First Edition, 2007

ISBN 978 81 904575 0 7

© All rights reserved.

Published by:

Global Media
1819, Bhagirath Palace,
Chandni Chowk, Delhi-110 006
Email: globalmedia@[Link]
 Table of Contents

1. Air Injection System

2. Internal Combustion Engine

3. Engine Adjustment and Testing

4. Gasoline Fuel Systems

5. Fuel Engine

6. Exhaust and Emission Control Systems

7. Comustion Chamber Design

8. Types of Governors

9. Fuel Injection Systems

10. Fuel Pump

11. Injectors

12. Celect System

13. General Troubleshooting

14. Engine Lubricating Systems

15. Superchargers and Turbochargers

16. Types of Brakes

AIR INJECTION SYSTEM

An air injection system (fig. 4-51) forces fresh air into the exhaust ports of the engine to
reduce HC and CO emissions. The exhaust gases leaving an engine can contain unburned
and partially burned fuel. Oxygen from the air injection system causes this fuel to
continue to burn. The major parts of the system are the air pump, the diverter valve, the
air distribution manifold, and the air check valve.

• The AIR PUMP is belt-driven and forces air at low pressure into the system. A
hose is connected to the output of the diverter valve.
• The DIVERTER VALVE keeps air from entering the exhaust system during
deceleration. This prevents backfiring in the exhaust system. Also, the diverter
valve limits maximum system air pressure when needed, releasing excessive
pressure through a silencer or a muffler.
• AIR DISTRIBUTION MANIFOLD directs a stream of fresh air toward each
engine exhaust valve.
• Fittings on the air distribution manifold screw into a threaded hole in the exhaust
manifold or cylinder head.
• AIR CHECK VALVE is usually located in the line between the diverter valve and
the air distribution manifold. It keeps exhaust gases from entering the air injection
system.

Basic operation of the air injection system is as follows:

1. When the engine is running, the spinning vanes of the air pump force air
into the diverter valve. If not decelerating, the air is forced through the
diverter valve, the check valve, the air injection manifold, and into the
engine. The fresh air blows on the exhaust valves.
2. During periods of deceleration, the diverter valve blocks air flow into the
engine exhaust manifold. This prevents a possible backfire that could
damage the exhaust system of the vehicle. When needed, the diverter
valve will release excess pressure in the system.
POSITIVE CRANKCASE VENTILATION (PCV) SYSTEM

The positive crankcase ventilation system uses manifold vacuum to purge the crankcase
blow-by fumes. The fumes are then aspirated back into the engine where they are
reburned.

A hose is tapped into the crankcase at a point that is well above the engine oil level. The
other end of the hose is tapped into the intake manifold or the base of the carburetor.

NOTE
An inlet breather is installed on the crankcase in a location that is well above the level of
the engine oil. The inlet breather also is located strategically to ensure complete purging
of the crankcase fresh air. The areas of the crankcase where the vacuum hose and inlet
breather are tapped have baffles to keep motor oil from leaving the crankcase.

A flow control valve is installed in the line that connects the crankcase to the manifold. It
is called a positive crankcase ventilation (PCV) valve (fig. 4-52) and serves to avoid the
air-fuel mixture by doing the following:

• Any periods of large throttle opening will be accompanied by heavy engine loads.
Crankcase blow-by will be at its maximum during heavy engine loads. The PCV
valve will react to the small amount of manifold vacuum that also is present
during heavy engine loading by opening fully through the force of its control
valve spring. In this way, the system provides maximum effectiveness during
maximum blow-by periods.
• Any period of small throttle opening will be accompanied by small engine loads,
high manifold vacuum, and a minimum amount of crankcase blow-by. During
these periods, the high manifold vacuum will pull the PCV valve to its position of
minimum opening. This is important to prevent an excessively lean air-fuel
mixture.
• In the event of engine backfire (flame traveling back through the intake
manifold), the reverse pressure will push the rear shoulder of the control valve
against the valve body. This will seal the crankcase from the backfire which could
otherwise cause an explosion. The positive crankcase ventilation system can be
either the open or closed type (fig. 4-52).
• The open type has an inlet breather that is open to the atmosphere. When this
system is used, it is possible for a portion of the crankcase blow-by to escape
through the breather whenever the engine is under a sustained heavy load.
• The closed type has a sealed breather that is connected to the air filter by a hose.
Any blow-by gases that escape from the breather when this system is used will be
aspirated into the carburetor and reburned.
EXHAUST GAS RECIRCULATION (EGR) SYSTEM

When the temperature of the combustion flame exceeds approximately 2,500°F, the
nitrogen that is present in the intake air begins to combine with oxygen to produce oxides
of nitrogen (NOX). The exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) system (fig. 4-53) helps to
control the formation of oxides of nitrogen by recirculating a portion of the exhaust gases
back through the intake manifold, resulting in cooler combustion chamber temperatures.

A basic EGR system is simple, consisting of a vacuum operated EGR valve and a
vacuum line from the carburetor. The EGR valve usually bolts to the engine intake
manifold or a carburetor plate. Exhaust gases are routed through the cylinder head and
intake manifold to the EGR valve.
The EGR valve consists of a vacuum diaphragm, a spring, an exhaust gas valve, and a
diaphragm housing. It is designed to control exhaust flow into the intake manifold.

Although there are minor differences between systems, the basic operation of an exhaust
gas recirculation system is as follows:

• At idle, the throttle plate in the carburetor or fuel injection throttle body is closed.
This blocks off engine vacuum, so it cannot act on the EGR valve. The EGR
spring holds the valve shut, and the exhaust gases do NOT enter the intake
manifold. If the EGR valve were to open at idle, it could upset the air-fuel mixture
and the engine would stall.
• When the throttle plate is swung open to increase speed, engine vacuum is applied
to the EGR hose. Vacuum pulls the EGR diaphragm up. In turn, the diaphragm
pulls the valve open. Engine exhaust can enter the intake manifold and
combustion chambers. At higher engine speeds, there is enough air flowing into
the engine that the air-fuel mixture is not upset by the open EGR valve.

There are two different methods of supply vacuum to the EGR valve. The first method
uses a vacuum port into the carburetor throat located just above the throttle plate. As the
throttle begins to open, vacuum will begin to be applied to the port and operates the EGR
valve. The valve will continue to operate fully until approximately half throttle is
reached. As the throttle is open past the halfway point, exhaust gas recirculation
gradually will diminish to zero, as the throttle approaches the fully opened position.

The second method uses a vacuum port that is directly in the carburetor venturi (fig. 4-
53). The carburetor venturi provides vacuum for the EGR valve any time the engine is
running at high speed. The problem with using venturi vacuum is that it is not strong
enough to open the EGR valve. So to make it work, manifold vacuum is used to operate
the EGR valve through a vacuum amplifier. The vacuum amplifier switches the manifold
vacuum supply to the EGR valve whenever venturi vacuum is applied to its signal port.
At times of large engine loading (wide, open throttle), manifold vacuum will be weak,
producing the desired condition of no exhaust gas recirculation.

An engine coolant temperature switch may be used to prevent exhaust gas recirculation
when the engine is cold. A cold engine does not have extremely high combustion
temperatures and does not produce very much NOx . By blocking vacuum to the EGR
valve below 100°F, you can improve the drivability and performance of the cold engine.
FUEL EVAPORIZATION CONTROL SYSTEM

The fuel evaporization control system prevents vapors from the fuel tank and carburetor
from entering the atmosphere (fig. 4-54). Older, pre-emission vehicles used vented fuel
tank caps. Carburetor bowls were also vented to the atmosphere. This caused a
considerable amount of emissions. Modern vehicles commonly use fuel evaporization
control systems to prevent this source of pollution. The major components of the fuel
evapotization control systems are the sealed fuel tank cap, fuel air dome, liquid-vapor
separator, roll-over valve, fuel tank vent line, charcoal canister, carburetor vent line, and
the purge line.
 • SEALED FUEL TANK CAP is used to keep fuel vapors from entering the
atmosphere through the tank filler neck. It may contain pressure and vacuum
valves that open in extreme cases of pressure or vacuum.
• When the fuel expands (from warming), tank pressure forces fuel vapors out a
vent line or line at the top of the fuel tank, not out of the cap.
• FUEL AIR DOME is a hump designed into the top of the fuel tank to allow for
fuel expansion. The dome normally provides about 10 percent air space to allow
for fuel heating and volume increase.
• LIQUID-VAPOR SEPARATOR is frequently used to keep liquid fuel from
entering the evaporation control system. It is simply a metal tank located above
the main fuel tank. Liquid fuel condenses on the walls of the separator and then
flows back into the fuel tank.
• ROLL-OVER VALVE is sometimes used in the vent line from the fuel tank. It
keeps liquid fuel from entering the vent line after an accident where the vehicle
rolled upside down. The valve contains a metal ball or plunger valve that blocks
the vent line when the valve is turned over.
• FUELTANK VENTLINE carries fuel vapors up evaporization control to a
charcoal canister in the engine compartment
• CHARCOAL CANISTER stores fuel vapors when the engine is NOT running.
The metal or plastic canister is filled with activated charcoal granules capable of
absorbing fuel vapors.
• CARBURETOR VENT LINE connects the carburetor fuel bowl with the charcoal
canister. Bowl vapors flow through this line and into the canister.
• PURGE LINE is used for removing or cleaning the stored vapors out of the
charcoal canister. It connects the canister and the engine intake manifold.

