (n ̸= m)
R α+2π
8. α sin2 nx dx = π (n ̸= 0)

Particular case A: If α = 0, The above formulas will look as follows:

R 2π
A1. 0 cos nx dx = 0 (n ̸= 0)
R 2π
A2. 0 sin nx dx = 0 (n ̸= 0)
R 2π
A3. 0 cos mx cos nx dx = 0 (n ̸= m)
57 Narinder Singh 4. Fourier Series

R 2π
A4. 0 cos2 nx dx = π (n ̸= 0)
R 2π
A5. 0 sin mx cos nx dx = 0 (n ̸= m)
R 2π
A6. 0 sin nx cos nx dx = 0 (n ̸= 0)
R 2π
A7. 0 sin mx sin nx dx = 0 (n ̸= m)
R 2π
A8. 0 sin2 nx dx = π (n ̸= 0)

Particular case B: If α = −π, The above formulas will look as follows:

Rπ
B1. −π cos nx dx = 0 (n ̸= 0)
Rπ
B2. −π sin nx dx = 0 (n ̸= 0)
Rπ
B3. −π cos mx cos nx dx = 0 (n ̸= m)
Rπ
B4. −π cos2 nx dx = π (n ̸= 0)
gh
Rπ
B5. −π sin mx cos nx dx = 0 (n ̸= m)
U Sin

Rπ
B6. −π sin nx cos nx dx = 0 (n ̸= 0)
LP r

Rπ
B7. sin mx sin nx dx = 0 (n ̸= m)
de

−π
Rπ
rin

B8. −π sin2 nx dx = π (n ̸= 0)
Na
Chapter 5

Limits Continuity and

Differentiability of Functions of
Several Variable

The meaning of limit of a function of two variables f (x, y) at a point (a, b) is that we have
gh
to check where the values of functions are tending when (x,y) is approaching near the point
U Sin

(a, b).
LP r
de

5.1 Limits
rin
Na

1. lim k = k.
(x,y)→(a,b)

2. lim (f (x, y) ± g(x, y)) = lim f (x, y) ± lim g(x, y).

(x,y)→(a,b) (x,y)→(a,b) (x,y)→(a,b)

3. lim f (x, y)g(x, y) = lim f (x, y) lim g(x, y)

(x,y)→(a,b) (x,y)→(a,b) (x,y)→(a,b)

lim f (x,y)
f (x,y) (x,y)→(a,b)
4. lim = provided we must have lim g(x, y) ̸= 0.
(x,y)→(a,b) g(x,y) lim
(x,y)→(a,b)
g(x,y) (x,y)→(a,b)

Remark 5.1.1. If limit exist then it must be unique and finite number.

Example 5.1.1. Show that the following limits

√
xy x+ y
(a) lim (b) lim
(x,y)→(0,0) x + y 2
2 (x,y)→(0,0) x2 + y

x3 y y
 
−1
(c) lim (d) lim tan
(x,y)→(0,0) x6 + y 2 (x,y)→(0,1) x
do not exist

58
59 Narinder Singh 5. Limits, Continuity,...

Solution: (a) Along the path y = mx, we have

xy x(mx) m m
lim = lim 2 = lim = .
(x,y)→(0,0) x2 +y 2 x→0 x + (mx)2 x→0 1+m2 1 + m2
This depends on the value of m so limit does not exists.
(b) Along the path y = mx2 , we have
√ √ √
x+ y x + mx 1+ m
lim = lim 2 = lim = ±∞.
(x,y)→(0,0) x2 + y x→0 x + mx2 x→0 x(1 + m)

As limit is not finite so limit does not exists.

(c) Along the path y = mx3 , we have

x3 y mx6 m m
lim = lim = lim = .
(x,y)→(0,0) x6 + y 2 x→0 x6 + m2 x6 x→0 1 + m2 1 + m2
This depends on the value of m so limit does not exists.
gh
(d) We have
U Sin

y π
 
lim tan−1 = lim tan−1 (±∞) = ±
(x,y)→(0,1) x (x,y)→(0,1) 2
LP r
de

This is not unique so limit does not exists.

rin

5.1.1 Problems Based on Finding Limits

Na

1. Find the following limits, if they exits:

√ x x3 −y 3
(a) lim (b) lim
(x,y)→(0,0) x2 +y 2 (x,y)→(1,−1) x−y
 
x3 −y 3
(c) lim (d) lim cot−1 √ 1
(x,y)→(1,1) x−y (x,y)→(0,0) x2 +y 2

(y−1) tan2 x (x−1) sin y

(e) lim x2 (y 2 −1)
(f) lim y ln x
(x,y)→(0,1) (x,y)→(1,0)

(g) lim 1−x−y2 2 (h) lim 2

x
2
(x,y)→(0,0) x +y (x,y)→(0,0) x +y

x2 x4 y 2
(i) lim x 3 +y 3 (j) lim (x4 +y 2 )2
(x,y)→(0,0) (x,y)→(0,0)
xy 2 z 2
 
z
(k) lim log xy
(l) lim x 4 +y 4 +z 8
(x,y,z)→(0,0,0) (x,y,z)→(0,0,0)
x(x+y+z)
(m) lim 2 2 2
(x,y,z)→(0,0,0) x +y +z
60 Narinder Singh 5. Limits, Continuity,...

5.1.2 Hints to Problems 5.1.1

1. Find the following limits, if they exits:

(a) path y = mx. Limit does not exits (b) 1

(c) 3 (d) 0
(e) 1/2 (f) 1
(g) Limit Does not exist (h) path y = mx. Limit does not exist.
(i) path y = mx. Limit does not exist. (j) path y = mx2 . Limit does not exist.
(k) path z = mxy. Limit does not exist. (l) path x = mz 2 , y = mz 2 . Limit does not
exists
(m) path x = mz, y = mz. Limit does not
exist.

5.2 Continuity
Definition 5.2.1. A function f (x, y) is said to be continuous at a point (a, b), if
gh
U Sin

(a) f (x, y) is defined at the point (a, b).

LP r

(b) lim f (a, b) exits, and

de

(x,y)→(a,b)
rin

(c) lim f (x, y) = f (a, b)

(x,y)→(a,b)
Na

5.2.1 Problems Based on Continuity

1. Check the continuity of the following functions at the given points.
 
 (x−y)2 ,

(x, y) ̸= (0, 0)

 1
1 + y 2 , (x, y) ̸= (0, 0)
x2 +y 2
(a) f (x, y) =  (b) f (x, y) =  1+e x
0, (x, y) = (0, 0) 
0, (x, y) = (0, 0)
at (0, 0). at (0, 0).
 
 exy

, (x, y) ̸= (0, 0)  x2 +y2 ,

(x, y) ̸= (0, 0)
2
(c) f (x, y) =  x +1 (d) f (x, y) =  xy
0, (x, y) = (0, 0) 0, (x, y) = (0, 0)
at (0, 0). at (0, 0).
 
 x2 +y2

, (x, y) ̸= (0, 0)  x2 −2xy+y2 ,

(x, y) ̸= (0, 0)
(e) f (x, y) =  tan(xy) (f) f (x, y) =  x−y
0, (x, y) = (0, 0) 0, (x, y) = (1, −1)
at (0, 0). at (1, −1).
61 Narinder Singh 5. Limits, Continuity,...

 
 x4 y 4

, (x, y) ̸= (0, 0)  2x2 +y2 ,

(x, y) ̸= (0, 0)
(x2 +y 4 )3
(g) f (x) =  (h) f (x, y) =  3+sin x
0, (x, y) = (0, 0) 0, (x, y) = (0, 0)
at (0, 0). at (0, 0).

