Building Energy Load Forecasting using Deep Neural

Networks
Daniel L. Marino, Kasun Amarasinghe, Milos Manic
Department of Computer Science
Virginia Commonwealth University
Richmond, Virginia
marinodl@[Link], amarasinghek@[Link], misko@[Link]

Abstract—Ensuring sustainability demands more efficient be made continuously at aggregate level as well as modular level
energy management with minimized energy wastage. Therefore, in the grid. In achieving that goal and ensuring the reliability of
the power grid of the future should provide an unprecedented level the grid, the ability of forecasting the future demands is
of flexibility in energy management. To that end, intelligent important. [6], [9].
decision making requires accurate predictions of future energy
demand/load, both at aggregate and individual site level. Thus, Further, demand or load forecasting is crucial for mitigating
energy load forecasting have received increased attention in the uncertainties of the future [6]. In that, individual building level
recent past. However, it has proven to be a difficult problem. This demand forecasting is crucial as well as forecasting aggregate
paper presents a novel energy load forecasting methodology based loads. In terms of demand response, building level forecasting
on Deep Neural Networks, specifically, Long Short Term Memory helps carry out demand response locally since the smart grids
(LSTM) algorithms. The presented work investigates two LSTM incorporate distributed energy generation [6]. The advent of
based architectures: 1) standard LSTM and 2) LSTM-based smart meters have made the acquisition of energy consumption
Sequence to Sequence (S2S) architecture. Both methods were data at building and individual site level feasible. Thus data
implemented on a benchmark data set of electricity consumption driven and statistical forecasting models are made possible [7].
data from one residential customer. Both architectures were
trained and tested on one hour and one-minute time-step Aggregate level and building level load forecasting can be
resolution datasets. Experimental results showed that the viewed in three different categories: 1) Short-term 2) Medium-
standard LSTM failed at one-minute resolution data while term and 3) Long-term [6]. It has been determined that the load
performing well in one-hour resolution data. It was shown that forecasting is a hard problem and in that, individual building
S2S architecture performed well on both datasets. Further, it was level load forecasting is even harder than aggregate load
shown that the presented methods produced comparable results forecasting [6], [10]. Thus, it has received increased attention
with the other deep learning methods for energy forecasting in from researchers. In literature, two main methods can be found
literature. for performing energy load forecasting: 1) Physics principles
based models and 2) Statistical and machine learning based
Keywords—Deep Learning; Deep Neural Networks; Long-
models. Focus of the presented work is on the second category
Short-Term memory; LSTM; Energy; Building Energy; Energy
of statistical load forecasting. In [7], the authors used Artificial
Load forecasting
Neural Network (ANN) ensembles to perform the building level
I. INTRODUCTION load forecasting. ANNs have been explored in detail for the
purpose of all three categories of load forecasting [9], [11]-[13].
Buildings are identified as a major energy consumer In [14], the authors use a support vector machines based
worldwide, accounting for 20%-40% of the total energy regression model coupled with empirical mode decomposition
production [1]-[3]. In addition to being a major energy to for long-term load forecasting. In [15], electricity demand is
consumer, buildings are shown to account for a significant forecast using a kernel based multi-task learning methodologies.
portion of energy wastage as well [4]. As energy wastage poses In [10], authors model individual household electricity loads
a threat to sustainability, making buildings energy efficient is using sparse coding to perform medium term load forecasting.
extremely crucial. Therefore, in making building energy In the interest of brevity, not all methods in literature are
consumption more efficient, it is necessary to have accurate introduced in the paper. For surveys of different techniques used
predictions of its future energy consumption. for load forecasting, readers are referred to [16], [17] and [8].
At the grid level, to minimizing the energy wastage and Despite the extensive research carried out in the area, individual
making the power generation and distribution more efficient, the site level load forecasting remains to be a difficult problem.
future of the power grid is moving to a new paradigm of smart Therefore, the work presented in this paper investigates a
grids [5], [6]. Smart grids are promising, unprecedented deep learning based methodology for performing individual
flexibility in energy generation and distribution [7]. In order to building level load forecasting. Deep learning allows models
provide that flexibility, the power grid has to be able to composed of multiple layers to learn representations in data. The
dynamically adapt to the changes in demand and efficiently use of multiple layers allow the learning process to be carried
distribute the generated energy from the various sources such as out with multiple layers of abstraction. A comprehensive
renewables [8]. Therefore, intelligent control decisions should overview and a review of deep learning methodologies can be

