SOIL

• Soils are complex mixtures of minerals, water, air,

organic matter, and countless organisms that
are the decaying remains of once-living things.
• It forms the surface of the land – it is the “skin of
the earth.”
• Soil can support plant life and is vital to life on
Earth.
SOIL TYPES
• There are different types of soil on planet, as
every soil has different compositions of minerals
and organics, and every soil has been formed in
different ways.
• There are four basic types of soil:
❑ Sand
❑ Clay
❑ Silt
❑ Loam
SAND
• Sand is used to provide bulk, strength, and other
properties to construction materials like asphalt
and concrete.
• It is also used as a decorative material in
landscaping.
• Specific types of sand are used in the
manufacture of glass and as a molding material
for metal casting.
CLAY
• Clay soil has incredibly small particles. This
means that clay has very little air spaces,
allowing almost no drainage.
• This is the reason why clay soil becomes very
sticky and heavy when wet.
• Clay soil can be bad for growing some plants.
Water cannot escape clay soil when it is wet
causing the plant roots to rot.
CLAY
• Clay soil has been used for construction since
ancient times. It can be sun-dried or fired to
make adobe bricks and then be used to
assemble a house.
• Clay is used in ceramics, turning it into pots,
vases, pipes, and other useful objects.
• It is also used in making sculptures or antique jars.
SILT
• Silt is one of the most fertile of the many types of
soil, with rich nutrients and good drainage. It is
slightly smaller in size than sandy soil, but
otherwise is very similar in composition.

• Silt soil is quietly dark in color and is excellent for

planting almost any plant.
LOAM
• Loam soil is actually made up of different soil
types, with varying amounts of clay, silt, and
sand mixed together.
• Loam holds water very well because of the
heavy grittiness given from the sand. It also has
exceptional drainage so that the water does not
build up too much and is also nutrient-rich.
• It is the ideal soil for gardening.
 SOIL
LAYERS
LAYERS OF SOIL
• Soil covers much of the land on Earth. It is made
up of minerals (rock, sand, clay, silt), air, water,
and organic material (matter from dead plants
and animals).
• Soil provides a substrate for plants (roots anchor
in soil), a source of food for plants, and a home
for many animals (insects, spiders, centipedes,
worms, burrowing animals, bacteria, etc.).
LAYERS OF SOIL
LAYERS OF SOIL
• Soil is made up of distinct
horizontal layers; these
layers are called
horizons.
• They range from rich,
organic upper layers
(humus and topsoil) to
underlying rocky layers
(subsoil and bedrock).
SOIL HORIZON
O Horizon – Organic Layer
• This layer is the uppermost
layer of the soil rich in
organic matter, such as
the remains of plants and
dead animals.
• It is typically black brown
or dark brown due to high
organic content.
SOIL HORIZON
A Horizon – Topsoil
• Found below the O
horizon and it has a dark
brown color as it contains
the maximum organic
matter of the soil.
• It is the region of intense
biological activity and
has the most nutrients.
SOIL HORIZON
A Horizon – Topsoil
• Here, the plants stretch
their roots deep down,
allowing it to hold the
topsoil together.
• The humus makes this
highly porous, allowing it
to hold air and moisture
for seed germination.
SOIL HORIZON
E Horizon – Eluviation Layer
• This layer consists of
nutrients leached from O
and A horizons.
• E horizon is absent in most
soils but is more common
in forested areas.
SOIL HORIZON
B Horizon – Subsoil
• It is lighter in color than
the topsoil due to lower
humus content.
• However, it is more
compact and rigid than
topsoil.
• Has less organic content
but rich in minerals
SOIL HORIZON
B Horizon – Subsoil
• This layer holds enough
water due to its clayey
nature.
• Farmers often mix topsoil
and subsoil while plowing
their fields.
SOIL HORIZON
C Horizon – Parent Rock
• Also known as regolith or
saprolite.
• It is called parent rock
because all the upper
layers were developed
from this layer.
• It is devoid of any organic
matter.
SOIL HORIZON
C Horizon – Parent Rock
• It is made up of broken-up
bedrocks, making it hard.
• Plant roots do not
penetrate this layer.
• It is the transition between
inner layer of the earth
and the upper A and B
horizons.
SOIL HORIZON
R Horizon – Bedrock
• It consists of un-
weathered igneous,
sedimentary, and
metamorphic rocks.
• It is highly compact.
• Granite, basalt, quartzite,
sandstone, and limestone
make up the bedrock.
 LAND
POLLUTION
Land Pollution
• The deterioration of Earth’s land features and soil,
directly or indirectly.
• It is often caused by human activities and the
misuse of land resources which could lead to
undesirable changes in land, like soil erosion.
• It also refers to an activity that lessens the quality
and/or productivity of the land as an ideal place
for agriculture, forestation, construction, etc.
Thought Provoking Question