Basic operation of a fuel. system is as follows:

1. When the engine is running, intake manifold vacuum acts on the purge line,
causing fresh air to flow through the filter at the bottom of the canister. The
incoming fresh air picks up the stored fuel vapors and carries them through the
purge line. The vapors enter the intake manifold and are pulled into the
combustion chambers for burning.
2. When the engine is shut off, engine heat produces excess vapors. These vapors
flow through the carburetor vent line and into the charcoal canister for storage.
The vapors that form in the tank flow through the liquid vapor separator into the
tank vent line to the charcoal canister. The charcoal canister absorbs these fuel
vapors and holds them until the engine is started
DIESEL FUEL SYSTEMS

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the different type of diesel fuel systems, how the
components function to provide fuel to the engine in proper quantities, and servicing of
the diesel fuel systems.

Maintenance personnel form part of an important network of dedicated people who

ensure that medium-and heavy-duty trucks and construction equipment are kept in a state
of safe and acceptable performance standards. The diesel fuel injection system is a major
component of a properly operating engine. An engine out of adjustment can cause
excessive exhaust smoke, poor fuel economy, heavy carbon buildup within the
combustion chambers, and short engine life.

DIESEL FUEL SYSTEMS

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Identify the properties of diesel fuel. Describe the function
and operation of governors and fuel system components.
Like the gasoline engine, the diesel engine is an internal combustion engine using either a
two- or four-stroke cycle. Burning or combustion of fuel within the engine cylinders
obtains power. The diesel engine does not use a carburetor because the diesel fuel is
mixed in the cylinder with compressed air.

Compression ratios in the diesel engine range between 14:1 and 19:1. This high ratio
causes increased compression pressures of 400 to 600 psi and cylinder temperature reach
800°F to 1200°F. At the proper time, the diesel fuel is injected into the cylinder by a fuel
injection system, which usually consists of a pump, fuel line, and injector or nozzle.
When the fuel oil enters the cylinder, it will ignite because of the high temperatures. The
diesel engine is known as a compression-ignition engine, while the gasoline engine is a
spark-ignition engine.

Figure 5-1 shows the comparison of the four strokes of a four-cycle diesel engine and a
four-cycle gasoline engine.

The speed of a diesel engine is controlled by the amount of fuel injected into the
cylinders. In a gasoline engine, the speed of the engine is controlled by the amount of air
admitted into the carburetor or gasoline fuel injection systems.

Mechanically, the diesel engine is similar to the gasoline engine. The intake,
compression, power, and exhaust strokes occur in the same order. The arrangement of the
pistons, connecting rods, crankshaft, and engine valves is about the same. The diesel
engine is also classified as in-line or v-type.

In comparison to the gasoline engine, the diesel engine produces more power per pound
of fuel, is more reliable, has lower fuel consumption per horsepower per hour, and
presents less of a fire hazard.

These advantages are partially offset by higher initial cost, heavier construction needed
for its high compression pressures, and the difficulty in starting which results from these
pressures.
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Identify the series of events, as they occur, in both a gasoline
engine and a diesel engine. Describe the differences between a four-stroke cycle engine
and a two-stroke cycle engine.
Combustion is the act or process of burning. An “external” or “internal” combustion
engine is defined simply as a machine that converts heat energy into mechanical energy.
Figure 2-1 shows, in simplified form, an external and an internal combustion engine.

In the internal combustion engine, combustion takes place inside the cylinder and is
directly responsible for forcing the piston to move down. With an external combustion
engine, such as a steam engine, combustion takes place outside the engine. The external
combustion engine requires a boiler to which heat is applied. This combustion causes
water to boil to produce steam. The steam passes into the cylinder under pressure and
forces the piston to move downward.
The transformation of heat energy to mechanical
energy by the engine is based on the
fundamental law of physics which states that gas
expands when heated. The law also states that
when gas is compressed, the temperature of the
gas increases. if the gas is confined with no
outlet for expansion, then the pressure of the gas
increases when heat is applied. In the internal
combustion engine, the burning of fuel within an
enclosed cylinder results in an expansion of
gases. This expansion creates pressure on top of
the piston, causing it to move downward. In an
internal combustion engine, the piston moves up
and down within the cylinder. The relationship
between volume, pressure, and temperature
within a cylinder of the engine is explained in
the chart below and shown in Figure 2-2. Note
the changes within the cylinder while the
temperature outside remains a constant 70°F.

This up-and-down motion is known as

reciprocating motion. This motion (straight-line
motion) mustbe changed into rotary motion
(turning motion) to turn the wheels of a vehicle.
A crankshaft and a connecting rod change their
reciprocating motion to rotary motion.

All internal combustion engines, whether

gasoline or diesel, are basically the same. We
can best demonstrate this by saying they all rely
on three things—fuel, air, and ignition.

Fuel contains potential energy for operating the

engine; air contains the oxygen necessary for
combustion; and ignition starts combustion.
Each one is fundamental, and an engine cannot
operate without them. Any discussion of engines
must be based on these three factors and the
steps and mechanisms involved in delivering
them to the combustion chamber at the proper
time.
DEVELOPMENT OF POWER
The power of an internal combustion engine comes from burning a mixture of fuel and
air in a small, enclosed space. When this mixture bums, it expands greatly, and the push
or pressure created is used to move the piston, thereby rotating the crankshaft. This
motion is eventually sent to the wheels that move the vehicle.
Since similar action occurs in each cylinder of an engine, let’s use one cylinder to
describe the steps in the development of power. The one-cylinder engine consists of four
basic parts, as shown in Figure 2-3.

First, we must have a cylinder that is closed at one end; this cylinder is similar to a tall
metal can that is stationary within the engine block.
Inside this cylinder is the piston—a movable plug. It fits snugly into the cylinder but can
still slide up and down easily. This piston movement is caused by fuel burning in the
cylinder and results in production of reciprocating motion.
You have already learned that the up-and-down movement of the piston is called
reciprocating motion. This motion must be changed into rotary motion, so the wheels or
tracks of a vehicle can rotate. This change is accomplished by a throw on the crankshaft
and the connecting rod which connects the piston and crankshaft throw.
The throw is an offset section of the crankshaft that scribes a circle, as the shaft rotates.
The top end of the connecting rod is connected to the piston and must therefore go up and
down. The lower end of the connecting rod is attached to the crankshaft. The lower end
of the connecting rod also, moves up and down but because it is attached to the
crankshaft, it must also move in a circle.
When the piston of the engine slides downward because of the pressure of the expanding
gases in the cylinder, the upper end of the connecting rod moves downward with the
piston in a straight line. The lower end of the connecting rod moves down and in a
circular motion at the same time. This moves the throw and, in turn, the throw rotates the
crankshaft; this rotation is the desired result. So remember, the crankshaft and connecting
rod combination is a mechanism for the purpose of changing straight line, or
reciprocating motion to circular, or rotary motion.
FOUR-STROKE-CYCLE ENGINE

Each movement of the piston from top to bottom or from bottom to top is called a stroke.
The piston takes two strokes (an up stroke and a down stroke), as the crankshaft makes
one complete revolution Figure 2-4 shows the motion of a piston in its cylinder. The
piston is connected to the rotating crankshaft by a connecting rod. In view A of Figure 2-
4, the piston is at the beginning or top of the stroke. As the crankshaft rotates, the
connecting rod pulls the piston down. When the crankshaft has rotated one-half turn, the
piston is at the bottom of the stroke. Now look at view B of Figure 2-4. As the crankshaft
continues to rotate, the connecting rod begins to push the piston up. The position of the
piston at the instant its motion changes from down to up is known as bottom dead center
(BDC). The piston continues moving upward until the motion of the crankshaft causes it
to begin moving down. This position of the piston at the instant its motion changes from
up to down is known as top dead center (TDC). The term dead indicates where one
motion has stopped (the piston has reached the end of the stroke) and its opposite turning
motion is ready to start. These positions are called rock positions and discussed later
under “Timing.”

The following paragraphs provide a simplified explanation of the action within the
cylinder of a four-stroke cycle gasoline engine. It is referred to as a four-stroke cycle
because it requires four complete strokes of the piston to complete one engine cycle.
Later a two-stroke cycle engine is discussed. The action of a four-stroke cycle engine
may be divided into four parts: the intake stroke, the compression stroke, the power
stroke, and the exhaust stroke.
Intake Stroke
The first stroke
in the sequence
is called the
intake stroke
(figs. 2-5 and 2-
6). During this
stroke, the piston
is moving
downward and
the intake valve
is open. This
downward
movement of the
piston produces
a partial vacuum
in the cylinder,
and the air-fuel
mixture rushes
into the cylinder
past the open
intake valve.
This is
somewhat the
same effect as
when you drink
through a straw.
A partial
vacuum is
produced in the
mouth and the
liquid moves up
through the
straw to fill the
vacuum.