5.2.2 Hints to Problems 5.2.1

1. Check the continuity of following functions at the given points.

(a) Discontinuous. Limit does not exits at (0, 0).

(b) Discontinuous. Limit does not exits at (0, 0).
(c) Discontinuous. Limit is not equals to direct value f (0, 0).
(d) Discontinuous. Limit does not exits at (0, 0).
(e) Discontinuous. Limit does not exits at (0, 0).
(f) Discontinuous. Limit is 2 but it is not equal to direct value f (1, −1).
√
(g) Discontinuous. Limit does not exits at (0, 0). path y = m x.
(h) Continuous. Limit exits at (0, 0) and is same as f (0, 0)
gh
U Sin

5.3 Partial Derivatives & Jacobians

LP r
de

Definition 5.3.1. The partial derivative of function of two variable f (x, y) w.r.t x at
rin

a point (x, y) is given as follows:

Na

∂f f (x + t, y) − f (x, y)
= lim .
∂x t→0 t
It represents instantaneous rate of change in function in the direction of x keeping y as
constant.

Definition 5.3.2. The partial derivative of function of two variable f (x, y) w.r.t x at
a point (x, y) is given as follows:

∂f f (x, y + t) − f (x, y)
= lim .
∂y t→0 t
It represents instantaneous rate of change in function in the direction of y keeping x as
constant.

Remark 5.3.1. The following notations are also used for partial derivatives:
∂f ∂f ∂ 2f ∂ 2f ∂ 2f
fx = , fy = , fxx = , f yy = , f yx =
∂x ∂y ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂x∂y
62 Narinder Singh 5. Limits, Continuity,...

5.3.1 Total Derivatives

Definition 5.3.3. The total differentiation or total derivative of a function f (x, y) is
given as
∂f ∂f
df = dx + dy.
∂x ∂y
For function of 3 variables f (x, y, z) the total derivative is

df = fx dx + fy dy + fz dz.

In a same way we can define for function of more variables.

1. Find the partial derivatives of first order at the given points:

(a) f (x, y) = x4 − x2 y 2 + y 4 at (−1, 1).

(b) f (x/y) = ln(x/y) at (2, 3).

gh
(c) f (x, y) = x2 ey/x at (4, 2).
U Sin

(d) f (x, y) = √ x
at (6, 7).
x2 +y 2
LP r
de

(e) f (x, y, z) = (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )−1/2 at (2, 1, 2)

rin

(f) f (x, y) = cot−1 (x + y) at (1,2).

Na

√
(g) f (x, y, z) = ln(x + y 2 + z 2 )
∂2f
(h) f (x, y) = (x − y)/(x + y) find ∂x2
at (1, 1).
∂2f ∂2f
(i) f (x, y) = x ln y, find ,
∂x2 ∂y 2
at (2, 3).
∂2f
(j) f (x, y, z) = (x + y)/(x + z) find ∂x2
at (1, −1, 1).
x y z ∂2f
(k) f (x, y, z) = y
+ z
+ x
find ∂x2
at (1, 2, 3).

du
2. Find dt
in following problems:

(a) u = x2 + y 2 , x = (t2 − 1)/t, y = t/(t2 + 1) at t = 1.

(b) u = x2 + y 2 + z 2 , x = cos t, y = ln(1 + t), z = et at t = 0.

(c) u = ex sin(y + 2x), x = t, y = 1/t z = t2 .

(d) u = zx + xy + yz, x = t2 , y = tet , z = te−t

63 Narinder Singh 5. Limits, Continuity,...

3. Check whether the variables in the following problems are functionally related or not?

(a) u = x2 − y 2 − z 2 , v = x2 − y 2 + z 2 , w = x4 + y 4 + z 4 − 2x2 y 2

(b) u = x + 3z, v = x − y − z, w = y 2 + 16z 2 + 8yz

(c) u = x + y + z, v = x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2xy − 2yz − 2zx, w = x3 + y 3 + z 3 − 3xyz.

(d) u = (x + y)/(1 − xy), v = tan−1 x + tan−1 y

5.4 Euler Theorem

5.4.1 Homogeneous functions
A function f (x, y) of two variables is said to be homogeneous if it can be written in one of
the following forms:

(a) f (λx, λy) = λn f (x, y).

gh
 
y
(b) f (x, y) = xn g x
.
U Sin

 
x
(c) f (x, y) = y n g y
.
LP r
de

In similar manner we can define homogeneous functions of three variables. See some examples
rin

in the following table:

Na

f degree of homogeneity
x2 + xy 2
tan−1 (y/x) 0
1/(x + y) -1
1/(x4 + y 4 + z 4 ) -4
xyz/(x4 + y 4 + z 4 ) -1
√ √ 2
x/ x + y 2 + z 2 -1/2

5.4.2 Euler Theorem

Theorem 5.4.1 (Euler Theorem). If f (x, y) is a homogeneous function of degree n in x and
y and have continuous first and second order partial derivatives, then

1. x ∂f
∂x
+ y ∂f
∂y
= nf
2 2 2
2. x2 ∂∂xf2 + 2xy ∂x∂y
∂ f
+ y 2 ∂∂yf2 = n(n − 1)f
64 Narinder Singh 5. Limits, Continuity,...

5.4.3 Problems Based on Euler Theorem

1. Solve the following Problems Based on Euler Theorem:

(a) If u = x2 tan−1 (y/x) − y 2 tan−1 (x/y) then find x ∂u

∂x
+ y ∂u
∂y
.
x2 +y 2
 
(b) If u = sin−1 x+y
, then prove that x ∂u
∂x
+ y ∂u
∂y
= tan u.
√ 
x2 +y 2
(c) If u = log , then prove that x ∂u
x ∂x
+ y ∂u
∂y
= 0.
√  
(d) If u = y 2 − x2 sin−1 xy , then prove that x ∂u
∂x
+ y ∂u
∂y
= u.
y 3 −x3 2 2 2
(e) If u = y 2 +x2
then prove that x ∂u
∂x
+ y ∂u
∂y
= u and x2 ∂∂xu2 + 2xy ∂x∂y
∂ u
+ y 2 ∂∂yu2 = 0
x3 +y 3 2 2 2
(f) If tan u = x−y
then prove that x ∂u
∂x
+y ∂u
∂y
= sin 2u and x2 ∂∂xu2 +2xy ∂x∂y
∂ u
+y 2 ∂∂yu2 =
(1 − 4 sin2 u) sin 2u
 
(g) If u = cos−1 √x+y
√ , then prove that x ∂u + y ∂u = − 12 cot u.
x+ y ∂x ∂y
gh
5.5 Unit 5 MCQ Limit, Continuity and Differentiation
U Sin

of Function of several variables

LP r
de

1
1. The value of lim (x + y) sin is
(x + y)
rin

(x,y)→(0,0)
Na

(a) Limit does not exits (b) 0

(c) 1 (d) -1
√
x+ y
2. The value of lim q is
(x,y)→(0,0) (x2 + y)

(a) Limit does not exits (b) 0

(c) 1 (d) -1

x2 y
3. The value of lim is
(x,y)→(0,0) (x4 + y 2 )

1
(a) 0 (b) 2

(c) 1 (d) Does not exist

x. sin(x2 + y 2 )
4. The value of lim is
(x,y)→(0,0) (x2 + y 2 )
65 Narinder Singh 5. Limits, Continuity,...