978-1-5090-3474-1/16/$31.00 ©2016 IEEE 7046

found in [18]. In previous work for load forecasting using deep overcome the problems of vanishing gradient, providing a
learning, authors of [6], explore Conditional Restricted model that is able to store information for long periods of time.
Boltzmann Machines (CRBM) [19] and Factored Conditional
Restricted Boltzmann Machines (FCBRM) [20] for building An LSTM network is comprised of memory cells with self-
level load forecasting. Authors compare the two methods to loops as shown in Fig. 1.a). The self-loop allows it to store
several traditional methods including Support Vector Machines temporal information encoded on the cell’s state. The flow of
and Artificial Neural Networks. They conclude that the FCRBM information through the network is handled by writing, erasing
method outperforms the other tested methodologies. and reading from the cell’s memory state. These operations are
handled by three gates respectively: 1) input gate, 2) forget gate
In this work, the effectiveness of a different deep learning and 3) output gate. The equations (1.a) through (1.f) express a
technique is explored for performing building level forecasting. single LSTM cell’s operation.
The presented methodology uses Long Short Term Memory
(LSTM) algorithm. Presented work investigates using two 𝑖𝑔 = sigm(𝑖[𝑡] 𝑊𝑖𝑥 + 𝑜[𝑡−1] 𝑊𝑖𝑚 + 𝑏𝑖 ) (1.a)
variations of the LSTM: 1) load forecasting using standard 𝑓𝑔 = sigm(𝑖[𝑡] 𝑊𝑓𝑥 + 𝑜[𝑡−1] 𝑊𝑓𝑚 + 𝑏𝑓 ) (1.b)
LSTM and 2) load forecasting using LSTM based Sequence to 𝑜𝑔 = sigm(𝑖[𝑡] 𝑊𝑜𝑥 + 𝑜[𝑡−1] 𝑊𝑜𝑚 + 𝑏𝑜 ) (1.c)
Sequence (S2S) architecture. Both methodologies are tested on
𝑢 = tanh(𝑖[𝑡] 𝑊𝑢𝑥 + 𝑜[𝑡−1] 𝑊𝑢𝑚 + 𝑏𝑢 ) (1.d)
a benchmark dataset which contained electricity consumption
data for a single residential customer with time resolutions one 𝑥[𝑡] = 𝑓𝑔 ∘ 𝑥[𝑡−1] + 𝑖𝑔 ∘ 𝑢 (1.e)
minute and one hour. In order to compare the results, the same 𝑜[𝑡] = 𝑜𝑔 ∘ tanh⁡(𝑢) (1.f)
dataset used in [6] is used. Experimental results show that the
where 𝑖𝑔 corresponds to the input gate, 𝑓𝑔 to the forget gate and
LSTM based S2S architecture performs well on both types of
datasets while the standard LSTM fails to perform well on the 𝑜𝑔 to the output gate. 𝑥[𝑡] is the value of the state at time step 𝑡,
minute resolution data. Further, it’s seen that the LSTM based 𝑜[𝑡] the output of the cell and 𝑢 is the update signal.
algorithms manages to produce results comparable to the The input gate decides if the update signal should modify the
FCRBM and the CRBM in [6]. memory state or not. This is done by using a sigmoid function
The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section II as a “soft” switch, whose on/off state depends on the current
provides background on the Long Short Term Memory input and previous output (Eq. 1.a). If the value of the input gate
algorithm. Section III elaborates the load forecasting using (𝑖𝑔 ) is close to zero, the update signal is multiplied by zero,
standard LSTM. Section IV elaborates load forecasting using therefore the state will not be affected by the update (Eq. 1.e).
LSTM based S2S architecture. Section V describes the dataset Forget and output gates work in a similar manner.
and the experimental results. Finally, Section VI concludes the
paper. LSTM cells can be stacked in a multi-layer architecture to
construct a network similar to the one shown in Fig. 1.b). The
II. LONG SHORT TERM MEMORY architecture shown in Fig. 1.b) is generally used to predict an
outcome 𝑦̂[𝑡] at time 𝑡 ∈ ℕ, given the set of all previous inputs
This section provides a brief introduction on the algorithm,
Long Short Term Memory (LSTM). {𝑖[0] , 𝑖[1] , … , 𝑖[𝑡] }.

Recurrent Neural Networks (RNN) are usually trained using III. LOAD FORECASTING USING DEEP NEURAL NETWORKS
either Back-propagation through time [21], or Real-Time This section elaborates the presented methodologies of Deep
Recurrent Learning [22] algorithm. Training with these methods Neural Networks based load forecasting. The presented work
often fails because of vanishing/exploding gradient. LSTM [23] investigates using two variants of the LSTM algorithm for load
is a recurrent neural-network that was specifically designed to forecasting. This section first discusses the standard LSTM