Compression
Stroke
When the piston
reaches bottom
dead center
(BDC) at the end
of the intake
stroke and is
therefore at the
bottom of the
cylinder, the
intake valve
closes. This
seals the upper
end of the
cylinder. As the
crankshaft
continues to
rotate, it pushes
up through the
connecting rod
on the piston.
The piston is
therefore pushed
upward and
compresses the
combustible
mixture in the
cylinder; this is
called the
compression
stroke (figs. 2-5
and 2-6). In
gasoline
engines, the
mixture is
compressed to
about one eighth
of its original
volume; this is
called 8 to 1
compression
ratio. This
compression of
the air-fuel
mixture
increases the
pressure within
the cylinder.
Compressing the
mixture makes it
even more
combustible; not
only does the
pressure in the
cylinder
increase, but the
temperature of
the mixture also
increases.

Power Stroke
As the piston
reaches top dead
center (TDC) at
the end of the
compression
stroke and
therefore has
moved to the top
of the cylinder,
the compressed
air-fuel mixture
is ignited. The
ignition system
causes an
electric spark to
occur suddenly
in the cylinder,
and the spark
ignites the air-
fuel mixture. In
burning, the
mixture gets
very hot and
tries to expand
in all directions.
The pressure
rises between
600 to 700
pounds per
square inch.
Since the piston
is the only thing
that can move,
the force
produced by the
expanded gases
forces the piston
down. This
force, or thrust,
is carried
through the
connecting rod
to the crankshaft
throw on the
crankshaft. The
crankshaft is
given a powerful
push This is
called the power
stroke (figs. 2-5
and 2-6). This
turning effort,
rapidly repeated
in the engine and
carried through
gears and shafts,
turns the wheels
of a vehicle and
causes it to
move.

Exhaust Stroke
After the air-fuel
mixture has
burned, it must
be cleared from
the cylinder.
This is done by
opening the
exhaust valve
just as the power
stroke is
finished, and the
piston starts
back up on the
exhaust stroke
(figs. 2-5 and 2-
6). The piston
forces the
burned gases out
of the cylinder
past the open
exhaust valve.
TWO-STROKE-CYCLE ENGINE
In the two-stroke-cycle engine (fig. 2-7), the same four events (intake, compression,
power, and exhaust) take place in only two strokes of the piston and one complete
revolution of the crankshaft. The two piston strokes are the compression stroke (upward
stroke of the piston) and power stroke (the downward stroke of the piston). Remember
that a diesel engine has six events that must happen to complete a cycle of operation. To
better understand the cycle of operation that happens inside the cylinders of a two-stroke
diesel engine, refer to the chart below while reviewing Figure 2-7.
As shown earlier, a power stroke is produced every crankshaft revolution within the two-
stroke-cycle engine, whereas the four-stroke-cycle engine requires two revolutions for
one power stroke. It might appear then that the two-stroke-cycle engine can produce
twice as much power as the four-stroke-cycle engine of the same size, operating at the
same speed; however, this power increase is limited to approximately 70 to 80 percent
because some of the power is used to drive a blower that forces the air charge into the
cylinder under pressure. Also, the burned gases are not completely cleared from the
cylinder, reducing combustion efficiency. Additionally, because of the much shorter
period the intake port is open (compared to the period the intake valve in a four stroke is
open), a relatively smaller amount of air is admitted. Hence, with less air, less power per
stroke is produced in a two-stroke-cycle engine.
You need to know the differences between a two-stroke and four-stroke engine. Study the
following chart.
Figure 2-8 shows a comparison of events that occur during the same length of time for
both two-stroke- and four-stroke-cycle engines. Notice the shaded areas that represent the
overlapping of events.

TWO-STROKE-CYCLE ENGINE
In the two-stroke-cycle engine (fig. 2-7), the same four events (intake, compression,
power, and exhaust) take place in only two strokes of the piston and one complete
revolution of the crankshaft. The two piston strokes are the compression stroke (upward
stroke of the piston) and power stroke (the downward stroke of the piston). Remember
that a diesel engine has six events that must happen to complete a cycle of operation. To
better understand the cycle of operation that happens inside the cylinders of a two-stroke
diesel engine, refer to the chart below while reviewing Figure 2-7.
As shown earlier, a power stroke is produced every crankshaft revolution within the two-
stroke-cycle engine, whereas the four-stroke-cycle engine requires two revolutions for
one power stroke. It might appear then that the two-stroke-cycle engine can produce
twice as much power as the four-stroke-cycle engine of the same size, operating at the
same speed; however, this power increase is limited to approximately 70 to 80 percent
because some of the power is used to drive a blower that forces the air charge into the
cylinder under pressure. Also, the burned gases are not completely cleared from the
cylinder, reducing combustion efficiency. Additionally, because of the much shorter
period the intake port is open (compared to the period the intake valve in a four stroke is
open), a relatively smaller amount of air is admitted. Hence, with less air, less power per
stroke is produced in a two-stroke-cycle engine.
You need to know the differences between a two-stroke and four-stroke engine. Study the
following chart.
Figure 2-8 shows a comparison of events that occur during the same length of time for
both two-stroke- and four-stroke-cycle engines. Notice the shaded areas that represent the
overlapping of events.
ENGINE ADJUSTMENT AND TESTING

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe The techniques used in adjusting engine valves.

Recognize basic engine testing procedures and required tools.

Proper and uniform valve adjustments are required for a smooth running engine. Unless
the clearance between the valve stems and rocker arms or valve lifters is adjusted
according to the manufacturer’s specifications, a valve does not open and close at the
proper time, and engine performance is affected.

A good auto shop provides accurate and dependable testing equipment. But having the
testing equipment in the shop is not enough. The supervisor and technicians must know
how to use this equipment properly since it provides the quickest and surest means of
determining what is wrong and where the fault lies.
VALVE ADJUSTMENT

Valve adjustment, also called tappet clearance adjustment or

rocker adjustment, is critical to the performance and service
life of an engine. If the valve train is too loose (too much
clearance), it can cause valve train noise (tapping or
clattering noise from the rocker striking the valve stems).
This can increase part wear and cause part breakage. Valves
that are adjusted too tight (inadequate clearance) may be
held open or may not close completely. This can allow
combustion heat to blow over and burn the valve.

When reassembling an engine after reconditioning the

valves, make sure the adjusting screws are backed off before
rotating the engine. A valve that is too tight could strike the
piston and damage either the piston or the valve, or both.
Adjust the valve according to manufacturer’s specifications,
following the recommended procedure.

On any engine, after valve adjustments have been made, be

sure that the adjustment locks are tight and that the valve
mechanism covers and gaskets are in place and fastened
securely to prevent oil leaks.

Overhead Valves

Most overhead valves are adjusted "hot"; that is, valve clearance recommendations are
given for an engine at operating temperature. Before valve adjustments can be made
properly, the engine must be run and brought up to normal operating temperature.

To adjust a valve, remove the valve cover and measure the clearance between the valve
stem and the rocker arm. Loosen the locknut and turn the adjusting screw in the rocker
arm, as shown in figure 3-74. On engines with stud-mounted rocker arms, make the
adjustment by turning the stud nut.

Valves in Block

This type of valve arrangement is not commonly seen in the field; however, the
adjustment procedure is described in case you should happen to run across this type.

Valves within the block are adjusted "cold"; that is, recommended valve clearances are
provided for a cold engine. These valves have mechanisms quite similar to overhead
valves. They are adjusted by removing the side cover plate beneath the intake manifold
on the side of the engine block (fig. 3-75). Since you must stop the engine to adjust the
valves, the piston in the cylinder must be on TDC of the compression stroke. You can
determine this by watching the valves of the piston that is paired with the one that is
being set. As the cylinder that is being positioned is coming up on the compression
stroke, the paired cylinder is coming up on the exhaust stroke; therefore, the exhaust
valve is open. Just as the exhaust valve closed and the intake valve begins to open, the
cylinder to be set is on TDC of the compression stroke, and you can set the two valves.
Once the No. 1 cylinder is positioned, follow through according to the firing order of the
engine, as this makes the job easier and faster. You may also use this procedure when
adjusting valves on overhead engines.
Hydraulically Operated Valves

On engines with hydraulic valve lifters, it is not necessary to adjust the valve
periodically. The engine lubrication system supplies a flow of oil to the lifters at all
times. These hydraulic lifters operate at zero clearance and compensate for changes in
engine temperature, adapt automatically for minor wear at various points, and provide
ideal valve timing.

To adjust hydraulic lifters with the engine off, turn the crankshaft until the lifter is on the
camshaft base circle (not the lobe). The valve must be fully closed.

Loosen the adjusting nut until you can wiggle the pushrod up and down. Then slowly
tighten the rocker until all play is out of the valve train (cannot wiggle pushrod). Repeat
the adjusting procedure on the other rockers.

To adjust hydraulic lifters with the engine running, install a special oil shroud or some
other device for catching oil spray off the rocker. Start and run the engine until it reaches
operating temperature. Tighten all rockers until they are quiet. One at a time, loosen a
rocker until it clatters. Then tighten the rocker slowly until it quiets down. This is zero
valve lash.

OHC Engine Valves

There are several different methods of adjusting the valves

on an overhead cam (OHC) engine. Many are adjusted like
mechanical lifters in a pushrod engine.

The rocker arm adjuster is turned until the correct size feeler
gauge fits between the rocker or cam lobe and the valve
stem.