(a) 0 (b) 1

(c) -1 (d) Does not exist

8x2 y
5. The value of lim is
x→1y→1 (x2 + y 2 + 5)

(a) 3/7 (b) 8/5

(c) 8/7 (d) None

4(x + y)y
6. The value of lim is
(x,y)→(1,2) 6x2 + y 2

(a) 12/5 (b) 8/5

(c) 13/10 (d) None of these

4xy
7. The value of lim is
gh
(x,y)→(1,2) 6x2 + y 2
U Sin

(a) 4/5 (b) 2/3

(c) 3/10 (d) None of these

LP r
de

2x2 + y
rin

8. The value of lim is

(x,y)→(1,0) 4x − y
Na

(a) 3/2 (b) 1/2

(c) 1 (d) None

2x2 + y
9. The value of lim is
(x,y)→(0,0) 4x2 − y

(a) -1 (b) 1/2

(c) 1 (d) Does not exist.

∂ 2u
10. If u = x2 + y 2 then the value of is equal to
∂x∂y
(a) 0 (b) 2

(c) 2x + 2y (d) yxy−1

∂u
11. If u = y x , then is
∂x
66 Narinder Singh 5. Limits, Continuity,...

(a) xy x−1 (b) 0

(c) y x log y (d) y x log x

(e) Does not exist.

!
x2 ∂u ∂u
12. If u = log , then the value of x +y is
y ∂x ∂y

(a) 2u (b) u

(c) 0 (d) 1

13. If x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, then

∂x ∂r ∂x
(a) = (b) = 0.
∂r ∂x ∂θ
∂x ∂x 1
(c) =0 (d) =
∂r ∂r ∂r/∂x
gh
U Sin

∂u
14. u = y x then is
∂y
LP r
de

(a) xy x−1 (b) y x log y

rin

(c) 0 (d) None

Na

∂u
15. u = xy then is
∂y
(a) 0 (b) xy log x

(c) xy x−1 (d) yxy−1

16. If u = 21 log(x2 + y 2 ), then xux + yuy =?

(a) u (b) 2u

(c) x2 + y 2 (d) 1

∂r
17. If x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, then is equal to
∂x
(a) sec θ (b) sin θ

(c) cos θ (d) cosecθ

67 Narinder Singh 5. Limits, Continuity,...

18. If u = tan−1 (x + y), then (ux − uy ) equals

(a) 0 (b) 1

(c) −1 (d) sin x cos y

∂P
19. If P = r tan θ, then equal to
∂r
(a) tan θ (b) sec2 θ
1
(c) tan θ + r sec2 θ (d) tan θ
2

∂Q
20. If Q = r cot θ, then is equal to
∂r
(a) cot θ (b) −cosec2 θ
1
(c) cot θ − rcosec2 θ (d) cot θ
gh
2
U Sin

∂x
21. If f (x, y, z) = 0, then the value of . equal to
∂y
LP r
de

(a) 1 (b) −1
rin

(c) 0 (d) None

Na

dy
22. If f (x, y) = 0, then is equal to
dx
∂f ∂f
∂y
(a) ∂x (b)
∂f ∂f
∂y ∂x
∂f ∂f
∂y
(c) − (d) − ∂x
∂f ∂f
∂x ∂y

x2 y 2 z 2
23. If f (x, y, z) = + + then xfx + yfy + zfz is
y 2 z 2 x2
(a) 0 (b) −1

(c) 1 (d) 2
68 Narinder Singh 5. Limits, Continuity,...

x2 y2 z2
24. If f (x, y, z) = 2 + 3 + 5 then xfx + yfy + zfz is
y2 z2 x2
(a) 0 (b) −1

(c) 1 (d) 2

∂r
25. If x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ then is equal to
∂x
(a) sec θ (b) sin θ

(c) cos θ (d) cosecθ

∂u ∂u
26. If u = ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 then x +y is equal to
∂x ∂y
(a) 2u (b) u

(c) 0 (d) None

gh
U Sin

27. If P = s tan θ, q = s cot θ, then

∂P
LP r

(a) is equal to
de

∂S
rin

1
(a) tan θ (b) sec2 θ (c) tan θ + s sec2 θ (d) tan θ
2
Na

∂q
(b) is equal to
∂s
1
(a) cot θ (b) −cosec2 θ (c) cot θ−scosec2 θ (d) cot θ
2
∂s
(c) is equal to
∂P
1 1
(a) cot θ (b) cos2 θ (c) 2
(d) cot θ
tan θ + s sec θ 2
∂s
(d) is equal to
∂q
1 1
(a) tan θ (b) − sin2 θ (c) 2
(d) tan θ
cot θ + s sec θ 2

 x+y ;

x ̸= y
x−y
28. The function f (x, y) = is
0,

x=y
69 Narinder Singh 5. Limits, Continuity,...

(a) continuous everywhere

(b) continuous at (0, 0)

(c) Not continuous at (0, 0)

(d) f (0, 0) ̸= 0
  
y sin 1 ;

x ̸= 0
x
29. For the function f (x, y) =
0,

x=0

(a) lim(x,y)→(0,0) f (x) does not exists

(b) continuous at (0, 0)

(c) Not continuous at (0, 0)

(d) f (0, 0) ̸= 0
gh
!
x
30. If u = f then
U Sin

y
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
LP r

(a) x −y =0 (b) x +y =0
de

∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
rin

∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
(c) x +y =u (d) x +y =1
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
Na

∂ 2u ∂ 2u 2
2∂ u
31. If u = x3 ex/y then x2 + 2xy + y is equal to
∂x2 ∂x∂y ∂y 2
(a) 3u (b) 6u

(c) 9u (d) −u
 2
x + xy
(x, y) ̸= (0, 0)


32. If f (x, y) = x+y then fx (0, 0) equals

0

(x, y) = (0, 0)

(a) −1 (b) 0

(c) 1 (d) 1/2

∂z ∂z l
33. If z = F (xi y k ) satisfies the equation x − 2y = 0, then equals
∂x ∂y k
70 Narinder Singh 5. Limits, Continuity,...

(a) 1 (b) 2

(c) 3 (d) 4

∂z ∂z b
34. If z = g(xa y b ) satisfies the equation 2x − 3y = 0 then satisfies
∂x ∂y a
(a) 3b2 = 4a2 (b) 3a2 = 4b2

(c) 4b2 = 9a2 (d) 9b2 = 4a2

35. If z = f (x + ct) + g(x − ct), then

(a) ztt = zxx (b) zt = zx

(c) ztt = c2 zxx (d) zxx = c2 ztt

∂x
36. If u = x2 − y 2 , v = xy then equals
gh
∂u
x y
U Sin

(a) (b)
2(x2 + y2) 2(x2
+ y2)
y x
LP r

(c) (d)
de

(x + y 2 )
2 (x + y 2 )
2
rin

∂z ∂z j
37. If z = f (xi y j ) satisfies the equation x − 2y = 0, then equals
Na

∂x ∂y k
(a) 1 (b) 2

(c) 3 (d) 4
!
x ∂x
38. If u = sin−1 then equals to
y ∂u
1 1
(a) √ 2 (b) √ 2
y − x2 x − y2
√
(c) 1 − x2 (d) None
!
y ∂u
 
−1
39. If u = tan then equals to
x ∂y
1 1
(a) √ 2 (b) √ 2
y − x2 x − y2
√
(c) 1 − x2 (d) None
71 Narinder Singh 5. Limits, Continuity,...