HOW IS THE INCREASE IN

POPULATION CAN LEAD
TO LAND POLLUTION?
Various Causes of Land Pollution
1. Deforestation and Soil Erosion
• Deforestation carried out to create drylands is
one of the major concerns.
• Land that is once converted into dry or barren
land can never be made fertile again, whatever
the magnitude of measures to redeem it is.
• Land conversion, meaning the alteration or
modification of original properties of land to
make it use-worthy for a specific purpose, is
another major cause.
Various Causes of Land Pollution
1. Deforestation and Soil Erosion
• Also, there is a constant waste of land. Unused
available land over the years turns barren; this
land then cannot be used.
• So, in search of more land, potent land is hunted,
and its indigenous state is compromised.
Various Causes of Land Pollution
2. Agricultural Activities
• Farmers often use toxic fertilizers and pesticides to
get rid of insects, fungi, and bacteria from their
crops.
• However, with the overuse of these chemicals,
they result in contamination and poisoning of soil.
Various Causes of Land Pollution
3. Mining Activities
• During extraction and mining activities, several
land spaces are created beneath the surface.
• We constantly hear about land caving in, which is
nothing but nature’s way of filling the spaces left
out after mining or extraction activity.
Various Causes of Land Pollution
4. Overcrowded Landfills
• Garbage like aluminum, plastic, paper, cloth,
wood, is collected and sent to the local recycling
unit.
• Items that cannot be recycled become a part of
landfills that hamper the beauty of the city and
cause land pollution.
Various Causes of Land Pollution
5. Industrialization
• Due to an increased demand for food, shelter,
and house, more goods are produced.
• This resulted in the creation of more waste that
needs to be disposed of.
• To meet the demand of the growing population,
more industries were developed, which lead to
deforestation.
Various Causes of Land Pollution
5. Industrialization
• Research and development paved the way for
modern fertilizers and chemicals that were highly
toxic and led to soil contamination.
Various Causes of Land Pollution
6. Urbanization
• Many of us may not classify human settlements as
“land pollution;” however, urbanization marks a
significant change to the landscape that can
cause land pollution in a variety of subtle and not-
so-subtle ways.
Various Causes of Land Pollution
7. Construction Activities
• Due to urbanization, a large number of
construction activities are taking place, which has
resulted in huge waste particles like wood, metal,
bricks, and plastic that can be seen by naked
eyes outside any building or office which is under
construction.
Various Causes of Land Pollution
8. Nuclear Waste
• The leftover radioactive material contains harmful
and toxic chemicals that can affect human
health.
• They are dumped beneath the earth to avoid
any casualty.
Various Causes of Land Pollution
9. Sewage Treatment
• A large amount of solid waste is leftover once the
sewage has been treated.
• The leftover material is then sent to the landfill site,
which ends up polluting the environment.
Various Causes of Land Pollution
10. Littering
• People just throw their garbage on the ground
without caring about the adverse effects on the
environment.
• A common instance is that people just throw their
cigarette butt on the ground every time.
Disastrous Effects of Land Pollution
1. Soil Pollution
2. Groundwater Poisoning
3. Drinking Water Problem
4. Change in Climate Patterns
5. Effect on Human Health
6. Air Pollution
7. Wildfire
8. Biodiversity
SOLID WASTE
AND MINING
Mr. Jerome R. Delos Santos
November 13, 2024
4:30 PM – 7:30 PM
Solid Waste
Solid wastes are all the wastes arising from
human and animal activities that are normally
solid and are discarded as useless or
unwanted.
Types of Solid Waste
Industrial Waste – produced by mines, farms
or agriculture, and industries that supply
people with goods and services
Municipal Solid Waste – often called garbage
or trash, which consists of the combined solid
waste produced by homes, institutions, small
businesses, and workplaces other than
factories.
Sources of Solid Waste
1. Residential
• Wastes that are generated from living households,
generally contain non-hazardous solid wastes;
kitchen waste, found usually at home.
Sources of Solid Waste
2. Agricultural
• These are solid wastes due to agricultural
activities: food residues, animal dung, crop
residues, etc.
Sources of Solid Waste
3. Commercial
• Wastes generated from business establishments:
food establishments, shops, etc., that generate
generally non-hazardous waste such as paper,
cardboard, wood, metals and plastic.
Sources of Solid Waste
4. Industrial Wastes
• It is from various types of industrial processes. The
nature of the waste depends on the type of
industry and kind of raw material involved. There
may be toxic and hazardous wastes that have
adverse effects to the environment.
Sources of Solid Waste
5. Institutional Solid Waste
• Generated from public and government
institutions: offices, religious institutes, schools,
universities, etc.; generally, not hazardous.
Sources of Solid Waste
6. Hospital Solid Waste
• Discarded, unwanted solid wastes from hospitals.
It consists of both non-hazardous and hazardous
waste.
Thought Provoking Question