Valve adjusting shims may also be used on OHC engines

for the cam-to-valve clearance. To determine whether shims
are required, measure the valve clearance with a feeler
gauge. Then, if needed remove or change the shim thickness
as necessary.

Other OHC engines have an Allen adjusting screw in the

cam followers. Turning the screw changes the valve
clearance. Always refer to the manufacturer’s manual for
detailed instructions.

COMPRESSION TEST

A compression test is one of the most common methods for determining the mechanical
condition of an engine. It should be done when symptoms (engine miss, rough idle,
puffing noise in induction or exhaust) point to major engine problems. Measure
compression pressures of all cylinders with a compression gauge (fig. 3-76). Then
compare them with each other and with the manufacturer's specifications for a new
engine. This provides an accurate indication of engine condition.

When gauge pressure is lower than normal, pressure is leaking out of the combustion
chamber. Low engine compression can be caused by the following conditions:

• BLOWN HEAD GASKET (head gasket ruptured).

• PHYSICAL ENGINE DAMAGE (hole in piston, broken valve, etc.).
• BURNED VALVED SEAT (cylinder head seat damaged by combustion).
• BURNED VALVE (valve face damaged by combustion heat).
• WORN RINGS OR CYLINDERS (part wear that prevents a ring-to-cylinder
seal).
• VALVE TRAIN TROUBLES (valve adjusted with insufficient clearance. This
keeps the valve from fully closing. Also, broken valve spring, seal, or retainer).
• JUMPED TIMING CHAIN OR BELT (loose or worn chain or belt has jumped
over teeth, upsetting valve timing).

To perform a compression test on a gasoline engine, use the following procedures:

1. Remove all spark plugs so the engine can rotate easily. Block open the

carburetor or fuel injection pump throttle plate. This prevents restricted air

flow into the engine.

2. Disable the ignition system to prevent sparks from arcing out of the
disconnected spark plug wires. Usually, the feed wire going to the ignition
coil can be removed to disable the system.
 3. If the engine is equipped with electronic fuel injection, it should also be
disabled to prevent fuel from spraying into the engine. Check the
manufacturer’s manual for specific directions.
4. Screw the compression gauge into one of the spark plug holes. Some
gauges have a tapered rubber-end plug and must be held by hand securely
in the spark plug opening until the highest reading is obtained.
5. Crank the engine and let the engine rotate for about four to six
compression strokes (compression gauge needle moves four to six times).
Write down the gauge readings for each cylinder and compare them to the
manufacturer’s specifications.

The compression test for a diesel engine is similar to that of a gasoline engine; however,
do not use the compression gauge intended for a gasoline engine. It can be damaged by
the high-compression-stroke pressure. A diesel gauge must be used that reads up to
approximately 600 psi.

To perform a diesel compression test, use the following procedures:

1. Remove all injectors or glow plugs. Refer to the manufacturer’s manual for
instructions.
2. Install the compression gauge in the recommended opening. A heat shield must be
used to seal the gauge when it is installed in place of the injector.
3. Disconnect the fuel shut-off solenoid to disable the fuel injection pump.
4. Crank the engine and note the highest reading on the gauge.

A wet compression test should be used when cylinder pressure reads below the
manufacturer's specifications. It helps you to determine what engine parts are causing the
problem. Pour approximately 1 tablespoon of 30-weight motor oil into the cylinder
through the spark plug or injector opening, then retest the compression pressure.

If the compression reading goes up with oil in the cylinder, the piston rings and cylinders
may be worn and leaking pressure. The oil will temporarily coat and seal bad
compression rings to increase pressure; however, if the compression reading stays about
the same, then engine valves or head gaskets may be leaking. The engine oil seals the
rings, but does not seal a burned valve or a blown head gasket. In this way, a wet
compression test helps diagnose low-compression problems.

Do not put too much oil into the cylinder during a wet compression test or a false reading
may result. With excessive oil in the cylinder, compression readings go up even if the
compression rings and cylinders are in good condition.

NOTE

Some manufacturers warn against performing a wet compression test on diesel

engines. If too much oil is squirted into the cylinder, hydraulic lock and part
damage may result, because oil does not compress in the small cylinder volume.
Compression readings for a gasoline engine should 3-46 run around 125 to 175 psi. The
compression should not vary over 15 to 20 psi from the highest to the lowest cylinder.
Readings must be within 10 to 15 percent of each other. Diesel engine compression
readings average approximately 275 to 400 psi, depending on the design and compression
ratio. Compression levels must not vary more than about 10 to 15 percent (30 to 50 psi).
Look for cylinder variation during an engine compression check. If some cylinders have
normal pressure readings and one or two have low readings, engine performance is
reduced. If two adjacent cylinders read low, it might point to a blown head gasket
between the two cylinders. If the compression pressure of a cylinder is low for the first
few piston strokes and then increases to near normal, a sticking valve is indicated.
Indications of valve troubles by compression test may be confirmed by taking vacuum
gauge readings.

VACUUM GAUGE TEST

When an engine has an abnormal compression reading, it is likely that the cylinder head
must be removed to repair the trouble. Nevertheless, the mechanics should test the
vacuum of the engine with a gauge. The vacuum gauge provides a means of testing intake
manifold vacuum, cranking vacuum, fuel pump vacuum, and booster pump vacuum. The
vacuum gauge does not replace other test equipment, but rather supplements it and
diagnoses engine trouble more conclusively.

Vacuum gauge readings are taken with the engine running and must be accurate to be of
any value; therefore, the connection between the gauge and the intake manifold must be
leakproof. Also, before the connection is made, see that the openings to the gauge and the
intake manifold are free of dirt or other restrictions.

When a test is made at an elevation of 1,000 feet or less, an engine in good condition,
idling at a speed of about 550 rpm, should give a steady reading from 17 to 22 inches on
the vacuum gauge. The average reading will drop approximately 1 inch of vacuum per
1,000 feet at altitudes of 1,000 feet or higher above sea level.
When the throttle is opened and closed suddenly, the vacuum reading should first drop
about 2 inches with the throttle open, and then come back to a high of about 24 inches
before settling back to a steady reading as the engine idles, as shown in figure 3-77. This
is normal for an engine in good operating condition.

If the gauge reading drops to about 15 inches and remains there, it would indicate
compression leaks between the cylinder walls and the piston rings or power loss caused
by incorrect ignition timing. A vacuum gauge pointer indicating a steady 10 inches, for
example, usually means that valve timing of the engine is incorrect. Below-normal
readings that change slowly between two limits, such as 14 and 16 inches, could indicate
a number of problems. Among them are improper carburetor idling adjustment,
maladjusted or burned breaker points, and spark plugs with the electrodes set too closely.

A sticking valve could cause the gauge pointer to bounce from a normal steady reading to
a lower reading and then bounce back to normal. A broken or weak valve spring can
cause the pointer to swing widely, as the engine is accelerated. A loose intake manifold
or leaking gasket between the carburetor and manifold shows a steady low reading on the
vacuum gauge.

A vacuum gauge test only helps to locate the trouble. It is not conclusive, but as you gain
experience in interpreting the readings, you can usually diagnose engine behavior.
CYLINDER LEAKAGE TEST

Another aid in locating compression leaks is the cylinder leakage tester. The principle
involved is that of simulating the compression that develops in the cylinder during
operation. Compressed air is introduced into the cylinder through the spark plug or
injector hole, and by listening and observing at certain key points, you can make some
basic deductions.

The commercial testers, such as the one shown in figure 3-78, have a gauge indicating a
percentage of air loss. The gauge is connected to a spring-loaded diaphragm. The source
of air is connected to the instrument and counterbalances the action of the spring against
the diaphragm. By adjusting the spring tension, you can calibrate the gauge properly
against a variety of air pressure sources within a given tolerance.

In making a cylinder leakage test, remove all spark plugs, so each piston can be
positioned without the resistance of compression of the remaining cylinders.
Next, place the piston at TDC or "rock" position between the compression and power
strokes. Then you can introduce the compressed air into the cylinder. Note that the engine
tends to spin. Now, by listening at the carburetor, the exhaust pipe, and the oil filler pipe
(crankcase), and by observing the coolant in the radiator, when applicable, you can
pinpoint the area of air loss. Aloud hissing of air at the carburetor indicates a leaking
intake valve, or valves. Excessive hissing of air at the oil filler tube (crankcase) indicates
an excessive air leak past the piston rings. Bubbles observed in the coolant at the radiator
indicates a leaking head gasket As in vacuum testing, indications are not conclusive. For
instance, a leaking head gasket may prove to be a cracked head, or bad rings may be a
scored cylinder wall. The important thing is that the source of the trouble has been
pinpointed to a specific area, and a fairly broad, accurate estimate of repairs or
adjustments required can be made without dismantling the engine.
GASOLINE FUEL SYSTEMS
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the different types of
gasoline fuel systems, how the components function to
provide fuel to the engine in proper quantities, and
servicing of the gasoline fuel system.

The purpose of the fuel system of the internal combustion

engine is to provide a combustible mixture of fuel and air to
the engine cylinders. The ratio of fuel to air must always be
in correct proportions regardless of the speed and load of the
engine.

GASOLINE FUEL SYSTEMS

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Identify the properties of

gasoline and the components of a fuel system.