40. The number of critical points for the function f (x, y) = 2(x2 − y 2 ) − x4 + y 4 are

(a) 1 (b) 3

(c) 6 (d) 9

41. Which of the following is one of the critical point for the function f (x, y) = 2(x2 −
y 2 ) − x4 + y 4

(a) (1,0) (b) (-1,1)

(c) (0,1) (d) All of the these

42. The critical point (1, 0) for the function f (x, y) = 2(x2 − y 2 ) − x4 + y 4 is a

(a) relative maximum gh (b) relative minimum

(c) Neither Maximum no Minima (d) No conclusion can be drawn

U Sin

43. The critical point (1, 0) for the function f (x, y) = 2(x2 − y 2 ) − x4 + y 4 is a
LP r
de

(a) relative maximum (b) relative minimum

rin

(c) Neither Maximum no Minima (d) No conclusion can be drawn

Na

44. The maximum of function f (x, y) = xy on the line x + 2y = 2, x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 is

(a) 1/2 (b) 1

(c) 1/4 (d) None

45. The maximum of function f (x, y) = xy on the line x + 2y = 2, x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 is

(a) 1/2 (b) 1

(c) 1/4 (d) None

46. Find largest value of function f (x, y) = x + 2y on the circle x2 + y 2 = 1.

√
(a) 5 (b) √1
5
√
(c) − 5 (d) 5
72 Narinder Singh 5. Limits, Continuity,...

47. The function f (x, y) = y 2 − x3 has a

(a) a minimum at (0, 0) (b) a minimum at (1, 1)

(c) Neither minimum nor maximum at (d) a maximum at (1, 1)

(0, 0)
√ 2
48. The minimum value of f (x, y) = x + y 2 is

(a) 0 (b) 2

(c) 4 (d) 1/2

49. If f (x, y) = x2 − y 2 + 4 then f has extreme value at .....

(a) (1, 1) (b) (0, 0)

(c) (1, 0) (d) (2, 0)

gh
U Sin

2xy 2
50. The value of lim , x ̸= 0, y ̸= 0 is
(x,y)→(0,0) (x2 + y 4 )
LP r
de

(a) 0 (b) -1
rin

(c) 1 (d) None of these

Na

∂2z
51. If z = cos y + x sin y, then the value of ∂x∂y
is

(a) sin y (b) cos y

(c) − sin y (d) − cos y

dz π
52. z = exy , x = sin t, y = cos t, then the value of dt
at t = 2
is

(a) 0 (b) -1

(c) 1 (d) 1/2

   
y
53. f (x, y) = sin−1 x
y
+ cos−1 x
, then the value of x ∂f
∂x
+ y ∂f
∂y
=?

(a) 0 (b) f

(c) −f (d) None of these

73 Narinder Singh 5. Limits, Continuity,...

dy
54. If 2xy − log xy = 2, then the value of dx
at (1, 1) is

(a) 0 (b) -1

(c) 1 (d) 2

y6
55. The value of lim is
(x,y)→(0,0) (x10 y 2 + x15 )

(a) 0 (b) 1

(c) does not exists (d) ∞

x3 − y 3
56. The value of lim is
(x,y)→(0,0) x − y

(a) -0.5 (b) 0

(c) -1 (d) None of these

gh
df
57. f (x, y) = x2 + y 3 ; x = t2 + t3 ; y = t3 + t9 . Find the value of
U Sin

dt
at t = 1.

(a) 164 (b) 160

LP r
de

(c) 162 (d) 150

rin
Na

df π
58. f (x, y) = sin(x) + cos(y) + xy 2 ; x = cos(t); y = sin(t) Find dt
at t = 2

(a) 0 (b) -2

(c) 2 (d) 1

∂(x,y)
59. If x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ then the value of ∂(r,θ)
is

(a) r cos θ (b) r sin θ

(c) θ (d) r
 
60. If z = xyf x
y
, then x ∂f
∂x
+ y ∂f
∂y
=?

(a) z (b) 0
1
(c) z
(d) 2z

61. Maximize the function x + y − z = 1 with respect to constraint xy = 36.

74 Narinder Singh 5. Limits, Continuity,...

(a) No maxima exists (b) 0

(c) 8 (d) −8

62. If f (x, y) = x3 + y 3 − 2x2 y 2 then fyy (1, 1) =?

(a) 1 (b) 2

(c) −2 (d) 0

R 5 R x2
1. 0 0 x(x2 + y 2 )dxdy =
56 58 56 58 55 58 54 58
(a) + (b) + (c) + (d) +
3 12 6 24 3 12 6 24
R2R3
2. 1 1 xy 2 dydx =

(a) 10 (b) 11 (c) 12 (d) 13

gh
U Sin

R 1 R √x
3. 0 x (x2 + y 2 )dxdy =
LP r

(a) 3/31 (b) 3/35 (c) 7/35 (d) 5/31

de
rin

R 1 R √1+x2 1
4. 0 0 dxdy =
1 + x2 + y 2
Na

π √ π √ π π
(a) ln(1 + 2) (b) ln(1 − 2) (c) (d) −
4 4 4 4

+ y)2 dxdy over the area between y = x2 and y = x. Then I =?

RR
5. I = A (x

R 1 R x2 2
R 1 R x2
(a) 0 y (x + y) dxdy (b) 0 x (x + y)dxdy
R 1 R √y 2
R1Ry
(c) 0 y (x + y) dxdy (d) 0 y 2 (x + y)2 dxdy

RaRbRc 2
6. 0 0 0 (x + y 2 + z 2 )dxdydz.
abc 2 abc 3
(a) (a + b2 + c2 ) (b) (a + b3 + c3 )
3 3
abc a2 b 2 c 2
(c) (a + b + c) (d) (a + b + c)
2 2
Rc Rb Ra 2
7. −c −b −a (x + y 2 + z 2 )dxdydz.
75 Narinder Singh 5. Limits, Continuity,...

4 2 12
(a) (a + b2 + c2 ) (b) abc(a2 + b2 + c2 )
3 3
8 1
(c) abc(a2 + b2 + c2 ) (d) (a2 + b2 + c2 )
3 3
R 1 R 1 R 1−x
8. 0 y2 0 xdzdxdy.

(a) 4/35 (b) 1/35 (c) 7/30 (d) 5/30

R a R x R x+y x+y+z
9. 0 0 e 0 dzdxdy.
1 4a 3 2a 3 1 4a 3 2a 3
(a) e + e + ea + (b) e − e + ea +
8 4 8 8 2 8
1 4a 3 2a 3 1 3 4a 3
(c) e − e + ea − (d) e4a − e + ea +
8 4 8 8 4 8

10. Area included between the parabolas y 2 = 4ax and x2 = 4ay is

a2 a2 3a2 16a2
gh
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3 16 4 3
U Sin

xy(x + y)dxdy over the area between y = x2 and y = x.

RR
11. The value of the integral
LP r

3 47 33 23
de

(a) (b) (c) (d)

56 56 56 56
rin

1 2
(x + y 2 )dxdy =
RR
12.
Na

x2 +y 2 ≤1
π
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 1/3 (d) 1/2
√
R tan x
13. dx is equal to
sin x cos x
√
√ √ tan x
(a) 2 tan x + c (b) 2 cot x + c (c) +c (d) None of these.
2
R a R √a2 −x2
14. −a 0 dxdy =

(a) 4a (b) 2a (c) 0 (d) None of these.

R0R1
15. 1 0 (x + y)dxdy =

(a) 1 (b) −1 (c) 2 (d) 0

R1Rx x
16. e dxdy
0 0 =
76 Narinder Singh 5. Limits, Continuity,...

(a) −1 (b) 0 (c) 1 (d) 2

Ra Rx
17. −a 0 dydx =

(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 0

R0R1
18. 1 0 (x + y)dxdy =

(a) 1 (b) −1 (c) 2 (d) 0

y
R1Rx
19. 0 0 e x dxdy =
1 1
(a) (e − 1) (b) (e + 1) (c) (e − 1) (d) (e + 1)
2 2
R π R a(1−cos θ) 3
20. 0 0 r sin θdrdθ
gh
15 4 8 4
(a) a (b) a
U Sin

16 5
16
(c) a4 (d)
LP r

15
de

R π R 4 sin θ 3
rin

21. 0 r drdθ
2 sin θ =
Na

(a) 22.5π (b) 22π (c) 10.5π (d) π

R2Rx
22. 0 0 (x + y)dxdy =

(a) −4 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) −3

R 2a R √2ax−x2
23. 0 0 (x + y)dxdy =
R π R 2a cos θ R π/2 R 2a sin θ
(a) 0 0 rdrdθ (b) 0 0 rdrdθ
R π/2 R 2a sin θ
(c) 0 0 rdrdθ (d) None

R π R a(1+cos θ) 2
24. 0 0 r sin θdθdr =
4 3 4 3 1 3
(a) a3 (b) π (c) a (d) a
3 3 3
R 1 R 2−x
25. 0 x2 xydxdy =
77 Narinder Singh 5. Limits, Continuity,...