HOW CAN WE DEAL

WITH THE DIFFERENT
SOLID WASTE?
Solid Waste Disposal
1. Open Dumping
• Generally, solid waste is spread over a large area,
providing sources of food and shelter for flies, rats
and other vermin.
Solid Waste Disposal
1. Open Dumping
• Considerations in selection and locating sites for open
dumping
• Sources of water supply and distance from it
• Direction of wind
• Distance from nearest residents, nearby farm areas
and main land.
• Distance that flies can travel from disposal site to
living quarters as well as the distance that the
rodents can travel from disposal areas and living
quarters.
Solid Waste Disposal
2. Controlled Tipping/Burial Sanitary Landfill System
• It differs in ordinary dumping in that the material
are placed in a trench or other prepared area,
adequately compacted, and covered with earth
at the end of the working day.
Solid Waste Disposal
2. Controlled Tipping/Burial Sanitary Landfill System
Steps in Controlled Tipping
• Choosing a suitable site, usually wasteland, to be
reclaimed within reasonable distance from habitation.
• Transporting the generated wastes to the site by
appropriately designed vehicles.
• Laying the wastes in appropriate heap to a
predetermined height
• Compacting the layer mechanically.
• Covering the compacted layer with a thin layer of earth
22 cm depth at the end of each work day. The same
steps are repeated for each work period
Solid Waste Disposal
3. Incineration
• Incineration is a process of burning the combustible
components of garbage at temperatures high
enough to destroy contaminants. It reduces volume
of waste by 20-30% of original volume.
MINING
Mining
• Is the extraction of valuable minerals or
geological materials from the surface or under
the surface of the Earth.
• Mining products usually have high economic
value and are particularly useful to mankind.
• Examples of these products are metals like
copper, gold, and zinc as well as gems like
rubies, sapphires, and diamonds.
Thought Provoking Question

WHAT LEADS TO THE

INCREASE IN DEMAND
FOR MINING MINERALS
AND OTHER METALS?
Importance of Mining
• The mining industry supplies materials that are
used for a wide variety of applications.
• Metals are used to construct roads and
establishments, build automobiles and houses,
and make computers and satellites.
• The mined metals can also be used to generate
electricity and serve as components of the
gadgets that we use a lot.
Importance of Mining
• Gems have high economic value and are
regarded as status symbols for the wealthy
• In addition to these, mining is also an
economically important industry to regions and
countries that serve as reservoirs of mining
products.
• The Philippines, in particular, is the fifth most
mineral-rich country in the world for gold, nickel,
copper, and chromite.
Types of Mining
1. Surface Mining
• Removing of shallow mineral deposits in which
vegetation, soil, and rock overlying a mineral
deposit are cleared away.
• The soil and rock, called overburden, are usually
deposited in piles of waste material called spoils.
• Surface mining is used to extract about 90% of the
non-fuel mineral resources.
Types of Mining
1. Surface Mining