The function of both the carburetor fuel system and the fuel
injection system is to supply a combustible mixture of air
and fuel to the engine. Major elements of the gasoline fuel
supply system include the following: fuel tank and cap, fuel
system emission controls, fuel lines, fuel pump, fuel filter,
carburetor or fuel injection system, air cleaner, and exhaust
system. Before discussing the components of a gasoline fuel
system, you should understand the composition and
properties of gasoline.

GASOLINE

Gasoline is a highly volatile flammable liquid hydrocarbon mixture used as a fuel for
internal-combustion engines. Acomparatively economical fuel, gasoline is the primary
fuel for automobiles worldwide. Chemicals, called additives, such as lead, detergents, and
anti-oxidants, are mixedinto gasoline to improve its operating characteristics.

Antiknock additives are used to slow down the ignition and burning of gasoline. This
action helps to prevent engine ping or knock (knocking sound produced by abnormal and
excessively rapid combustion). Leaded gasoline has lead antiknock additives. The lead
allows a higher engine compression ratio to be used without the fuel igniting prematurely.

Leaded gasoline is designed to be. used in older vehicles that have little or no emission
controls.

The fuel used today is unleaded gasoline. Unleaded gasoline, also called no-lead or lead-
free, does NOT contain lead antiknock additives. Congress has passed laws requiring that
all vehicles meet strict emission levels. As a result, manufacturers began using catalytic
converters and unleaded fuel.

The properties a good gasoline should have are as follows:

• Proper volatility (how quickly the gasoline vaporizes)

• Resistance to spark knock, or detonation
• Oxidation inhibitors to prevent formation of gum in the fuel system Antirust
agents to prevent rusting of metal parts in the fuel system
• Anti-icers to retard icing and fuel-line freezing
• Detergents to help keep the fuel system clean
• Dye for identification

PROPERTIES OF GASOLINE

For a gasoline fuel system to function properly, it is necessary that the fuel have the right
qualities to burn evenly no matter what the demands of the engine are. To help you
recognize the qualities required of gasoline used for fuel, let’s examine some of the
properties of gasoline and their effects on the operation of the engine.

Volatility
The ease with which gasoline vaporizes is called volatility. A high volatility gasoline
vaporizes very quickly. A low volatility gasoline vaporizes slowly. A good gasoline
should have the right volatility for the climate in which the gasoline is used.

If the gasoline is too volatile, it will vaporize in the fuel system. The result will be a
condition called vapor lock. Vapor lock is the formation of vapor in the fuel lines in a
quantity sufficient to prevent the flow of gasoline through the system. Vapor lock causes
the vehicle to stall from lack of fuel. In the summer and in hot climates, fuels with low
volatility lessen the tendency toward vapor lock.

Antiknock Quality
In modern high compression gasoline engines, the air-fuel mixture tends to ignite
spontaneously or to explode instead of burning rather slowly and uniformly. The result is
a knock, a ping, or a detonation. For this reason, gasoline refiners have various ways to
make gasoline that does not detonate easily.

Octane Rating
Gasoline that detonates easily is called low octane gasoline. A gasoline that resists
detonation is called high octane gasoline.

The octane rating of a gasoline is a measurement of the ability of the fuel to resist knock
or ping. A high octane rating indicates the fuel will NOT knock or ping easily. It should
be used in a high compression or turbo-charged engine. A low octane gasoline is suitable
for a low compression engine.
Octane numbers give the antiknock value of gasoline. A higher octane number (91) will
resist ping better than a gasoline with a low octane number (83). Each manufacturer
recommends an octane number for their engine.

AIR-FUEL RATIO

For proper combustion and engine performance, the right amounts of air and fuel must be
mixed together. If too much fuel or too little fuel is used, engine power, fuel economy,
and efficiency are reduced.

For a gasoline engine, the perfect air to fuel ratio is 15:1 (15 parts air to 1 part fuel by
weight). Under constant engine conditions, this ratio can help assure that all fuel is
burned during combustion. The fuel system must change the air-fuel ratio with the
changes in engine-operating conditions.

Lean Air-Fuel Mixture

A lean air-fuel mixture contains a large amount of air. For example, 20:1 would be a very
lean mixture. A slightly lean mixture is desirable for high gas mileage and low exhaust
emissions. Extra air in the cylinder ensures that all the fuel will be burned; however, too
lean of a mixture can cause poor engine performance (lack of power, missing, and even
engine damage).

Rich Air-Fuel Mixture

A rich air-fuel mixture contains a little more fuel mixed with the air. For gasoline, 8:1(8
parts air to 1 part fuel) is a very rich mixture. A slightly rich mixture tends to increase
power; however, it also increases fuel consumption and exhaust emissions. An overly
rich mixture will reduce engine power, foul spark plugs, and cause incomplete burning
(black smoke at engine exhaust).

GASOLINE COMBUSTION

For gasoline or any other fuel to burn properly, it must be mixed with the right amount of
air. The mixture must then be compressed and ignited. The resulting combustion
produces heat, expansion of the gases, and pressure.

Normal Combustion
Normal gasoline combustion occurs when the spark plug ignites the fuel and burning
progresses smoothly through the fuel mixture. Maximum cylinder pressure should be
produced after a few degrees of crank rotation after the piston passes TDC on the power
stroke.

Normal combustion only takes about 3/1,000 of a second. This is much slower than an
explosion. Dynamite explodes in about 1/50,000 of a second. Under some undesirable
conditions, however, gasoline can be made to bum quickly, making part of the
combustion like an explosion.
Abnormal Combustion
Abnormal combustion occurs when the flame does not spread evenly and smoothly
through the combustion chamber. The lean air-fuel mixture, high-operating temperatures,
low octane, and unleaded fuels used today make abnormal combustion a major problem
that creates unfavorable conditions, such as the following:

• DETONATION results when part of the unburned fuel mixture explodes

violently. This is the most severe engine damaging type of abnormal combustion.
Engine knock is a symptom of detonation because pressure rises so quickly that
parts of the engine vibrate. Detonation sounds like a hammer hitting the side of
the engine. It can crack cylinder heads, blow head gaskets, burn pistons, and
shatter spark plugs.
• PRE-IGNITION results when an overheated surface in the combustion chamber
ignites the fuel mixture. Termed surface ignition, a hot spot (overheated bit or
carbon, sharp edge, hot exhaust valve) causes the mixture to burn prematurely. A
ping or mild knock is a light tapping noise that can be heard during pre-ignition.
Pre-ignition is similar to detonation, but the action is reversed. Detonation begins
after the start of normal combustion, and pre-ignition occurs before the start of
normal combustion. Pre-ignition is common to modern vehicles. Some
manufacturers say that some pre-ignition is normal when accelerating under a
load.
• DIESELING, also called after-running or run-on, is a problem when the engine
keeps running after the key is turned off. A knocking, coughing, or fluttering
noise may be heard, as the fuel ignites and the crankshaft spins. When dieseling,
the engine ignites the fuel from heat and pressure, somewhat like a diesel engine.
With the key off, the engine runs without voltage to the spark plugs. The most
common causes of dieseling are high idle speed, carbon deposits in the
combustion chambers, low octane fuel, overheated engine, or spark plugs with too
high of a heat range.
• SPARK KNOCK is another combustion problem caused by the spark plug firing
too soon in relation to the position of the piston. The spark timing is advanced too
far, causing combustion to slam into the upward moving piston. This causes
maximum cylinder pressures to form before TDC, not after TDC as it should.
Spark knock and pre-ignition both produce about the same symptoms—pinging
under load. To find its cause, first check ignition timing. If ignition timing is
correct, check other possible causes.

GASOLINE FUEL SYSTEM COMPONENTS

A gasoline fuel system (fig. 4-1) draws fuel from the tank and forces it into the fuel-
metering device (carburetor, gasoline injectors), using either a mechanical (engine-
driven) or electric fuel pump. The basic parts of a fuel supply system include the
following:

• FUEL TANK (stores gasoline)

• FUEL PUMP (draws fuel from the tank and forces it to the fuel-metering device)
 • FUEL FILTERS (removes contaminants in the fuel)
• FUEL LINES (carries fuel between the tank, the pump, and other parts)

Fuel Tank

An automotive fuel tank must safely hold an adequate supply of fuel for prolonged
engine operation. The location of the fuel tank (fig. 4-2) should be in an area that is
protected from flying debris, shielded from collision damage, and one that is not subject
to bottoming. A fuel tank can be located just about anywhere in the vehicle that meets
these requirements.

Figure 4-3 shows the general construction of a fuel tank used on automotive equipment.
Fuel tanks are usually made of thin sheet metal or plastic. The main body of a metal tank
is made by soldering or welding two formed pieces of sheet metal together. Other parts
(filer neck, fuel tank cap, and baffles) are added to the form to complete the fuel tank
assembly. A lead-tin alloy is normally plated to the sheet metal to prevent the tank from
rusting.

The fuel tank filler neck is an extension on the tank for filling the tank with fuel. The
filler cap fits on the end of the filler neck. The neck extends from the tank through the
body of the vehicle. A flexible hose is normally used as part of the filler neck to allow for
tank vibration without breakage.