3 3 3 3
(a) (b) (c) (d)
4 8 5 7
R a/2 R √a2 −x2
26. 0 0 dydx =

πa2 πa2
(a) πa2 (b) 8
(c) 4
(d) None

R π/2 R √sin θ
27. 0 0 rdθdr =
1 1
(a) (b) − (c) 1 (d) −1
2 2
Ra Rx
28. −a 0 dydx =

(a) −a (b) a (c) 0 (d) a/2

R 2π R 1 2r
29. 0 dθ e dr
0 = gh
π 2
(a) (e2 − 1) (b) (e − 1) (c) π(e2 − 1) (d) 2π(e2 − 1)
2
U Sin

30. The transformations x + y = u, y = uv transform the area element dydx into |J|dudv,
LP r
de

where |J| is equal to

rin

(a) 1 (b) u (c) −1 (d) None

Na

R log 8 R log y x+y

31. 1 e dxdy
0 =

(a) 8 log 8 + 16 + e (b) 8 log 8 − 16 − e

(c) 8 log 8 − 16 + e (d) log 8 − 16 + e

2
+ y 2 )dxdy =, where D is bounded by y = x and y 2 = 4x.
RR
32. D (x

768 768 708 68

(a) (b) (c) (d)
25 35 35 35

RR 3 x2 y2
33. D x ydxdy =, where D is region enclosed by the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1 in the first
a b
quadrant.
b 2 a4 b 3 a4 ba4 b 2 a2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
24 24 24 24
R 3 R 4x−x2
34. 0 x ydxdy =
78 Narinder Singh 5. Limits, Continuity,...

54 54 34
(a) (b) (c) (d) 54
7 17 5
R 1 R 10y √
35. 0 y xy − y 2 dxdy =

(a) 6 (b) 4 (c) 5 (d) 16

R ∞ R ∞ e−y
36. 0 x dydx =
y
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4

RR RR
37. f (x, y)dxdy = J f (r, θ)drdθ, where J =
∂(x, y) ∂(r, θ)
(a) r2 (b) (c) (d) r, θ
∂(r, θ) ∂(x, y)
R∞R∞
38. For 0 x f (x, y)dxdy = the change of order of integration is
gh
R∞R∞ R∞Ry
(a) 0 0 f (x, y)dxdy (b) 0 0 f (x, y)dxdy •
U Sin

R∞R∞ R∞Rx
(c) 0 y f (x, y)dxdy (d) 0 0 f (x, y)dxdy
LP r
de

39. If a circle x2 + y 2 = a2 is rotated about x-axis, the volume generated is

rin

4 3 2 3
(a) πa2 (b) 2πa2 (c) πa (d) πa
3 3
Na

40. The formula of area in polar co-ordinates is

RR RR 2 RR RR 1
(a) dθdr (b) r dθdr (c) rdθdr (d) dθdr
r

41. If A is the area under the curve y = sin x above x−axis in the interval [0, π/4], then
the area included between y = cos x, and x-axis in the interval [0, π/4] is given by

(a) A (b) π/2 − A (c) 1 − A (d) None

42. If A is the area under the curve y = sin x above x−axis such that 0 ≤ x ≤ π/2, then
the area under the curve y = sin 2x, 0 ≤ x ≤ π/2, is

(a) A (b) 2A (c) A/2 (d) 1 + A

43. If A is the area under the curve y = cos x, above x-axis, 0 ≤ x ≤ π/3, then the area
under the curve y = cos 2x in the same interval is
79 Narinder Singh 5. Limits, Continuity,...

√
3
(a) A (b) 2A (c) A/2 (d) A
2

44. The area bounded by the rectangular hyperbola xy = c2 , the axis of x, and the ordinates
x = c and x = 2c is

(a) c2 log 2 (b) c log 2 (c) 2c log 2 (d) None

45. The area bounded by the curve x = 3 + cos θ, y = 4 sin θ, is

(a) 7π (b) 2π (c) 4π (d) None

46. The line which divide the area of curvilinear triangle bounded by y = 2x − x2 , y =
0, x = 1, into two equal areas, is

(a) y = x (b) y = x/3 (c) y = 2x/3 (d) y = 2x/5

gh
47. The area bounded by two curves y = x2 , y 2 = x is
U Sin

(a) 1/3 (b) 2/3 (c) 4/3 (d) None

LP r
de
rin

48. The area enclosed by the curve |x| + |y| = 2 is

Na

(a) 2 (b) 4 (c) 8 (d) None

49. The area bounded by the line y = x, x-axis and the ordinates x = −1 and x = 2.

(a) 2 (b) 5 (c) 5/2 (d) None

50. The area of the circle centered at (1, 2) and passing through (4, 6) is

(a) 5π (b) 10π (c) 25π (d) None

51. The area between the parabola y 2 = ax and its latus rectum is
a2 a2 4a2 8a2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3 4 3 3

x2 y 2
52. The area bounded by the ellipse + = 1 is
9 4
(a) 3π (b) 4π (c) 5π (d) 6π
80 Narinder Singh 5. Limits, Continuity,...

53. The area bounded by the circle x2 + y 2 = 16 is

(a) 15π (b) 16π (c) 17π (d) 18π

RRR
54. The volume of the integral E xyzdxdydz over the domain E bounded by planes
x = 0, y = 0, x + y + z = 1 is
1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d) df rac1800
20 40 720
RRR
55. The triple integral T dxdydz gives

(a) Volume of the region T (b) Surface area of region T

(c) Area of the region T (d) Density of region T.

56. The volume of the solid under the surface az = x2 + y 2 and whose base is the circle
gh
x2 + y 2 = a2 is given as
U Sin

π πa3 4 3
(a) (b) (c) πa (d) None
2a 2 3
LP r
de

R 1 R z R x+z
57. The value of the integral −1 0 x−z (x + y + z)dydxdz =
rin

(a) 2π (b) 2 (c) −2 (d) 0

Na

R1R1R1
58. 0 0 0 (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )dzdydx ==

(a) 1 (b) 1/3 (c) 2/3 (d) 3

59. The volume of the sphere r = 2 is

π 32π
(a) π (b) 32π (c) (d)
3 3

60. The volume of the cylinder x2 + y 2 = 25/4, z = 4, z = 0 is

(a) 23π (b) 24π (c) 25π (d) 26π

61. The volume of the cylinder r = 16, z = 0, z = 3 is

768
(a) π (b) 768π (c) 256π (d) 48π
3
81 Narinder Singh 5. Limits, Continuity,...