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 (a) (b)
(a)predictions in an arbitrary number of future time steps, (b) unrolled LSTM
Fig. 2. (a) Use of LSTM network to make (b) network for training through BPTT

based load forecasting methodology and then elaborates the to train the network using a gradient based method such as
LSTM based S2S architecture. Stochastic Gradient Descent (SGD).
A. Load Forecasting using Standard LSTM The objective function that is minimized can be expressed
The objective of the presented methodology is to accurately as:
estimate the electricity load (active power) for a time step or 𝑀
multiple time steps in the future, given historical electricity load 2
data. I.e. having 𝑀 load measurements available, which can be
𝐿 = ∑(𝑦[𝑡] − 𝑦̂[𝑡] ) (6)
expressed as: 𝑡=1
During the minimization process, a method called Norm
𝑦 = {𝑦[0] , 𝑦[1] , … , 𝑦[𝑀−1] }, (2)
clipping [24] is used to alleviate the exploding gradient problem.
where 𝑦[𝑡] is the actual load measurement for time step t, the For training, ADAM [25] algorithm is used as the gradient
load for the following 𝑇 − 𝑀 time steps should be predicted. based optimizer, instead of SGD. ADAM outperformed SGD in
The predicted load values can be expressed as: terms of faster convergence and lower error ratios. The unrolling
𝑦̂ = {𝑦̂[𝑀] , 𝑦̂[𝑀+1] , … , 𝑦̂[𝑇] } (3) was implemented with 50 steps (M=50).
B. Load forecasting using LSTM based sequence to sequence
where 𝑦̂[𝑡] is the predicted load for time step t.
architecture
As the first technique, the standard LSTM algorithm was In order to further improve the flexibility of the load
investigated. First model that was tested is illustrated in Fig. 1.c). forecasting methodology, a different architecture based on
The active power of the previous time step, and the date and time LSTM, called sequence to sequence (S2S), is explored. S2S is
of the desired prediction are used as inputs for the model. The an architecture that was proposed to map sequences of different
input vector can be expressed as: lengths [26].
𝑖[𝑡] = [𝑦[𝑡−1] 𝑑𝑎𝑦[𝑡] 𝑑𝑎𝑦_𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑘[𝑡] ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟[𝑡] ⁡] Fig. 3 shows the S2S architecture that is employed for load
(4)
𝑓[𝑡] = [𝑑𝑎𝑦[𝑡] 𝑑𝑎𝑦_𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑘[𝑡] ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟[𝑡] ] forecasting. The architecture consists of two LSTM networks:
encoder and a decoder. The task of the encoder is to convert
The output of the network, 𝑦̂[𝑡] ∈ ⁡ℝ is an estimation of the input sequences of variable length and encode them in a fixed
active power for the next time step. With this model, the length vector, which is then used as the input state for the
electricity load for the next time step is predicted given a set of decoder. Then, the decoder generates an output sequence of
load measurements of the past. To predict further into the length n. In this instance, that output sequence is the energy load
future, the predictions made by the model can be used as forecast for the next n steps.
additional inputs for the next time step. Then, the input vector The main advantage of this architecture is that it allows
of the next time step can be expressed as: inputs of arbitrary length. I.e. an arbitrary number of available
𝑖[𝑡+1] = [𝑦̂[𝑡] 𝑑𝑎𝑦[𝑡+1] 𝑑𝑎𝑦_𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑘[𝑡+1] ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟[𝑡+1] ⁡] (5) load measurements of previous time steps can be used as inputs,
to predict the load for an arbitrary number of future time steps.
Fig. 2.a) illustrates this process.
To perform the prediction, 𝑦 (Eq. 2) is used as the input for
To train the model, back-propagation through time(BPTT) is the encoder together with the corresponding date and time for
used. The network is unrolled by a fixed number of time steps and time is used as input.
as shown in Fig. 2.b). The resultant network can be seen as a
very deep standard feedforward network with shared For training, the encoder network is pre-trained to minimize
parameters. Therefore, standard backpropagation can be applied the following error:

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 Fig. 3: S2S LSTM-based architecture for load forecasting (backpropagation signals shown in dashed arrows)

