*Stonehenge* is a monument
from the past. This shows us
what life was like in Britain in
2500 BC. The building was built
on Salisbury Plain 5,000 to 4,300
years ago. This is one of the
most famous and mysterious
archaeological sites in the world
One mystery about it is how it was made using the technology available at the
time. Some of its stones come from over 200 miles away in Wales. Another is
how it will be used.
Why Was Stonehenge Built?
By Hugh Wilson
One of the greatest mysteries in archaeology is the purpose
behind Stonehenge's construction. New theories have emerged
over the past four thousand years, including the possibility that it
served as a healing site.
What do we know so far?
Stonehenge was built in several stages over a long period, from
around 3000 BC to 1600 BC. This monumental project
showcased the advanced skills of ancient builders. It required
immense effort and resources, making it one of the most
significant landmarks in late Neolithic Europe.
However, the most crucial question remains unanswered: Why
was it built? Archaeologists have made progress in understanding
the 'how,' 'what,' and 'when' of Stonehenge, but the 'why' still
eludes us. Even after four millennia, the purpose of this iconic
structure continues to be a mystery
8
A New Theory on Stonehenge
Two of Britain’s leading archaeologists, Professor Timothy Darvill
and Professor Geoff Wainwright, both renowned experts on
Stonehenge, may have found the answer to the mystery
surrounding the ancient monument. Unlike many who believe
Stonehenge served as a sacred site or a calendar, Darvill and
Wainwright propose that it was actually a place of healing.
"Wainwright states, “The whole purpose of Stonehenge is that it
was a prehistoric Lourdes. People came here to be made well."
This groundbreaking idea comes from a new interpretation of the
stones in the henge and the human remains found nearby.
Darvill and Wainwright suggest that the smaller bluestones at the
center of the circle, rather than the larger sarsen stones on the
outside, are key to understanding Stonehenge's purpose. These
bluestones were transported 250 kilometers from the mountains of
southwest Wales using Stone Age technology, indicating that the
journey had significant meaning. The archaeologists believe this
significance lies in the stones' supposed healing powers, linked to
their connection with traditional healing springs.
"There is an astonishing and unusual amount of skeletal trauma
Furthermore,
found the human
in the bones bones
excavated excavated
near from the
Stonehenge," area
says appear
Darvill. to
"This
support this
suggests thathealing
the sitetheory.
served as a place of pilgrimage for those
seeking healing."
People who were ill or injured traveled to Stonehenge, hoping the
stones could provide a miraculous cure or relief from their
suffering.
While Darvill and Wainwright believe the idea of Stonehenge as a
prehistoric center for healing is the most compelling explanation to
date, the archaeological community remains divided. When this
theory was first presented at a talk in London in 2006, it garnered a
fair amount of support but also left some attendees astonished.
Understanding the purpose of Stonehenge has proven just as
challenging for archaeologists as constructing the massive stone
circle itself; there has been little consensus on its true function.
9
1
1 PREIDSTORIC BRITAIN
The narrative of prehistoric Britain started when human ancestors first
emerged in Britain approximately 900,000 years earlier. Homo sapiens
emerged approximately 30,000 years ago. The first humans were
hunter-gatherers who resided in caves or basic shelters. They sustained
themselves by hunting creatures and gathering food to consume. During
the Early Stone Age, many years ago, Britain was connected to mainland
Europe and was enshrouded in ice. In the Middle Stone Age, Britain was
connected to Europe via a large land bridge known as Doggerland,
enabling humans to travel without restrictions. The present state of the
English Channel was a vast river moving westward, supported by tributaries
that eventually turned into the Thames and Seine. Britain transformed into
an island at the onset of the Late Stone Age, around 6000 BC, as the
melting ice sheet formed the English Channel. In this time, a significant
transformation occurred as individuals discovered farming. They cleared
extensive tracts of land and established small communities to reside in.
Neolithic individuals utilized flint, antler, and bone to create tools and honed
the craft of producing clay pots. They interred their deceased in expansive
tombs called long barrows and constructed massive stone circles for
outdoor rituals.