62. In spherical coordinates, dxdydz is equal to

(a) rdθdϕdr (b) r sin θdθdϕdr (c) r2 sin θdθdϕdr (d) r2 dθdϕdr

R 1 R x R x+y
63. 0 0 0 dxdydz =

(a) 1 (b) 1/3 (c) 1/4 (d) 1/2

√
R a R √a2 −x2 R a2 −x2 −y 2
64. 0 0 0 dzdydx =
πa3 π 2
(a) 4πa2 (b) (c) 4πa3 (d) a
6 3
R2R3R2
65. The value of the integral 0 1 1 xy 2 zdxdydz is equal to

(a) 22 (b) 26 gh (c) 5 (d) 25

R0R1
66. 1 0 (x + y)dxdy = . . .
U Sin

R1Rx x
67. 0 e dxdy
0 =
LP r
de

Ans: 1
rin

Ra Rx
68. −a 0 dydx =
Na

Ans: 0
R1Re dydx
69. 0 ex =
log y
Ans: e-1
RaRa xdxdy
70. 0 y =
x2 + y 2
πa
Ans: 4

R1R2
71. 0 2y e2x dxdy =
e4 − 1
Ans:
4
R 1 R √1−x2 2
72. 0 0 y dydx =
π
Ans:
16
Changing the order of integration:
82 Narinder Singh 5. Limits, Continuity,...

R1Rx
73. 0 0 f (x, y)dydx = . . .
R a R √a2 −x2
74. 0 0 f (x, y)dxdy = . . .
R ∞ R x e−y
75. 0 0 dxdy = . . .
y
R 2 R ex
76. 0 1 dydx = . . .
R π R 2π R 1 2 2
77. 0 0 r (r sin θdθdϕdr)
0 =
4π
Ans:
3
R1 R2 R3
−1 −2 −3 dxdydz is equal to

Ans: 48

78. Formula for volume in spherical co-ordinates is gh

r2 sin θdrdθdϕ.
RRR
Ans: V
U Sin

R1 R2 R3
79. −1 −2 −3 dxdydz =
LP r

Ans: 48
de
rin

R 4 R x R x+y
80. 0 0 0 zdzdydx =
Na

Ans: 70
R2R1R1 2
81. 1 0 −1 (x + y 2 + z 2 )dxdydz =

Ans: 6

82. In double integral we can change variables from (x, y) to (u, v) by replacing dxdy by
∂(x, y) ∂(u, v) ∂(u, v)
(a) dudv (b) dudv (c) (d) dudv
∂(u, v) ∂(x, y) ∂(x, y)
R1Rx
83. On changing the order of integration of 0 0 f (x, y)dydx, the new limits of x would be

(a) y ≤ x ≤ 1 •

(b) 1 ≤ x ≤ y

(c) 0 ≤ x ≤ 1

(d) 0 ≤ x ≤ y/x
83 Narinder Singh 5. Limits, Continuity,...

84. If 0 ≤ x ≤ 2, 1 ≤ y ≤ ex , On changing the order of integration, the new limits of y

would be

(a) 1 ≤ y ≤ e2 •

(b) e2 ≤ y ≤ 1

(c) 1 ≤ y ≤ ey

(d) None of these

5.5.1 Answer Key of 5.1

1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (a)

5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (a)

9. (c) 10. (d) 11. (a) 12. (d)

gh
13. (a) 14. (d) 15. (a) 16. (c)
U Sin

17. (d) 18. (a) 19. (a) 20. (b)

LP r
de

21. (a) 22. (c) 23. (c) 24. (c)

rin

25. (b) 26. (a) 27. (a) 28. (c)

Na

29. () 30. (b) 31. (c) 32. (b)

33. (a) 34. (d) 35. (a) 36. (a)

37. (b) 38. () 39. (c) 40. (c)

41. (c) 42. (a) 43. (c) 44. (a)

45. (b) 46. (c) 47. (a) 48. (c)

49. (c) 50. (c) 51. (c) 52. (d)

53. (b) 54. (c) 55. (a) 56. (b)

57. (d) 58. (a) 59. (d) 60. (c)

61. (b) 62. (c) 63. (d) 64. (d)

65. (b)
84 Narinder Singh 5. Limits, Continuity,...

5.6 Double and Triple Integral

R3R2
1. 0 1 xy(x + y)dxdy =

(a) 24 (b) 16 (c) 42 (d) 21

RaRb 2
2. 0 0 (x + y 2 )dxdy =
a2 b2 (a2 + b2 ) (a2 + b2 )2 (a + b)(a2 + b2 ) ab(a2 + b2 )
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3 3 3 3
R 1 R √y
3. 0 y (x2 + y 2 )dxdy =

(a) 2/35 (b) 3/35 (c) 7/35 (d) 1/35

R 1 R x2 y/x
4. 0 0 e dxdy = gh
(a) 1 (b) 1/2 (c) 0 (d) 2
U Sin

R1R2
5. 0 0 (x + y)dxdy =
LP r
de

(a) 0 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 1

rin

R a R √a2 −x2 2
Na

6. 0 0 x ydxdy =

(a) a/15 (b) 3a/15 (c) a3 /15 (d) a2 /15

R 2 R √2x−x2
7. 0 0 xdxdy =

(a) π (b) π/3 (c) π/2 (d) π/4

√
R1R 1−y 2
8. 0 0 4ydydx =

(a) 1/3 (b) 7/3 (c) 2/3 (d) 4/3

R 2 R 3y
9. 1 0 ydydx =

(a) 7 (b) 2 (c) 1 (d) 5

√
RaR a2 −y 2 √
10. 0 0 a2 − x2 − y 2 dxdy =
85 Narinder Singh 5. Limits, Continuity,...

(a) πa2 /3 (b) πa2 /6 (c) πa2 /4 (d) πa2 /5

R 1 R √y
11. 0 y (x2 + y 2 )dydx =

(a) 2/17 (b) 3/13 (c) 3/35 (d) 2/35

R π/2 R π
12. 0 π/2 sin(x + y)dydx =

(a) 1 (b) 0 (c) 2 (d) 3

gh
U Sin
LP r
de
rin
Na
Chapter 6

Unit 6 Multiple Integrals

6.1 Double and Triple Integral MCQ

R 5 R x2
1. 0 0 x(x2 + y 2 )dxdy =
56 58 56 58 55 58 54 58
gh
(a) + (b) + (c) + (d) +
3 12 6 24 3 12 6 24
U Sin

R2R3
2. 1 1 xy 2 dydx =
LP r
de

(a) 10 (b) 11 (c) 12 (d) 13

rin

R 1 R √x
3. 0 x (x2 + y 2 )dxdy =
Na

(a) 3/31 (b) 3/35 (c) 7/35 (d) 5/31

R 1 R √1+x2 1
4. 0 0 dxdy =
1 + x2 + y 2
π √ π √ π π
(a) ln(1 + 2) (b) ln(1 − 2) (c) (d) −
4 4 4 4

+ y)2 dxdy over the area between y = x2 and y = x. Then I =?

RR
5. I = A (x

R 1 R x2 2
R 1 R x2
(a) 0 y (x + y) dxdy (b) 0 x (x + y)dxdy
R 1 R √y 2
R1Ry
(c) 0 y (x + y) dxdy (d) 0 y 2 (x + y)2 dxdy

RaRbRc 2
6. 0 0 0 (x + y 2 + z 2 )dxdydz.
abc 2 abc 3
(a) (a + b2 + c2 ) (b) (a + b3 + c3 )
3 3
abc a2 b 2 c 2
(c) (a + b + c) (d) (a + b + c)
2 2

86
87 Narinder Singh 6. Unit 6 Multiple Integrals

Rc Rb Ra 2
7. −c −b −a (x + y 2 + z 2 )dxdydz.
4 2 12
(a) (a + b2 + c2 ) (b) abc(a2 + b2 + c2 )
3 3
8 1
(c) abc(a2 + b2 + c2 ) (d) (a2 + b2 + c2 )
3 3
R 1 R 1 R 1−x
8. 0 y2 0 xdzdxdy.