•The type of surface mining used depends on

two factors:
•The resource being sought
•The local topography
Types of Mining
1.1 Open-pit Mining
• Machines are used to dig very large holes and
remove metal ores containing copper, gold, or
other metals, or sand, gravel, or stone.
Types of Mining
1.2 Strip Mining
• Strip mining is the process of removing a thin strip of
overburden above a desired deposit, dumping the
removed overburden behind the deposit, extracting the
desired deposit, creating a second, parallel strip in the
same manner, and depositing the waste materials from
that second (new) strip onto the first strip. And so on.
Types of Mining
1.3 Mountain Top Removal Mining
• The top of the mountain is removed to expose seams of coal,
which are then extracted.
• After a mountain top is blown apart, enormous machines plow
waste rock and dirt into valleys below the mountain tops.
• This destroys forests, buries mountain streams, and increases the
risk of flooding.
Types of Mining
1.4 Contour Strip Mining
• It is used mostly to mine coal and various mineral
resources on hilly or mountainous terrain.
• Huge power shovels and bulldozers cut a series of
terraces into the side of a hill.
Types of Mining
2. Subsurface Mining
• Used to excavate deep deposit minerals in which
underground mineral resources are removed
through tunnels and shafts.
• This method is used to remove metal ores and
coal that are too deep to be extracted by
surface mining.
• Subsurface mining disturbs less than one-tenth as
much land as surface mining disturbs, and it
usually produces less waste material.
Types of Mining
2. Subsurface Mining
• However, it creates hazards such as cave-ins,
explosions, and fires.
• Miners often get lung diseases caused by prolonged
inhalation of mineral or coal dust in subsurface
mines.
Types of Mining
3. Placer Mining

• Placers are unconsolidated deposits with detrital

material containing valuable minerals.
• They are often formed from weathering
processes due to natural forces like water and
wind.
Types of Mining
3. Placer Mining
• It uses water to separate valuable ore from
the surrounding sediment in the streambed.
Types of Mining
4. In-situ Mining
• In in-situ mining (Latin meaning "on site"), leaching
involves using boreholes that are drilled into a deposit.
• Chemicals are pumped through the boreholes to dissolve
that minerals in a solvent and siphon it onto the surface.
The leaching solution used is often either an acid or
carbonate.
Environmental Impacts
• The environmental impacts of mining
on the environment are often huge.
• It can drastically alter the conditions
in a particular area in just a short
period of time, especially if the
sustainability measures are not
observed.
Environmental Impacts
Some of the environmental impacts of mining
include:
•Soil erosion
•Sinkholes
•Loss of biodiversity
•Contamination of soil, groundwater, and
surface water
•Increase in carbon emissions
Laws Governing the Mining
Industry
Republic Act No. 7942
• Also known as the Philippine Mining Act of 1995, this
law aims to promote proper exploration,
development, utilization, and conservation of our
mineral resources through the combined efforts of the
government and the private sector.
Laws Governing the Mining
Industry
Republic Act No. 7942
• The Philippines, being the fifth most mineral-rich
countries in the world have a huge potential to be
developed if our mineral resources are conserved and
utilized properly.
Laws Governing the Mining
Industry
Republic Act No. 7942
• It is worth noting that the law recognizes the rights of
indigenous people (IP) to their ancestral domains,
mandating royalty payments to the IP communities
should be given for the minerals in their areas were to
be utilized.
Laws Governing the Mining
Industry
Republic Act No. 7076
• This act is also known as the People's Small-scale Mining
Act of 1991.
• Its main objective is to promote small-scale mining
activities and give access and more opportunities for
small-scale miners to partake in the land's natural
resources.
Possible Solutions to Land Pollution
Make people aware of the concept of 4Rs.
Refuse: Don’t use it. Refuse disposable plastic
whenever and wherever possible. Choose items
that are not packaged in plastic, and carry your
own bags, containers and utensils. Say 'no straw,
please.'
Reduce: Use less. Reduce your plastic footprint. Cut
down on your consumption of goods that contain
excessive plastic packaging and parts. If it will
leave behind plastic trash, don't buy it.
Possible Solutions to Land Pollution
Make people aware of the concept of 4Rs.
Reuse: Use it over and over. Reuse durable, non-toxic
straws, utensils, to go containers, bottles, bags, and
other everyday items. Choose glass, paper, stainless
steel, wood, ceramic and bamboo over plastic.
Recycle: Convert it to useful items and buy products
made from recycled materials. Recycle what you
can’t refuse, reduce or reuse. Pay attention to the
entire life cycle of items you bring into your life, from
source to manufacturing to distribution to disposal.
Possible Solutions to Land Pollution

• Reduce the use of pesticides and fertilizers in

agricultural activities.
• Buy Biodegradable products
• Create dumping ground away from residential
areas.
• Education is the key to mitigate the land pollution
problem.
The Green Revolution -
Land Pollution A
Documentary
([Link])
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LISTENING