12/30/2010

PICENG 226 Instrumentation I Chapter 8 Recent development in transducers

Recent development
in transducers

Instructor : Dr. Hayat Abdulla Yusuf

Adapted from: Dr. Mansour Nour-Eddin

PICENG 226 Instrumentation I Chapter 8 Recent development in transducers

Chapter 8: Recent Development in

Transducers

Part 1: Transmitters: pneumatic,

electrical and optical

Part 2: smart and micro devices

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PICENG 226 Instrumentation I Chapter 8 Recent development in transducers

Transmitters: definition

 Transmitters transmit /send out measurement signals

distances from the point of measurement to the place where
the signals are recorded and/or used in a process control
system.
 Transmitter converts measured quantities, e.g.
differential pressure, static pressure, and ambient
temperature measurements, into a standardized analogue or
digital output signals.
 Communication with the analog transmitter is carried
out via local manual means, including switches.

 Communication with the newer intelligent device is

carried out via digital electronic techniques (via smart
microprocessor-based electronics..

PICENG 226 Instrumentation I Chapter 8 Recent development in transducers

Types of Transmitters

Generally, Signals can be transmitted

1) Electrically

2) Pneumatically

3) Optically, or by radiotelemetr (fibre-optic

transmission and optical wireless transmission.

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PICENG 226 Instrumentation I Chapter 8 Recent development in transducers

1. Electrical transmitters

Methods of electrical transmitting:

a) Current loop transmission (varying current)

b) Transmission as varying voltages (analogue

voltage).

c) Superimposed on an a.c. carrier system

The first method will be covered here

PICENG 226 Instrumentation I Chapter 8 Recent development in transducers

a) Current loop -electrical

transmission:

 Current loop transmission and uses currents in the

range between 4mA and 20mA to represent the
voltage level of the analogue signal. It requires a
voltage-to-current converter which is commonly known
as a 4–20mA current loop interface

 The use of a positive, non-zero current level to

represent a zero value of the transmitted signal
enables transmission faults to be readily identified.

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PICENG 226 Instrumentation I Chapter 8 Recent development in transducers

2. Pneumatic transmitters

 In recent years, pneumatic transmission tends to

have been replaced by other alternatives in most new
implementations of instrumentation systems, although
many examples can still be found in operation in the
process industries.

 Pneumatic transmission consists of

transmitting analogue signals as a varying
pneumatic pressure level that is usually in the
range of 3–15 psi. A few systems also use
alternative ranges of 3–27 psi. or 6–48 psi.

PICENG 226 Instrumentation I Chapter 8 Recent development in transducers

Selected
examples of
Transmitters

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PICENG 226 Instrumentation I Chapter 8 Recent development in transducers

Optical transmission

 There are two forms of optical transmission:

Fibre optics and wireless transmission.

Fibre-optics which will be covered in this section

PICENG 226 Instrumentation I Chapter 8 Recent development in transducers

Transmitters: Fibre-optic
transmission
 Advantages of Light over electricity as a
medium for transmitting information:
a) It is intrinsically safe
b) Noise corruption of signals by neighbouring
electromagnetic fields is almost eliminated.
c) Optical signal attenuation along a fibre-optic
link is much less than electric signal attenuation
along an equivalent length of metal conductor.
 However, it is of the higher cost compared with
the cost of metal conductors (electrical
transmitter).

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PICENG 226 Instrumentation I Chapter 8 Recent development in transducers

Uses of fibre optics:

Fibre-optic cables are used for signal transmission in three

distinct ways:

1. Relatively short fibre-optic cables are used as part of

various instruments to transmit light from conventional
sensors to a more convenient location for processing,
often in situations where space is very short at the
point of measurement.

2. Longer fibre optic cables are used to connect remote

instruments to controllers in instrumentation networks.

3. Even longer links are used for data transmission systems

in telephone and computer networks.