𝑀 resolution data. As in [6], the first three years were used to train
2 the model and the last year was used to test. These ranges were
𝐿𝐸 = ∑(𝑦[𝑡] − 𝑦̂[𝑡] ) (7)
chosen to be comparable with the work in [6].
𝑡=1
Then the encoder plugged into the decoder network and train B. Experimental Results using standard LSTM
the two networks to reduce the objective function: As the first experiment, predicting one step ahead with the
𝑇
standard LSTM network was attempted. It proved to be an easy
2 task for the standard LSTM architecture, providing low error
𝐿𝐷 = ∑ (𝑦[𝑡] − 𝑦̂[𝑡] ) (8)
ratios with the test dataset. However, the model failed to provide
𝑡=𝑀+1 an accurate forecast when the same model was used to predict
further in the future, using the predictions as inputs, as
Fig 3 also shows the path that back-propagation signals
mentioned in section III A (See Fig 2a).
follow during training. Back-propagation signals are allowed to
flow from the decoder to the encoder. Therefore, weights for Fig. 4 illustrates the performance of the model. For the first
both encoder and decoder are updated in order to minimize the 60 hours, the actual load measurements on previous time steps
objective function expressed in Eq. 8. Both decoder and encoder were used as inputs to perform the prediction. Starting at hour
are updated because the pre-training of the encoder alone is 60, the predictions were introduced as inputs to generate a
insufficient to achieve good performance. forecast for the next 60 hours. The figure shows how the model
is incapable of providing accurate forecast for the last 60 hours,
IV. DATASET AND EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS even with the forecast for one-time step ahead being very
This section first introduces the dataset used for testing and accurate.
then elaborates the experimental results obtained for the two It can be assumed that the reasons behind this behavior is
models investigated. that predicting the next step can be achieved with low error by
A. Dataset
The presented methods were implemented on a benchmark
dataset of electricity consumption for a single residential
customer, named “Individual household electric power
consumption” [27]. The data set contained power consumption
measurements gathered between December 2006 and November
2010 with one-minute resolution. The dataset contained
aggregate active power load for the whole house and three sub
metering for three sections for the house. In this paper, only the
aggregate active load values for the whole house is used.
The dataset contained 2075259 measurements. Two typed of
the data set were tested: 1) one-minute resolution data (original
dataset) and 2) one-hour resolution data. The hourly resolution
data were obtained by averaging the one-minute resolution data.
Both architectures were tested on both one minute and one-hour Fig 4: load forecasting for 60 hours using standard LSTM architecture

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 TABLE I. ERRORS FOR S2S ARCHITECTURE (ONE HOUR TIMESTEP, 60 HOURS TABLE II. ERRORS FOR S2S ARCHITECTURE (SUMMARY)
FORECAST)
RMSE RMSE
RMSE RMSE (Training) (Testing)
Layers Units
(Training) (Testing) 60 hours, one-hour resolution 0.701 0.625
(2 Layers, 10 Units)
1 5 0.713 0.640
60 min, one-minute resolution 0.742 0.667
0.662 0.657 (2 Layers, 50 Units)
1 20
(0.677) (0.631)
0.606 0.686 that was tested was to experiment with a S2S, LSTM-based
1 50 architecture. The results of this approach are elaborated in the
(0.697) (0.634)
1 100
0.527 0.729 next subsection.
(0.697) (0.634)
0.678 0.642 C. Experimental Results using LSTM based S2S architecture
2 5
(0.688) (0.642) As mentioned, LSTM-based S2S architecture was proposed
0.604 0.675
2 20
(0.7) (0.639)
to alleviate the problems encountered in the previous section.
0.543 0.727 Fig. 3 illustrates how the available load measurements are
2 50
(0.689) (0.634)
0.633 0.665
only introduced on the encoder, while the decoder’s inputs are
3 20
(0.696) (0.642) only date and time. This architecture allows us to prevent the
decoder from learning the naïve mapping of passing the input
simply bypassing the input from the current step straight to the straight to the output as explained in the previous section.
output, this is because consequent measurements are very Table I shows the Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) on
similar (when using one-minute resolution data). Therefore, if training and testing datasets for different number of layers and
the network predicts that the load for the next time step is the units using the S2S architecture for data with one hour
same that the load on the current time. Thus, the neural network resolution. The table shows the value of the errors at the end of
is learning a naïve mapping, where it generates an output equal the training and in parenthesis the lowest error obtained on
to the input testing dataset that was found during training.
Two approaches were investigated to solve the It can be seen that the proposed architecture is able to
aforementioned problem. First was to introduce measurements produce very low errors on training dataset. Further, it was
from further in the past as inputs, for example 5 steps back, as noticed that increasing the capacity of the network by increasing
opposed to inputting the load from the previous time step. This the number of layers and units only improves error on training
was done so that the input and output would different enough for dataset. Fig. 6 shows an example of how well the model
the network to be able to learn a useful representation of the data. performs on training dataset using a 2 layer network with 50
Fig. 5 shows the prediction made by the neural network after units in each layer. However, increasing the capacity of the
introducing the first 60 hours of load measurement and network did not improve performance on testing data. In order
forecasting the next 60 hours. It can be seen that the architecture to improve accuracy on testing data Dropout [28] was used as
provides an estimation that follows the general trend of the regularization methodology. Table II shows the errors obtained
future load. This method produced accurate results when used using Dropout for the one-minute and for the one-hour datasets.
with hourly data, but failed to perform well with one-minute The predictions were made for 60 time steps in the future. The
resolution data. results shown on Table II are comparable to the results shown in
Given that a delay of the input was not sufficient to provide [6] by using FCRBM. Fig. 7 shows an example of the prediction
a useful model for one-minute time steps, the second approach on the testing dataset.

Fig 5: load forecast for 60 hours using standard LSTM and delayed input Fig 6: Prediction results for the training dataset using S2S model

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