People of the Bronze Age resided in small groups governed by a chieftain
warrior. They came together for religious rituals and constructed circular
burial mounds, referred to as round barrows, for significant individuals. The
Beaker culture extended to Britain as well. Their lifestyle included crafting
pottery and metalwork, hosting feasts, and constructing stone circles.
Circles of standing stones started to be constructed in Britain during the
Bronze Age (after 2500 BC). The most renowned is Stonehenge, yet at
least 900 stone circles persisted long enough to be documented. Numerous
stone circles were built within pre-existing "henges," which are circular
earthworks featuring a ditch and bank encircling a central platform.
In simple terms, the site's orientation allows the viewing of astronomical
occurrences like the summer and winter solstice. Armed with that
knowledge, our ancient forebears could determine precisely their position
in the seasonal cycle and identify when the location would be at its most
powerful.
But would they truly have invested so much time and effort in building
something that we now consider to be a given? Certain archaeologists
thought they would.
Stonehenge provided a means to determine calendar dates in the
absence of alternative methods. Precise dating allows more effective and
fruitful agriculture, along with the acknowledgment of significant religious
and social occasions.
A site for devotion?
However, the most well-known theory regarding the purpose of
Stonehenge has persisted since significant archaeological efforts on the
site commenced hundreds of years ago. The magnificent standing
stones, reaching skyward from the timeless plain, undoubtedly evoke a
sense of spiritual awe.
Active in the early eighteenth century, William Stukeley was a significant
pioneer of archaeology at Stonehenge. He was amazed by its inherent
spirituality.
"When you step into the structure..." he penned in the early 1720s, "and
survey the surrounding yawning ruins, you are plunged into an ecstatic
reverie, which no one can articulate."
Numerous individuals since Stukeley have sensed the energy of the
'yawning ruins' and arrived at the belief that Stonehenge served as a site
of worship.
Memorial for the dead?
A recent project led by Professor Michael Parker Pearson from the
University of Sheffield has sought to situate Stonehenge within a broader
context of religious rituals.
His understanding contrasts with that of Darvill and Wainwright. Stonehenge
was not a site for the living, regardless of being unhealthy or in peak
condition. It served as a memorial for those who have passed away.
Parker Pearson states, "Stonehenge was constructed not for the temporary
dwellers but for the ancestors whose lasting presence was embodied in
stone."
10
The Celts likely came to Britain in two distinct waves: the
Goidelic-speaking Celts from 2000 BC to 1200 BC and the
Brythonic-speaking Celts during the time frame of 500 BC to 400 BC.
(Contemporary Welsh and Cornish originate from Brythonic;
contemporary Scottish and Irish Gaelic stem from the Goidelic). A
smaller influx of Belgic Celts settled in Southern England during the
first century BC, potentially escaping the Roman invasions.
The Celtic language has had minimal impact on contemporary
English, as it was largely erased during the Anglo-Saxon invasions.
The old Celtic term "uisge" (meaning water) persists in different
geographical names, such as the River Ouse and, when paired with
the Latin word for camp, castra, the city of Exeter. It is also the source
of whisky.
Peoples of Britain
By Dr Simon James
Prior to Rome: the 'Celts'
Toward the conclusion of the Iron Age (approximately the final 700 years BC), we
receive our initial firsthand descriptions of Britain from Greco-Roman writers,
particularly Julius Caesar, who launched invasions in 55 and 54 BC. These indicate
a mosaic of named groups (Trinovantes, Silures, Cornovii, Selgovae, etc.), but there
is minimal evidence that such communities had any sense of shared identity, similar
to how the islanders of AD 1000 did not all see themselves as 'Britons'.
Referring to the British Iron Age as 'Celtic' is so deceptive that it should be
discarded.
Nonetheless, there is one aspect that the Romans, contemporary archaeologists,
and the Iron Age islanders alike would concur on: they were not Celts. This was a
creation from the 18th century; the term had not been used before. The concept
originated from the finding around 1700 that the island languages, which are not
English, are connected to those of the ancient continental Gauls, who were indeed
referred to as Celts. This age-old continental ethnic term was used for the broader
group of languages. However, 'Celtic' quickly came to encompass insular
monuments, art, culture, and peoples, both ancient and contemporary: island 'Celtic'
identity emerged, akin to Britishness, in the 18th century.