(a) 4/35 (b) 1/35 (c) 7/30 (d) 5/30

R a R x R x+y x+y+z
9. 0 0 e 0 dzdxdy.
1 4a 3 2a 3 1 4a 3 2a 3
(a) e + e + ea + (b) e − e + ea +
8 4 8 8 2 8
1 4a 3 2a 3 1 3 4a 3
(c) e − e + ea − (d) e4a − e + ea +
8 4 8 8 4 8

10. Area included between the parabolas y 2 = 4ax and x2 = 4ay is

gh
U Sin

a2 a2 3a2 16a2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3 16 4 3
LP r
de

xy(x + y)dxdy over the area between y = x2 and y = x.

RR
11. The value of the integral
rin

3 47 33 23
(a) (b) (c) (d)
56 56 56 56
Na

1 2
(x + y 2 )dxdy =
RR
12. x2 +y 2 ≤1
π
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 1/3 (d) 1/2
√
R tan x
13. dx is equal to
sin x cos x
√
√ √ tan x
(a) 2 tan x + c (b) 2 cot x + c (c) +c (d) None of these.
2
R a R √a2 −x2
14. −a 0 dxdy =

(a) 4a (b) 2a (c) 0 (d) None of these.

R0R1
15. 1 0 (x + y)dxdy =

(a) 1 (b) −1 (c) 2 (d) 0

88 Narinder Singh 6. Unit 6 Multiple Integrals

R1Rx x
16. 0 e dxdy
0 =

(a) −1 (b) 0 (c) 1 (d) 2

Ra Rx
17. −a 0 dydx =

(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 0

R0R1
18. 1 0 (x + y)dxdy =

(a) 1 (b) −1 (c) 2 (d) 0

y
R1Rx
19. 0 0 e x dxdy =
1 1
(a) (e − 1) (b) (e + 1) (c) (e − 1) (d) (e + 1)
2 2
gh
R π R a(1−cos θ) 3
20. r sin θdrdθ
U Sin

0 0

15 4 8 4
(a) a (b) a
LP r

16 5
de

16
(c) a4 (d)
rin

15
Na

R π R 4 sin θ 3
21. 0 2 sin θr drdθ =

(a) 22.5π (b) 22π (c) 10.5π (d) π

R2Rx
22. 0 0 (x + y)dxdy =

(a) −4 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) −3

R 2a R √2ax−x2
23. 0 0 (x + y)dxdy =
R π R 2a cos θ R π/2 R 2a sin θ
(a) 0 0 rdrdθ (b) 0 0 rdrdθ
R π/2 R 2a sin θ
(c) 0 0 rdrdθ (d) None

R π R a(1+cos θ) 2
24. 0 0 r sin θdθdr =
4 3 4 3 1 3
(a) a3 (b) π (c) a (d) a
3 3 3
89 Narinder Singh 6. Unit 6 Multiple Integrals

R 1 R 2−x
25. 0 x2 xydxdy =
3 3 3 3
(a) (b) (c) (d)
4 8 5 7
R a/2 R √a2 −x2
26. 0 0 dydx =

πa2 πa2
(a) πa2 (b) 8
(c) 4
(d) None

R π/2 R √sin θ
27. 0 0 rdθdr =
1 1
(a) (b) − (c) 1 (d) −1
2 2
Ra Rx
28. −a 0 dydx =

(a) −a (b) a gh (c) 0 (d) a/2

R 2π R 1 2r
29. 0 dθ 0 e dr =
U Sin

π 2
(a) (e2 − 1) (b) (e − 1) (c) π(e2 − 1) (d) 2π(e2 − 1)
2
LP r
de

30. The transformations x + y = u, y = uv transform the area element dydx into |J|dudv,
rin

where |J| is equal to

Na

(a) 1 (b) u (c) −1 (d) None

R log 8 R log y x+y

31. 1 0 e dxdy =

(a) 8 log 8 + 16 + e (b) 8 log 8 − 16 − e

(c) 8 log 8 − 16 + e (d) log 8 − 16 + e

2
+ y 2 )dxdy =, where D is bounded by y = x and y 2 = 4x.
RR
32. D (x

768 768 708 68

(a) (b) (c) (d)
25 35 35 35

RR 3 x2 y2
33. D x ydxdy =, where D is region enclosed by the ellipse + = 1 in the first
a2 b2
quadrant.
b 2 a4 b 3 a4 ba4 b 2 a2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
24 24 24 24
90 Narinder Singh 6. Unit 6 Multiple Integrals

R 3 R 4x−x2
34. 0 x ydxdy =
54 54 34
(a) (b) (c) (d) 54
7 17 5
R 1 R 10y √
35. 0 y xy − y 2 dxdy =

(a) 6 (b) 4 (c) 5 (d) 16

R ∞ R ∞ e−y
36. 0 x dydx =
y
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4

RR RR
37. f (x, y)dxdy = J f (r, θ)drdθ, where J =
∂(x, y) ∂(r, θ)
(a) r2 (b) (c) (d) r, θ
∂(r, θ) ∂(x, y)
gh
R∞R∞
38. For f (x, y)dxdy = the change of order of integration is
U Sin

0 x

R∞R∞ R∞Ry
(a) 0 0 f (x, y)dxdy (b) 0 0 f (x, y)dxdy •
LP r
de

R∞R∞ R∞Rx
(c) 0 y f (x, y)dxdy (d) 0 0 f (x, y)dxdy
rin

39. If a circle x2 + y 2 = a2 is rotated about x-axis, the volume generated is

Na

4 3 2 3
(a) πa2 (b) 2πa2 (c) πa (d) πa
3 3

40. The formula of area in polar co-ordinates is

RR RR 2 RR RR 1
(a) dθdr (b) r dθdr (c) rdθdr (d) dθdr
r

41. If A is the area under the curve y = sin x above x−axis in the interval [0, π/4], then
the area included between y = cos x, and x-axis in the interval [0, π/4] is given by

(a) A (b) π/2 − A (c) 1 − A (d) None

42. If A is the area under the curve y = sin x above x−axis such that 0 ≤ x ≤ π/2, then
the area under the curve y = sin 2x, 0 ≤ x ≤ π/2, is

(a) A (b) 2A (c) A/2 (d) 1 + A

91 Narinder Singh 6. Unit 6 Multiple Integrals

43. If A is the area under the curve y = cos x, above x-axis, 0 ≤ x ≤ π/3, then the area
under the curve y = cos 2x in the same interval is
√
3
(a) A (b) 2A (c) A/2 (d) A
2

44. The area bounded by the rectangular hyperbola xy = c2 , the axis of x, and the ordinates
x = c and x = 2c is

(a) c2 log 2 (b) c log 2 (c) 2c log 2 (d) None

45. The area bounded by the curve x = 3 + cos θ, y = 4 sin θ, is

(a) 7π (b) 2π (c) 4π (d) None

46. The line which divide the area of curvilinear triangle bounded by y = 2x − x2 , y =
gh
0, x = 1, into two equal areas, is
U Sin

(a) y = x (b) y = x/3 (c) y = 2x/3 (d) y = 2x/5

LP r
de

47. The area bounded by two curves y = x2 , y 2 = x is

rin

(a) 1/3 (b) 2/3 (c) 4/3 (d) None

Na

48. The area enclosed by the curve |x| + |y| = 2 is

(a) 2 (b) 4 (c) 8 (d) None

49. The area bounded by the line y = x, x-axis and the ordinates x = −1 and x = 2.

(a) 2 (b) 5 (c) 5/2 (d) None

50. The area of the circle centered at (1, 2) and passing through (4, 6) is

(a) 5π (b) 10π (c) 25π (d) None

51. The area between the parabola y 2 = ax and its latus rectum is
a2 a2 4a2 8a2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3 4 3 3
92 Narinder Singh 6. Unit 6 Multiple Integrals

x2 y 2
52. The area bounded by the ellipse + = 1 is
9 4
(a) 3π (b) 4π (c) 5π (d) 6π

53. The area bounded by the circle x2 + y 2 = 16 is

(a) 15π (b) 16π (c) 17π (d) 18π

RRR
54. The volume of the integral E xyzdxdydz over the domain E bounded by planes
x = 0, y = 0, x + y + z = 1 is
1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d) df rac1800
20 40 720
RRR
55. The triple integral T dxdydz gives

(a) Volume of the region T (b) Surface area of region T

gh
U Sin

(c) Area of the region T (d) Density of region T.