PICENG 226 Instrumentation I Chapter 8 Recent development in transducers

Principles of fibre optics

 The central part of a fibre optic system is a light

transmitting cable containing at least one, but more often a
bundle of fibres.
 This is terminated at each end by a transducer
(transmitter and receiver),
At the input end, the transducer converts the signal from
the electrical form in which most signals originate into light.
At the output end, the transducer converts the transmitted
light back into an electrical form suitable for use by data
recording, manipulation and display systems.

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PICENG 226 Instrumentation I Chapter 8 Recent development in transducers

Principles of fibre optics

The refractive index of the inner material is greater than
that of the outer material, and the relationship between
the two refractive indices affects the transmission
characteristics of light along the cable. The amount of
attenuation of light as it is travels along the cable varies
with the wavelength of the light transmitted.

Forms of fibre optics

Monomode and multimode are
the two forms of fibre optics:
 Monomode cables have a small diameter core,
typically 6 μm. They are used for most communication
links longer than 550 meters (1,800 ft).
Multimode cables have a much larger core, typically
between 50 μm and 200 μm in diameter.

PICENG 226 Instrumentation I Chapter 8 Recent development in transducers

Materials of fibre optics

Both glass and plastic in different combinations are used in
various forms of cable:

1. One option is to use different types of glass fibre for

both the core and the cladding.

2. A second, and cheaper, option is to have a glass fibre

core and a plastic cladding. This has the additional
advantage of being less brittle than the all-glass version.

3. Finally, all-plastic cables also exist, where two types of

plastic fibre with different refractive indices are used. This
is the cheapest form of all but it has the disadvantage of
having high attenuation characteristics, making it
unsuitable for transmission of light over medium to large
distances.

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PICENG 226 Instrumentation I Chapter 8 Recent development in transducers

Transmitter’s and receiver’s

properties

 A fibre-optic transmitter usually consists of a light-

emitting diode (LED). This converts an electrical signal into
light and transmits it into the cable. The LED is particular
suitable for this task as it has an approximately linear
relationship between the input current and the light
output.

 The proportion of light transmitted into the cable

is dependent on the proper alignment of the
transmitter with the centre of the cable.

PICENG 226 Instrumentation I Chapter 8 Recent development in transducers

Transmitter’s and receiver’s properties

The cost of producing exact alignment of the
transmitter and cable is very high, as it requires the LED
to be exactly aligned in its housing, the fibre to be
exactly aligned in its connector and the housing to be
exactly aligned with the connector.

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PICENG 226 Instrumentation I Chapter 8 Recent development in transducers

Transmitter’s and
receiver’s properties

The fibre-optic receiver is usually either a PIN diode

or phototransistor. Phototransistors have good
sensitivity but only have a low bandwidth. On the other
hand, PIN diodes have a much higher bandwidth but a
lower sensitivity. If both high bandwidth and high
sensitivity are required, then special avalanche
photodiodes are used, but at a severe cost penalty.

The output voltages from the receiver are very small and
amplification is always necessary. The system is very prone
to noise corruption at this point. However, the development
of receivers that incorporate an amplifier are finding great
success in reducing the scale of this noise problem.

PICENG 226 Instrumentation I Chapter 8 Recent development in transducers

Transmission
characteristics

 Light entering from the external medium with refractive

index n0 at an angle ˛α0 will be refracted at an angle α1 in the
core and, when it meets the core-cladding boundary, part will
be reflected at an angle ß1 back into the core and part will be
refracted at an angle ß2 in the cladding. ˛α1 and ˛ α0 are
related by Snell’s law:

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PICENG 226 Instrumentation I Chapter 8 Recent development in transducers

Transmission
characteristics

1. If ß2 <90°, then the refracted ray will travel along

the boundary between the core and cladding

2. if ß2 > 90°, all of the beam will be reflected back

into the core.