12
A landing platform?
An even more astonishing origin is proposed by alternative theories of
Stonehenge. For certain individuals in the enthusiastic 1970s, Stonehenge served
as a landing spot for visitors from beyond Earth. One can fairly conclude that the
archaeological proof for this - possibly laser weapons and jetpacks - has not been
discovered yet.
Nevertheless, modern technology has enabled us to challenge certain early
interpretations of Stonehenge's purpose. It is known that Stonehenge was not a
temple of the Romans, and precise dating has indicated that it was finished at
least a millennium prior to the time the Druids inhabited the British Isles.
The idea of Stonehenge resembling a prehistoric Lourdes seems to be more
convincing.
Source: h1tp:l/[Link]/historyla11cie11tl
brit ish_prehistorylheali11g_stones. shtml
In the Iron Age, agriculture thrived and the population in Britain increased
rapidly. However, it was an extremely brutal period. Tribes battled one
another, and numerous individuals resided in hill forts for their protection.
The Iron Age Celtic culture spread across north-western [Link]
appears that the Celts had blended with the individuals who
were present already; it is understood that sacred locations established
well before they came remained in use during Celtic periods.
The Celts were the dominant group in central and northern Europe. They
were agricultural workers and resided in small community clusters within
the heart of their cultivated lands. They were also a combative people.
They constructed settlements and hilltop forts, utilizing iron weapons and
tools. The Celts battled the inhabitants of Britain as well as other Celtic
groups. Celtic tribes known as Britons inhabited Britain. The Gaels,
known as Celts, resided in Ireland. Celtic society was organized into
tribes, with each kinship group governed by a king. Beneath the king
stood nobles who were also warriors - several of them rich enough to
possess intricately adorned armor. The Druids, as the priestly class, held
minimal political influence just prior to the Roman invasion. Elite women
occasionally held significant political positions in Celtic society.
Numerous others opted to remain in place. They remained in Britain and adapted to the
Roman way of life.
Documented accounts of English history emerge solely with the Romans' arrival. For the
numerous centuries prior, there is solely archaeological proof of the people living in Britain.
Among the historical data that exists from before that time, we can highlight a written account
created by the Greek explorer Pytheas, who investigated the coastal area of Britain around
325 BC. Nonetheless, there could be further details regarding Britain in the "Ora Maritima," a
work that is currently lost but which is
integrated into the composition of the subsequent writer Avienus.
Several Roman authors depicted the ancient Britons. Their texts offer a significant source of
proof regarding life in Iron Age Britain. Julius Caesar similarly documented Britain around 50
BC following his two military campaigns to the island in 5 and 54 BC.
Commentaries on the Gallic War
By Julius Caesar
4.20. During the brief remainder of summer, although winters are
early in these regions—since all of Gaul is situated to the
north—Caesar decided to venture into Britain. He realized that in
nearly all conflicts with the Gauls, assistance had been provided to
his adversaries from that land. Even if the season was not adequate
for conducting a full-scale war, he believed it would be highly
beneficial to at least set foot on the island, learn about the people,
and familiarize himself with their terrain, ports, and landing sites,
most of which were largely unfamiliar to the Gauls. For no one, apart
from merchants, typically visits that place, and even they are only
familiar with the sea-coast and areas directly across from Gaul.
Consequently, after he had called together merchants from various
regions, he was unable to discover the island's dimensions, the
number or identity of its inhabitants, their methods of warfare, their
customs, or which ports were suitable for accommodating many
large vessels.
14
Nevertheless, language does not define ethnicity (which would categorize
the contemporary islanders as 'Germans', as they primarily communicate in
English, categorized as a Germanic language). And regardless, no one is
certain how or when the languages we refer to as 'Celtic' came to the
archipelago - they were already well-established and had branched into
various dialects by the time our documentation starts.
It is clear that there is no justification for connecting the arrival of the 'Celtic'
language with significant 'Celtic invasions' from Europe in the Iron Age, as
there is no solid evidence indicating such events occurred.