In vehicles requiring unleaded fuel, a fuel neck restrictor is used inside the filler neck.
This prevents the accidental use of leaded gasoline in an engine designed for unleaded.
The restrictor is too small to accept the larger leaded fuel type pump nozzle.

WARNING
If the restrictor is removed and leaded fuel is used in a vehicle designed for unleaded
fuel, the catalytic converter will be damaged. This action is a violation of federal law;
therefore, NEVER remove the filler neck restrictor.

Modern fuel tank caps are sealed to prevent escape of fuel and fuel vapors (emissions)
from the tank. The cap has pressure and vacuum valves that only open under abnormal
conditions of high pressure or vacuum.

Fuel tank baffles are placed inside the tank to prevent the fuel from sloshing or splashing
around in the tank. The baffles are metal plates that restrict fuel movement when the
vehicle accelerates, decelerates, or turns corners.

Fuel tanks give little or no trouble, and generally require no servicing other than an
occasional draining and cleaning.

WARNING

If a fuel tank is punctured or develops leaks, it should NOT be welded or repaired with or
near an open flame until all traces of fuel and fuel vapors have been completely removed
from the tank. Before attempting to make any repairs to a fuel tank, consult with the shop
supervisor for specific instructions on all safety precautions to be observed.
Fuel Gauges

The fuel gauge is a signaling system that indicates the amount of fuel in the tank. Most
fuel gauges are composed of two units—the gauge that is mounted on the instrument
panel and the sending unit located on the tank There are two types of gauges—magnetic
and thermostatic. Each of these gauges has a sending unit and an instrument panel unit.

Magnetic Gauge (fig. 4-4). The sending unit in this fuel gauge contains a sliding contact.
As the fuel level in the tank changes, the position of the contact changes on a rheostat
winding, varying circuit resistance and resulting current flow. The unit on the instrument
panel contains two magnetic coils (limiting coil and operating coil) and a permanent
magnet that is attached to the gauge needle. When the fuel tank is empty, the limiting coil
is stronger than the operating coil, thus the magnet is drawn toward it and the needle
reads EMPTY on the gauge. As the tank is filled, the operating coil becomes stronger,
attracting the magnet and moving the needle toward the FULL position.

Thermostatic Gauge (fig. 4-5). It has a sending unit similar to the magnetic system. The
sending unit has a float and sliding contact that moves on a resistor.

As the fuel level in the tank changes, the position of the contact changes on a rheostat
winding, varying circuit resistance and resulting current flow. When the fuel is low in the
tank, most of the resistance is in the circuit and very little current can flow. As the tank is
filled, the float moves up and the sliding contact cuts most of the resistance out of the
circuit. This action increases current flow and as the current flows through the heater coil
in the gauge on the instrument panel, the current heats the thermostat. The thermostatic
blade bends because of the heat. This moves the needle to the FULL mark. As the fuel
level in the tank drops, resistance increases, resulting in lower current flow through the
heater coil, thus producing less heat to bend the thermostatic blade.
Fuel Filters

Fuel filters stop contaminants (rust, water, corrosion, and dirt) from entering the
carburetor, throttle body, injectors, injections pumps, and any other parts that may be
damaged by foreign matter. Fuel filters can be located in the following locations (fig. 4-
6):

• A fuel strainer is also located in the fuel tank on the end of the pickup tube.
• In the fuel line right after the electric fuel pump.
• Under the fuel line fitting in the carburetor.
• Inside the fuel pump.
• In the fuel line before the carburetor or fuel injectors.

When in doubt about the location of the fuel filter, refer to the service manual.

Fuel filters operate by passing the fuel through a porous filtering medium (fig. 4-7). The
openings in the porous material are very small, and, therefore, any particles in the fuel
that are large enough to cause problems are blocked. In addition to the filtering medium,
the filter, in some cases, also serves as a sediment bowl. The fuel, as it passes through the
filter, spends enough time in the sediment bowl to allow large particles and water to settle
out of it.

Several types of fuel filters are used today. They are the replaceable in-line, the
replaceable in-line in the carburetor, and the glass bowl (fig. 4-8). The most common
configuration is the replaceable in-line filter. these are in-line filter elements that fit in the
carburetor inlet or inside the fuel tank. Fuel filter elements can be made from treated
paper, ceramics, sintered bronze, or metal screen (fig. 4-9). However, there is one filter
element that differs from the others. It consists of a stacked pile of laminated disks that
are spaced 0.0003 inches apart. As the fuel passes between the disks, foreign matter is
blocked out. These filters are replaced when the flow of fuel is restricted.
Fuel filter service involves periodic replacement or cleaning of system filters. It may also
include locating clogged fuel filters that are upsetting fuel system operations. Paper
elements must be replaced when clogged or after prolonged use. Sintered bronze fuel
filters can usually be cleaned and reinstalled. A clogged fuel filter can restrict the flow of
fuel to the carburetor or injectors. Engine Performance problems will show up at higher
speeds.

Some fuel filters have a check valve that opens when the filter becomes clogged. This
will allow fuel contaminants to flow into the system. When contaminants are found in the
filters and system, the tank, the pump, and the lines should be flushed with clean fuel.

Always refer to the service manual for information concerning service intervals, cleaning,
and replacement of all system filters.
Fuel Lines and Hoses

Fuel lines and hoses carry fuel from the tank to the engine. The main fuel line allows the
fuel pump to draw fuel out of the tank. The fuel is pulled through this line to the pump
and then to the carburetor, or metering section of the injection system.

Fuel lines are normally made of double wall steel tubing. For fire safety, a fuel line must
be able to withstand the constant and severe vibration produced by the engine and road
surface. Lines are placed away from exhaust pipes, mufflers, and manifolds, so that
excessive heat will not cause vapor lock. They are attached to the frame, the engine, and
other units, so the effects of vibration will be minimized. Fuel hoses, made of synthetic
rubber, are used where severe movement occurs between parts. A flexible hose can
absorb movement without breaking. Hose clamps are required to secure fuel hoses to the
fuel lines or to metal fittings.

Faulty fuel lines and hoses are a common source of fuel leaks. Fuel hoses can become
hard and brittle after being exposed to the engine heat and the elements. Engine oil can
soften and swell them. Always inspect hoses closely and replace any in poor condition.
Metal fuel lines rarely cause problems; however, they should be replaced if they become
smashed, kinked, rusted, or leaking. Remember these rules when working with fuel lines
and hoses:

1. Place a rag around the fuel line fitting during removal. This action will keep fuel
from spraying on you or on a hot engine. Use a flare nut or tubing wrench on fuel
line fittings.
2. Use only approved double wall steel tubing for fuel lines. never use copper or
plastic tubing.
3. Make smooth bends when forming a new fuel line. Use a bending spring or
bending tool.
4. Form double lap flares on the ends of fuel lines. A single lap flare is not approved
for fuel lines.
 5. Reinstall fuel line hold-down clamps and brackets. If not properly supported, the
fuel line can vibrate and fail.
6. Route all fuel lines and hoses away from hot or moving parts. Double-check the
clearance after installation.
7. Only use approved synthetic rubber hoses in a fuel system. Vacuum hose is NOT
to be used as fuel hose.
8. Make sure fuel hoses completely cover its fitting or line before installing clamps.
Pressure in the fuel system could force the hose off if not installed properly.
9. Double-check all fitting for leaks. Start the engine and inspect the connections
closely.

NOTE

Most fuel injection systems have very high fuel pressure. Follow recommended

procedures for bleeding or releasing pressure before disconnecting a fuel line or

fitting. This action will prevent fuel spray from possibly causing injury or a fire.

AIR CLEANER

The fuel system mixes air and fuel to produce a combustible mixture. A large volume of
air passes through the carburetor or fuel injection system and engine, as much as 100,000
cubic feet of air every 1,000 miles. Air always contains a lot of floating dust and grit. The
dust and grit could cause serious damage if they entered the engine. To prevent this,
mount an air cleaner (fig. 4-14) at the air entrance of the carburetor or fuel injection
system. The two types of cleaners currently used are the wet and dry types.

• The wet-type. or oil bath, air cleaner consists of the main body, the filter element
that is made of woven copper gauze, and the cover (fig. 4-15). Operation is as
follows: Incoming air enters between the cover and the main body. The air is
pulled down to the bottom of the main body where it must make a 180-degree
turn, as it passes over the oil reservoir.
• As the air passes over the oil reservoir, most of the particles will not be able to
make the turn, and they will hit the oil and be trapped.
• As the air continues upward and passes through the filter element, the smaller
particles that bypassed the oil will be trapped.
• The air keeps the element soaked with oil by creating a fine spray, as it passes the
reservoir.
• The air then makes another 180-degree turn and enters the carburetor.

The dry-type air cleaner passes the incoming air through a filtering medium before it
enters the engine.
The air filter contains a ring of filter material (fine-mesh metal threads or ribbons, pleated
paper, cellulose fiber, or polyurethane), as shown in figure 4-16. These types of filter
materials provide a fine maze that traps most of the airborne particles.

The air cleaner also muffles the noise of the intake air through the carburetor or fuel
injection system, manifold, and valve ports. This noise would be very noticeable if it
were not for the air cleaner. In addition the air cleaner acts as a flame arrester in case the
engine backfires through the intake manifold. The air cleaner prevents the flame from
escaping and igniting gasoline fumes outside the engine.
PRINCIPLES OF CARBURETION

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the operating systems and principles of a simple

carburetor and a computerized controlled carburetor. Identify the different carburetor
accessories and their functions. Identify and describe possible carburetor troubles and
quick system checks.