3. The case where ß2 =90°, corresponding to incident

light at an angle ˛αc,

PICENG 226 Instrumentation I Chapter 8 Recent development in transducers

Chapter 8: Recent Development in

Transducers

Part 1: Transmitters: pneumatic,

electrical and optical

Part 2: smart and micro devices

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PICENG 226 Instrumentation I Chapter 8 Recent development in transducers

Smart and intelligent devices

Using modern integrated circuit technology, the sensor, signal
conditioning, ADC, DAC, computer and communication interface
are all contained within the sensor housing. This integrated
system can function on limited power available at the transducer
in a conventional 4-20 mA measurement circuit. These devices
are termed smart devices

PICENG 226 Instrumentation I Chapter 8 Recent development in transducers

Smart features of smart

and intelligent sensors

1. Linearization, Characterization and Correction of the

Primary Sensor Characteristics
The presence of memory and computing power at the
device permits the signal to be conditioned before
onward transmission.

2. Inclusion of Control Functions and Other Algorithms

The microprocessors used in smart and intelligent
sensors are more than capable of carrying out the
relatively simple computation involved in on-off, two-
term or three-term control, and some instruments now
available provide this feature. Tuning of the loop is
then implemented using the communication link.

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PICENG 226 Instrumentation I Chapter 8 Recent development in transducers

Smart features of smart

and intelligent sensors
3. Expression of the Measurement in Engineering Units
This is done in several ways such as (a) by adjustment
of the 4-20 mA signal using span and zero setting
functions, (b) by digital communication to set the
scaling of an instrument so that the measured variable
(e.g. flow rate) shown on the hand-held communicator
(HHT) or on the operator display appears in the
desired or specific units of measure, (c) by pulse
output for totalization at a frequency proportional to
the measured variable and counting these pulses
externally or in the instrument itself to provide a
totalized read-out, and fail-safe features by providing
diagnostic routines and flagging out problems.

PICENG 226 Instrumentation I Chapter 8 Recent development in transducers

Smart features of smart

and intelligent sensors

[Link] of Span and Zero

This feature permits the full range of the analog output signal
(usually 4-20 mA) to be used for a range which is less than
the total measurement range of the primary sensor.

5. Adjustment of Damping, Time Constant or Response

Time
Most sensors provide a selectable damping, time constant or
response time to permit fluctuations of the measured variable
or electronic noise to be reduced in the output signal.

6. Diagnostic Routines and Status Information

The information such as normal status of the instrument and
the diagnostic of fault or unusual process conditions is
primarily of interest in plant maintenance

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PICENG 226 Instrumentation I Chapter 8 Recent development in transducers

MEMS Technology:
microdevices

• What is MEMS?
– Acronym for Microelectromechanical Systems
– “MEMS is the name given to the practice of making and
combining miniaturized mechanical and electrical
components.”– K. Gabriel, SciAm, Sept 1995.

• Synonym to:
– Micromachines (in Japan)
– Microsystems technology (in Europe)

• MEMS is the most important recent technological

development in the area of transducers, sensors, and
actuators is micro-electro-mechanical systems
– Thousands of MEMS devices (scale from ~ 0.2 m to 1
mm) could be made simultaneously on a single silicon
wafer

PICENG 226 Instrumentation I Chapter 8 Recent development in transducers

Microsensors

 Microsensors, are sensors which are fabricated using

predominantly the bulk- and surface-micromachining
technologies. Microsensor has at least one physical dimension
at the micro-submillimeter level.'

There have been rapid developments in the field of

microsensors during the past 10 years, and a sharp increase
has taken place in the size of the world market, which has
become some billions of euros today

Some sensing devices have a part or all of the processing

functions integrated onto the same silicon substrate. We
refer to these devices as smart sensors (discussed
previously).

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PICENG 226 Instrumentation I Chapter 8 Recent development in transducers

Dimensions of microsensors,
compared with some
everyday objects.

*The horizontal
axis has a
logarithmic scale.