Archaeologists generally concur on two points regarding the British Iron
Age: its various regional cultures emerged from the local Bronze Age that
preceded it, rather than from waves of 'Celtic' invaders from the continent.
Additionally, referring to the British Iron Age as 'Celtic' is so deceptive that it
should be discarded. Certainly, there are significant cultural resemblances
and links among Britain, Ireland, and continental Europe, indicative of close
interactions and likely the migration of certain individuals, yet this can also
be claimed for various other historical periods.
The items we have termed 'Celtic' symbols - including hill-forts, art,
weaponry, and jewelry - were primarily related to aristocratic, political,
military, and religious ties rather than shared ethnicity. Examine the
subsequent instances of medieval Catholic Christianity, European
Renaissance culture, or even the Hellenistic Greek Mediterranean alongside
the Roman world—all exhibit comparable. trends of cultural exchange and
imitation among the influential, transcending ethnic divisions.
Source: [Link] 11k/history/ancie11tl
british_prehistory/peop/es_O I .shtml
The prehistoric era in Britain concluded in AD43 with the arrival of the
Romans. In 55 BC, Julius Caesar attempted to invade Britain,
but he was repelled by British fighters. The following year, he attempted
once more and did not succeed. His second
The invasion was likely an effort to take control of at least the southeast
portion of Britain. Nearly a century later, in AD43, the Roman general
Agricola initiated a fresh invasion. This time, the Romans defeated the
ancient Britons, resulting in Britain becoming a component of the Roman
Empire. Gradually, individuals ceased to reside in tribes and started
adopting a Roman lifestyle. Certain ancient Britons fled to Cornwall,
Wales, and Scotland, where they maintained their Celtic traditions.
13
(…)
4.33. The Britons fight using their chariots in this manner: they first move
in various directions, hurling their weapons, and disrupt the enemy's lines
through the fear instilled by their horses and the clatter of their wheels.
Once they have positioned themselves among the cavalry, they jump
from their chariots and fight on foot. The charioteers, in the meantime,
pull back a short distance from the fight, positioning their chariots so that
if their riders are overwhelmed by enemy forces, they can swiftly retreat
to their allies. Therefore, they exhibit in combat the swiftness of cavalry,
along with the steadfastness of foot soldiers
(….)
5.11. Upon his arrival, larger numbers of Britons had already gathered at
that location, with the overall leadership and conduct of the conflict
assigned to Cassivellaunus, whose lands are separated from the coastal
regions by a river known as the Thames, approximately eighty miles from
the sea. In the past, ongoing conflicts had occurred between him and the
neighboring states; however, deeply concerned by our arrival, the Britons
had appointed him to oversee the entire war and its management.
5.12. The inland areas of Britain are populated by individuals who,
according to tradition, were born on the island; the coastal regions are
settled by those who arrived from the territory of the Belgae with the intent
of raiding and waging war; nearly all of these people are referred to by the
names of the regions they originated from before migrating to Britain,
where, after engaging in warfare, they chose to reside and started to farm
the land. The population is countless, and their structures are exceedingly
numerous, largely resembling those of the Gauls; the amount of livestock
is substantial. They utilize either brass or iron rings, set at a specific
weight, as their currency. Tin is generated in the central areas; in the
coastal regions, iron is found; yet, the amount is limited: they utilize brass.
that is brought in. There, like in Gaul, is wood of every kind, except beech
and fir. They consider it unlawful to consume the hare, the rooster, and the
goose; nevertheless, they raise them for entertainment and enjoyment.
The climate is milder compared to Gaul, with the winters being less
harsh....
(….)
The most cultured of all these nations are those living in Kent, which is
wholly a coastal area, and they do not diverge significantly from Gallic
traditions. The majority of people living inland do not cultivate corn but
survive on milk and meat, and wear animal hides. All Britons certainly color
themselves with woad, which results in a bluish hue, thus giving them a
more fearsome look in combat.
15
They keep their hair long and shave every part of their body except for
their head and upper lip. Ten and even twelve have shared wives,
particularly brothers with brothers, and fathers with sons; however, if
any children result from these unions, they are considered the
offspring of the man the mother first married while she was a virgin.