The principles of carburetion are presented so you may better understand the inner
workings of a carburetor and how the other components of the fuel system function to
provide a combustible mixture or air and fuel to the engine cylinders.

Air is composed of various gases, mostly nitrogen and oxygen (78 percent nitrogen and
21 percent oxygen by volume). These gases are, in turn, made up of tiny particles called
molecules. All substances, whether solid, liquid, or gas, are made up of molecules. In
solids, such as ice or iron, the particles are held closely together so that they seem to have
no motion. In liquids, the molecules are not held together tightly, so they can move freely
with respect to each other. In gases, there is still less tendency for the molecules to bond;
therefore, the molecules can move quite freely. The molecules of gas are attracted to the
earth by gravity or by their weight. It is the combined weight of the countless molecules
in the air that make up atmospheric pressure.

Definitions

EVAPORATION is the changing of a liquid to a vapor. The molecules of the liquid not
being closely tied together are constantly moving among themselves. Any molecule that
moves upward with sufficient speed will jump out of the liquid and into the air. This
process will cause the liquid to evaporate over a period of time. The rate of evaporation is
dependent on the following:

TEMPERATURE. The rate of movement of the molecules increase with temperature.

Because of this, the amount of molecules leaving the liquid for a given time will increase,
as the temperature increases.

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE. As atmospheric pressure increases, the amount of air

molecules present over the liquid also increases. The increased presence of air molecules
will slow the rate of evaporation. This is because the molecules of liquid will have more
air molecules to collide with. In many cases, they will fall back into the liquid after the
collision

CLOSED CHAMBER. As evaporation takes place in a closed container, the space above
the liquid will reach a point of saturation. When this happens, every molecule of liquid
that enters the air will cause another airborne molecule of liquid to fall back.

VOLATILITY. The term volatility refers to how fast a liquid vaporizes. Some liquid
vaporizes easily at room temperature. Alcohol, for instance, vaporizes more easily than
water. A highly volatile liquid is one that is considered to evaporate easily.

ATOMIZATION (fig. 4-17). Atomization is the process of breaking up a liquid into tiny
particles or droplets. When a liquid is atomized, the droplets are all exposed individually
to the air. For this reason, atomization greatly increases evaporation by increasing the
exposed surface area of the liquid.

The VENTURI EFFECT (fig. 4-18) is used by the carburetor to mix air with the gasoline.
The basic carburetor has an hourglass-shaped tube called a throat. The most constricted
part of the throat is called the venturi. A tube, called the discharge nozzle, is positioned in
the venturi. The discharge nozzle is connected to a reservoir of gasoline called the float
bowl. The negative pressure that exists in the combustion chamber is due to the
downward intake stroke of the piston, causing atmospheric pressure to create an air flow
through the throat. This air flow must increase temporarily in speed, as it passes through
the venturi due to its deceased size. The increased speed of air flow results in a
corresponding decrease in pressure within the venturi and at the end of the discharge
nozzle. This action permits the atmospheric pressure on the surface of the gasoline in the
float bowl to force the gasoline out through the discharge nozzle. This gasoline then
sprays and atomizes in the passing air flow to form the air-fuel mixture.
METHODS OF INJECTION

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the principles and

operation of the different diesel fuel systems.

You have probably heard the statement that "the fuel

injection system is the actual heart of the diesel engine."
When you consider that indeed a diesel could not be
developed until an adequate fuel injection system was
designed and produced, this statement takes on a much
broader and stronger meaning.

In this section, various methods of mechanical injections

and metering control are described. There have been many
important developments in pumps, nozzles, and unit
injectors for diesel engines over the years with the latest
injection system today relying on electronic controls and
sensors.

FUEL INJECTION SYSTEMS

Diesel fuel injection systems must accomplish five particular functions-meter, inject,
time, atomize, and create pressure. A description of these functions follows:

1. METER—Accurately measure the amount of fuel to be injected.

2. INJECT—Force and distribute the fuel into the combustion chamber.
3. TIME—Injection of the fuel must start and stop at the proper time.
4. ATOMIZE—Break the fuel up into a fine mist.
5. CREATE PRESSURE—Create the necessary high pressure for injection.

You can remember these functions by the initials, MITAC. All five of these functions are
necessary for complete and efficient combustion

Metering
Accurate metering or measuring of the fuel means that, for the same fuel control setting,
the same quantity of fuel must be delivered to each cylinder for each power stroke of the
engine. Only in this way can the engine operate at uniform speed with uniform power
output. Smooth engine operation and an even distribution of the load between the
cylinders depend upon the same volume of fuel being admitted to a particular cylinder
each time it fires and upon equal volumes of fuel being engine.

Injection Control
delivered to all cylinders of the A fuel system must also control the rate of injection. The
rate at which fuel is injected determines the rate of combustion. The rate of injection at
the start should be low enough that excessive fuel does not accumulate in the cylinder
during the initial ignition delay (before combustion begins). Injection should proceed at
such a rate that the rise in combustion pressure is not to great, yet the rate of injection
must be such that fuel is introduced as rapidly as possible to obtain complete combustion.
An incorrect rate of injection affects engine operation in the same way as improper
timing. When the rate of injection is too high, the results are similar to those caused by an
injection that is too early; when the rate is too low, the results are similar to those caused
by an injection that is too late.

Timing
In addition to measuring the amount of fuel injected, the system must properly time
injection to ensure efficient combustion so that maximum energy can be obtained from
the fuel. When the fuel is injected too early in the cycle, ignition may be delayed because
the temperature of the air, at this point, is not high enough. An excessive delay, on the
other hand, gives rough and noisy operation of the engine. It also permits some fuel to be
lost due to the wetting of the cylinder walls and piston head. This, in turn, results in poor
fuel economy, high exhaust gas temperature, and smoke in the exhaust. When fuel is
injected too late in the cycle, all the fuel will not be burned until the piston has traveled
well past top center. When this happens, the engine does not develop enough power, the
exhaust is smoky, and fuel consumption is high.

Atomization of Fuel
As used in connection with fuel injection, atomization means the breaking up of the fuel,
as it enters the cylinder into small particles, which form a mistlike spray. Atomization of
the fuel must meet the requirements of the type of combustion chamber in use. Some
chambers require very fine atomization; while others function with coarser atomization.
Properly atomization makes it easier to start the burning process and ensures that each
minute particle of fuel is surrounded by particles of oxygen with which it can combine.

Atomization is generally obtained when liquid fuel, under high pressure, passes through
the small opening (or openings) in the injector or nozzle. As the fuel enters the
combustion space, high velocity is developed because the pressure in the cylinder is
lower than the fuel pressure. The created friction, resulting from the fuel passing through
the air at high velocity, causes the fuel to break up into small particles.

Creating Pressure
A fuel injection system must increase the pressure of the fuel to overcome compression
pressure and to ensure proper dispersion of the fuel injected into the combustion space.
Proper dispersion is essential if the fuel is to mix thoroughly with the air and burn
efficiently. While pressure is a chief contributing factor, the dispersion of the fuel is
influenced, in part, by atomization and penetration of the fuel. (Penetration is the distance
through which the fuel particles are carried by the motion given them, as they leave the
injector or nozzle .)

If the atomization process reduces the size of the fuel particles too much, they will lack
penetration. Too little penetration results in the small particles of fuel igniting before they
have been properly distributed or dispersed in the combustion space. Since penetration
and atomization tend to oppose each other, a compromise in the degree of each is
necessary in the design of the fuel injection equipment, particularly if uniform
distribution of fuel within the combustion chamber is to be obtained.

CATERPILLAR FUEL SYSTEMS

The Caterpillar diesel engine uses the pump and nozzle injection system. Each pump
measures the amount of fuel to be injected into a particular cylinder, produces the
pressure for injection of the fuel, and times the exact point of injection. The injection
pump plunger is lifted by cam action and returned by spring action.

The turning of the plungers in the barrels varies the metering of fuel. These plungers are
turned by governor action through a rack that meshes with the gear segments on the
bottom of the pump plungers. Each pump is interchangeable with other injection pumps
mounted on the pump housing.

The sleeve metering and scroll-type pumps that are used by Caterpillar operate on the
same fundamentals—a jerk pump system (where one small pump contained in its own
housing supplied fuel to one cylinder). Individual "jerk" pumps, that are contained in a
single injection pump housing with the same number of pumping plungers being the
same as that of the engine cylinders, are commonly referred to as in-line multiple-plunger
pumps.

Sleeve Metering Fuel System

The sleeve metering fuel system (fig. 5-9) was designed to have the following seven
advantages

1. To have fewer moving parts and fewer total parts.

2. Simple design with compactness.
3. It can use a simple mechanical governor. No hydraulic assist required.
4. The injection pump housing is filled with fuel oil, rather than crankcase oil for
lubrication of all internal parts.
5. The plunger, barrel, and sleeve design used in all Caterpillar sleeve metering units
follows a common style.
6. The transfer pump, governor, and injection pump are mounted in one unit.
7. Uses a centrifugal timing advance for better fuel economy and easier starts.