PICENG 226 Instrumentation I Chapter 8 Recent development in transducers

Examples of microsensors/Smart
sensors

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PICENG 226 Instrumentation I Chapter 8 Recent development in transducers

Electronic Nose (s)

zNose ©

[Link]

• FUNCTION: ID gases and quantify concentrations (ppb- ppt)

• APPLICATION: Air, Water, Soil, Plant volatiles. . .
• PRINCIPLE: SAW sensor(s) & Micro-GC
• PROS: Quick (10 sec), Small, Sensitivity, Remote option
• CONS:
• COMPANY: Estcal, JPL
• COST: $19, 450 - $24, 950+

PICENG 226 Instrumentation I Chapter 8 Recent development in transducers

Electronic Tongue

• FUNCTION: ID chemical composition of liquids

• APPLICATION: Dissolved organics & inorganics,
Aquatic mold growth, Soil analysis
• PRINCIPLE: 100’s of microsensors on chip,
Colors change depending on chemicals,
Results read by camera on a chip
• PROS: Cheap, Disposable, Qualitative, Quantitative,
Several analyses simultaneously
• CONS: not commercially available in US
• COMPANY: ALPHA M.O.S, Vusion, Inc.
UT Austin, JPL
[Link] [Link]

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PICENG 226 Instrumentation I Chapter 8 Recent development in transducers

Sap Flow Sensors

• FUNCTION: Measures Sap Velocity g/hr (transpiration)

• APPLICATION: herbs, grasses, shrubs, trees
[Link]
• PRINCIPLE: thermocouples (heat), plant energy balance
• PROPERTIES: Real-Time, No calibration, non-intrusive
• CONSTRAINS: need many, not wireless
• COMPANY: Dynamax, Advanced Measurements
and Controls Inc, Delta-T
• COST: $200 - $3500+

PICENG 226 Instrumentation I Chapter 8 Recent development in transducers

Radio & Acoustic Telemetry

- [Link]
[Link]

• FUNCTION: Organism tracking & Sensing

• APPLICATION: Birds, Bats, Fish, Reptiles, Mammals
• PRINCIPLE: Micro-sensors (position, pressure, temp), Radio & Acoustic
waves
• PROS: Wireless, Small, Long use history, No calibration, Real-time option
• CONS: Intrusive, Power limitations
• COMPANY: Lotek, Telonics Inc, Holohil Systems Ltd
• COST: $135 - $350+

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PICENG 226 Instrumentation I Chapter 8 Recent development in transducers

Mini-weather stations

Micro-hygrometer

• FUNCTION: Pressure, Temperature,

Micro-hygrometer, Radiation
Densitometer, Laser Doppler
anemometer
• APPLICATION: in-situ microclimate data
• PRINCIPLE: Micro-sensor clusters
[Link]
• PROS: Accuracy, Fast response, Low mass &
Volume, Cheap
• CONS: not yet available
• COMPANY: JPL, GWU
• COST: will be relatively cheap

PICENG 226 Instrumentation I Chapter 8 Recent development in transducers

Portable Gas Chromatograph

•Alkanes
•Cyclo-Alkanes
•Alkenes
•Alcohols
•Aromatics
•Ketones
•Esters
•Organo
Phosphonates
•Pesticides
•Amines
•Pyridines
•Phenols
- [Link] •Organic Acids
•Aldehydes
•Halides
• FUNCTION: Vapor detector
• APPLICATION: Trace gases emissions
• PRINCIPLE: Ion mobility spectrometry, Gas chromatography
• PROS: Real-time, No carrier gas, ppb sensitivity, Hand portable, Reliable,
Good reproducibility
• CONS: Expensive
• COMPANY: Femtoscan, HAPSITE

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PICENG 226 Instrumentation I Chapter 8 Recent development in transducers

Chem-lab on a chip

• FUNCTION: Autonomous chemical detector

• APPLICATION: Gas, Liquid, DNA
• PRINCIPLE: GC/LC separator &
coated SAW array
• PROS: Ppb level detection, Gas & Liquid, Small
• CONS: not yet available
• COMPANY: Sandia, Eksigent Technologies
• COST: ~$5000
[Link]

PICENG 226 Instrumentation I Chapter 8 Recent development in transducers

Sensor Webs

• FUNCTION: Wireless microsensor clusters for

Spatial and Temperal monitoring
• APPLICATION: Terrestrial, Atmosphere, Gases
• PRINCIPLE: Microsensor clusters, RF telemetry
• PROS: Small, Wireless, Low power, Custom sensor
design, Affordable.
• COMPANY: Kevin Delin – JPL
• COST: $750 / pod

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