Source: Marque/le University Ancient History and Archaeology Book 4 of Gallic Wars
and Book 5 of the Gallic Wars (with some revisions). Ihttps:/[Link]. wise.
edulsommervillell 23/ I 23%20week I .HTM]
Activities
1. What does “prehistoric” mean? Explain in your own words.
2. Why was the discovery of bronze important in prehistoric times?
3. Who were the Celts, and how do we know about them?
4. How did Britain become an island?
5. Write an essay about What is culture? and give examples of
cultural traditions from prehistoric times.
6. Write a news report about the beginning of the construction of
Stonehenge.
7. Write a short newspaper article about Julius Caesar visiting the
British Isles.
16
And what chances for individual progress did certain Britons capitalize on,
while many others remained so steadfast in their opposition that, over 400
years of Roman rule, Britain never completely relinquished its identity as a
military border province? What exactly was the true narrative?
What led Claudius to launch an invasion?
Almost a decade passed before Rome invaded Britain once more. Following
Caesar's campaign, the geographer Strabo penned, perhaps rather
defensively, that "even though the Romans could have occupied Britain,
they chose not to, as they recognized there was nothing to fear from the
Britons (for they are not strong enough to invade and assault us), and", he
added, "they understood that seizing and controlling their land offered no
real benefits."
Despite his limping, trembling state and lack of military experience,
Emperor Claudius understood (much like Caesar) that he required military
victories to maintain his rule, and that a celebrated invasion could offer him
the highest honor attainable by any Roman: a triumphal procession in Rome
and all the associated fame and admiration. A successful conquest of a
barbarian territory would also help to uplift Roman spirits and divert
attention from domestic issues.
He was adequately prepared. Three years prior, Emperor Caligula had
assembled legions specifically to invade Britain but never deployed them.
They were unoccupied and perilously fidgety; thus, when a plea for
assistance arrived from Verica of the Atrebates tribe (who had been
removed from authority by Caratacus, ruler of the Catuvellauni tribe),
Claudius was prepared.
20
2
THE ROMAN PERIOD (43 - 410)
21
Source: /11tp://11111111'. history ext ra. com/a rt icle/ro111a11sl
ro111a11-i11vasi011-whose-side-were-brito11s-0
22
r
19
3
1 THE GERMANIC INVASIONS (410 -1066)
23
28
4
1 NORMAN BRITAIN (1066 - 1154)
-��-::z )YZ-
•• (� :-
-,, IS5'"t. ,
11
·:"'-'r12%.a ,niJ.:, ..,�
�
33
30
37
38
29
Source: [Link]
a11glo_saxo11sltirthur_Ol.s/11111/
32
Source: [Link] 111isc.ed11/so111111en1ille/
123/I 23%20week3.ht111
40
5
1 THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD (1154 - 1485)
39
Source: [Link]
sommerville/123/I 23%[Link]
42
The Wars of the Roses (1455-1485)
46
48
6
1 TUDORS (1485 -1603)
47
49
7
CIVIL WAR, RESTORATION
AND REVOLUTION (1603 - 1714)
Source: h11p:l/11•w11·.pau/[Link]/11pload/
publida11achme111s/9/News/e11er20/-[Link]
51
50
One man's view of Cromwell, in verse
John Milton
Cromwell, our chief of men, who through a cloud
Not of war only, but detractions rude,
Guided by faith and matchless fortitude,
To peace and truth thy glorious way hast plough'd,
And on the neck of crowned Fortune proud
Hast rear'd God's trophies, and his work pursu'd,
While Darwen stream with blood of Scots imbru'd,
And Dunbar field, resounds thy praises loud,
And Worcester's laureate wreath; yet much remains
To conquer still: peace hath her victories
No less renown'd than war. New foes arise
Threat'ning to bind our souls with secular chains:
Help us to save free Conscience from the paw
Of hireling wolves whose gospel is their maw.
54
8
CENTURY OF PROGRESS
59
Source: l111p://[Link]/
sommen•ille/I 23/l 23%20week [Link]
57
56
55