LP r

56. The volume of the solid under the surface az = x2 + y 2 and whose base is the circle
de

x2 + y 2 = a2 is given as
rin

π πa3 4 3
Na

(a) (b) (c) πa (d) None

2a 2 3
R 1 R z R x+z
57. The value of the integral −1 0 x−z (x + y + z)dydxdz =

(a) 2π (b) 2 (c) −2 (d) 0

R1R1R1
58. 0 0 0 (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )dzdydx ==

(a) 1 (b) 1/3 (c) 2/3 (d) 3

59. The volume of the sphere r = 2 is

π 32π
(a) π (b) 32π (c) (d)
3 3

60. The volume of the cylinder x2 + y 2 = 25/4, z = 4, z = 0 is

(a) 23π (b) 24π (c) 25π (d) 26π

93 Narinder Singh 6. Unit 6 Multiple Integrals

61. The volume of the cylinder r = 16, z = 0, z = 3 is

768
(a) π (b) 768π (c) 256π (d) 48π
3

62. In spherical coordinates, dxdydz is equal to

(a) rdθdϕdr (b) r sin θdθdϕdr (c) r2 sin θdθdϕdr (d) r2 dθdϕdr

R 1 R x R x+y
63. 0 0 0 dxdydz =

(a) 1 (b) 1/3 (c) 1/4 (d) 1/2

√
R a R √a2 −x2 R a2 −x2 −y 2
64. 0 0 0 dzdydx =
πa3 π 2
(a) 4πa2 (b) (c) 4πa3 (d) a
6 3
gh
R2R3R2
65. The value of the integral 0 1 1 xy 2 zdxdydz is equal to
U Sin

(a) 22 (b) 26 (c) 5 (d) 25

LP r
de

R0R1
66. (x + y)dxdy = . . .
rin

1 0

R1Rx x
Na

67. 0 e dxdy
0 =

Ans: 1
Ra Rx
68. −a 0 dydx =

Ans: 0
R1Re dydx
69. 0 ex =
log y
Ans: e-1
RaRa xdxdy
70. 0 y =
x2 + y 2
πa
Ans: 4

R1R2
71. 0 2y e2x dxdy =
e4 − 1
Ans:
4
94 Narinder Singh 6. Unit 6 Multiple Integrals

R 1 R √1−x2 2
72. 0 0 y dydx =
π
Ans:
16
Changing the order of integration:
R1Rx
73. 0 0 f (x, y)dydx = . . .
R a R √a2 −x2
74. 0 0 f (x, y)dxdy = . . .
R ∞ R x e−y
75. 0 0 dxdy = . . .
y
R 2 R ex
76. 0 1 dydx = . . .
R π R 2π R 1 2 2
77. 0 0 r (r sin θdθdϕdr)
0 =
4π
Ans:
3
R1 R2 R3
gh
−1 −2 −3 dxdydz is equal to
U Sin

Ans: 48
LP r

78. Formula for volume in spherical co-ordinates is

de
rin

r2 sin θdrdθdϕ.
RRR
Ans: V
Na

R1 R2 R3
79. −1 −2 −3 dxdydz =

Ans: 48
R 4 R x R x+y
80. 0 0 0 zdzdydx =

Ans: 70
R2R1R1 2
81. 1 0 −1 (x + y 2 + z 2 )dxdydz =

Ans: 6

82. In double integral we can change variables from (x, y) to (u, v) by replacing dxdy by
∂(x, y) ∂(u, v) ∂(u, v)
(a) dudv (b) dudv (c) (d) dudv
∂(u, v) ∂(x, y) ∂(x, y)
R1Rx
83. On changing the order of integration of 0 0 f (x, y)dydx, the new limits of x would be
95 Narinder Singh 6. Unit 6 Multiple Integrals

(a) y ≤ x ≤ 1 •

(b) 1 ≤ x ≤ y

(c) 0 ≤ x ≤ 1

(d) 0 ≤ x ≤ y/x

84. If 0 ≤ x ≤ 2, 1 ≤ y ≤ ex , On changing the order of integration, the new limits of y

would be

(a) 1 ≤ y ≤ e2 •

(b) e2 ≤ y ≤ 1

(c) 1 ≤ y ≤ ey

(d) None of these

gh
6.1.1 Answer Key of ??
U Sin

1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (a)

LP r
de

5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (a)

rin

9. (c) 10. (d) 11. (a) 12. (d)

Na

13. (a) 14. (d) 15. (a) 16. (c)

17. (d) 18. (a) 19. (a) 20. (b)

21. (a) 22. (c) 23. (c) 24. (c)

25. (b) 26. (d) 27. (a) 28. (c)

29. (c) 30. (b) 31. (c) 32. (b)

33. (a) 34. (d) 35. (a) 36. (a)

37. (b) 38. () 39. (c) 40. (c)

41. (c) 42. (a) 43. (c) 44. (a)

45. (b) 46. (c) 47. (a) 48. (c)

49. (c) 50. (c) 51. (c) 52. (d)

53. (b) 54. (c) 55. (a) 56. (b)

96 Narinder Singh 6. Unit 6 Multiple Integrals

57. (d) 58. (a) 59. (d) 60. (c)

61. (b) 62. (c) 63. (d) 64. (d)

65. (b)

6.2 Double and Triple Integral

R3R2
1. 0 1 xy(x + y)dxdy =

(a) 24 (b) 16 (c) 42 (d) 21

RaRb 2
2. 0 0 (x + y 2 )dxdy =
a2 b2 (a2 + b2 ) (a2 + b2 )2 (a + b)(a2 + b2 ) ab(a2 + b2 )
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3 3 3 3
R 1 R √y
(x2 + y 2 )dxdy =
gh
3. 0 y
U Sin

(a) 2/35 (b) 3/35 (c) 7/35 (d) 1/35

LP r
de

R 1 R x2 y/x
4. 0 0 e dxdy =
rin

(a) 1 (b) 1/2 (c) 0 (d) 2

Na

R1R2
5. 0 0 (x + y)dxdy =

(a) 0 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 1

R a R √a2 −x2 2
6. 0 0 x ydxdy =

(a) a/15 (b) 3a/15 (c) a3 /15 (d) a2 /15

R 2 R √2x−x2
7. 0 0 xdxdy =

(a) π (b) π/3 (c) π/2 (d) π/4

√
R1R 1−y 2
8. 0 0 4ydydx =

(a) 1/3 (b) 7/3 (c) 2/3 (d) 4/3

97 Narinder Singh 6. Unit 6 Multiple Integrals

R 2 R 3y
9. 1 0 ydydx =

(a) 7 (b) 2 (c) 1 (d) 5

√
RaR a2 −y 2 √
10. 0 0 a2 − x2 − y 2 dxdy =

(a) πa2 /3 (b) πa2 /6 (c) πa2 /4 (d) πa2 /5

R 1 R √y
11. 0 y (x2 + y 2 )dydx =

(a) 2/17 (b) 3/13 (c) 3/35 (d) 2/35

R π/2 R π
12. 0 π/2 sin(x + y)dydx =

(a) 1 (b) 0 (c) 2

gh (d) 3
U Sin
LP r
de
rin
Na