The term sleeve metering comes from the method used to meter the amount of fuel sent to
the cylinders—a sleeve system (fig. 5-10). Rather than rotate the plungers to control the
amount of fuel to be injected, like most pump and nozzle injection systems, the use of a
sleeve is incorporated with the plunger. The sleeve blocks a spill port that is drilled into
the plunger. The amount of plunger travel with its port blocked determines the amount of
fuel to be injected. Basic operation is as follows:

1. Fuel is drawn from the fuel tank by the transfer pump through the fuel/water
separator and the primary and secondary filters.
 2. Fuel from the transfer pump fills the injection pump housing at approximately 30
to 35 psi with the engine operating under full load. Any pressure in excess of this
will be directed back to the inlet side of the transfer pump by the bypass valve. A
constant-bleed valve is also used to allow a continuous return of fuel back to the
tank at a rate of approximately 9 gallons per hour, so the temperature of the fuel
stays cool for lubrication purposes and assist in maintaining housing pressure.
3. Since the injection pump is constantly filled with diesel from the transfer pump
under pressure, any time the fill port is uncovered, the internal drilling of the
plunger will be primed by the incoming fuel caused by the downward moving
plunger relative to pump camshaft rotation (fig. 5-11).
4. At the correct moment, the rotation of the pump cam lobe begins to force the
plunger upward until the fill port is closed, as it passes into the barrel. At the same
time the sleeve closes the spill port. The pump, line, and fuel valves are subjected
to a buildup in fuel pressure and injection will begin (fig. 5-11).
5. Injection of the fuel will continue as long as both the fill port and spill ports are
completely cover by the barrel and sleeve (fig. 5-11).
6. Injection ends the moment that the spill port starts to edge above the sleeve,
releasing the pressure in the plunger and letting fuel escape from the pump back
into the housing. Also, at the end of the stroke, the check valve closes to prevent
the fuel from flowing back from the injector fuel line (fig. 5-11).

To increase the amount of fuel injected, raise the sleeve through the control shaft and fork
so that the sleeve is effectively positioned higher up on the plunger. This means that the
spill port will be closed for a longer period of time, as the cam lobe is raising the plunger.
Increasing the effective stroke of the plunger (time that both ports are closed) will
increase the amount of fuel delivered.

NOTE

For procedures on removing, replacing, and servicing the injection pumps in a sleeve
metering fuel system, refer to the manufacturer’s service manual.

GOVERNOR ACTION.—The governor on a Caterpillar sleeve metering fuel system is

a mechanical governor and acts throughout the entire speed range of the engine. The
majority of the sleeve metering fuel system uses three springs-a low-idle (inner) spring, a
high-idle (outer) spring, and a dashpot spring. When the operator requires more power
from the engine, he/she steps on the throttle. This causes the governor control lever to
apply pressure that compresses the governor spring and to transfer this motion to the
thrust collar. Since governor action from the spring and weight motion is of the back and
forth variety, an additional linkage between the injection pumps and the governor
transforms this sliding horizontal governor movement from the thrust collar into a rolling
motion at the sleeve control shaft. A simple connecting lever commonly known as a bell
crank lever accomplishes this action.
The bell crank lever contacts the thrust collar on one end and the governor sleeve control
shaft on the other end. The bell crank pivots on a fixed vertical bell crankshaft to gain
mechanical advantage through the lever principle. At the sleeve shaft end, it rides in a
ball-and-socket joint that holds it in place and minimizes linkage movement. Therefore,
any horizontal movement at the governor weight shaft and spring will cause an equally
precise movement at the ball-and-socket joint, leading to reposition of the sleeves. If, in
this case, the operator has increased the throttle position, the sleeves would be lifted,
thereby covering the spill port for a longer overall effective plunger stroke.

As with any mechanical governor, an increase in either the throttle position or load will
cause a speed change to the engine. Spring pressure is always trying to increase the fuel
delivered to the engine, while centrifugal force of the rotating weights is always trying to
decrease the amount of fuel going to the engine. Somewhere within the throttle range,
however, a state of balance between these two opposing forces will exist as long as the
engine speed is capable of overcoming the load placed on it to keep the spring and weight
force in a state of balance.

When the engine is stopped, the action of the governor spring force places the thrust
collar and the sleeve control shaft to the full-fuel position; therefore, easier starting is
accomplished Once the operator cranks and starts the engine, centrifugal force will cause
the flyweights to move outward, which now opposes the spring force, and the thrust
collar and spring seat will come together, as they are pushed to a decreased fuel position.
When the force of the weights equals the preset force of the spring established by the idle
adjusting screw, these forces will be in a state of balance, and the engine will run at a
steady idle speed with the throttle at a normal idle position.

Governor action will operate from idle throughout the speed range of the engine. A load
stop pin controls the maximum speed of the engine. Rotation of the throttle lever causes
the load stop lever to lift the load stop pin until it comes in contact with the stop bar or
screw, thereby limiting any more fuel to the engine.

The purpose of the dashpot governor spring is to prevent any surging or irregular speed
regulation of the engine by the fact that the piston either pulls fuel into or pushes fuel out
of its cylinder through an orifice. The dashpot governor spring force varies with the
piston movement, and as the engine load is increased or decreased, fuel is drawn into the
piston cylinder through the orifice. This action gives the effect of a high governor spring
rate that minimizes speed variations through oscillation during load changes of the
engine. At any time the ignition switch is turned off or the governor speed control lever is
moved to the [Link], the sleeve levers move the sleeves down, cutting off fuel to
the cylinders.

NOTE

Any and all adjustments to the governor and governor controls should be made according
to the manufacturer’s manual and specifications.
AUTOMATIC TIMING ADVANCE UNIT.— All current Caterpillar engines use
some form of automatic timing for the fuel injection pump. On sleeve metering injection
systems, this advance is mounted on the front end of the camshaft of the engine. The gear
of the automatic advance unit meshes with and drives the fuel injection pump camshaft.
The principal parts of the advance unit are the slides, the springs, and the weights.

Operation of the automatic advance-timing unit is as follows:

• The slides are located and driven by two dowels, attached to the engine camshaft
gear. The slides, in turn, fit into notches within the weights, thereby transferring
their drive from the engine camshaft gear to the weights.
• With the engine running, centrifugal force exerted by the rotating weight
assemblies cause them to act against the force of the springs.
• Since the weights are designed with notches in them, as they move outward under
centrifugal force, they cause the slides to effect a change in the angle between the
timing advance gear and the two drive dowels of the engine camshaft.
• This relative movement of the timing advance unit gear will, therefore,
automatically advance or retard the timing of the fuel injection pump in relation to
the engine speed and load.

However, built into the advance unit is a maximum timing variation of 5 degrees with the
timing change starting at approximately low idle rpm and continuing on up to the rated
speed of the engine; therefore, you cannot adjust the automatic timing advance unit. The
timing unit is lubricated by engine oil under pressure from drilled holes at the engine
camshaft front bearing.

SCROLL METERING FUEL SYSTEM.— The scroll metering fuel system is similar
to the sleeve metering fuel system in that it uses a plunger and barrel to create high
pressure for injection. This system was designed to create higher injection pressure on
direct-injection engines, offering an approximate 10 percent fuel economy improvement
over precombustion-type engines, along with the ability to meet long-term EPA exhaust
emissions regulations and better overall engine performance, as well as the ability to
provide greater part commonality between different series engines.

In a scroll system two helix cut ports are used—the bypass closed port and the spill port
Fuel is supplied from the transfer pump to an internal fuel manifold in the injection pump
housing at approximately 35 psi. When the pump plunger is at the bottom of its stroke,
fuel at transfer pump pressure flows around the pump barrel and to both the bypass
closed port and spill port, which are both open at this time to allow fuel to flow into the
barrel area above the plunger. The pump plunger is moved up and down by the action of
a roller lifter, riding on the injection pump camshaft, which rotates at one-half of engine
speed. As the injection pump camshaft rotates and the plungers rises, some fuel will be
pushed back out of the bypass closed port until the top of the plunger eventually closes
both the bypass closed port and the spill port. Further plunger movement will cause an
increase in the trapped fuel pressure, and at approximately 100 psi, a check valve will
open and fuel will flow into the injection line to the injection nozzle.
The fuel pressure of 100 psi is not enough to open the injection nozzle, which has an
opening pressure of between 1,200 and 2,350 psi for a 3300 series engine and between
2,400 and 3,100 psi on 3406 engines. However, as the plunger continues to move up in its
barrel, this fuel pressure is reached very quickly.

A high-pressure bleed-back passage and groove machined around the barrel are in
alignment during the effective stroke to bleed off any fuel that leaks between the plunger
and the barrel for lubrication purposes.

When the upward moving plunger uncovers the spill port, injection ceases, and although
the plunger can still travel up some more, this is simply to allow most of the warm fuel
(due to being pressurized) to spill back into the manifold. As the plunger moves
downward in the barrel, it will once again uncover the bypass closed port and cool fuel
will fill the area above the plunger for the next injection. When the spill port is opened,
pressure inside the barrel is released and the check valve is seated by its spring.

Within the check valve assembly is a reverse flow check valve that opens when fuel
pressure in the injection line remains above 1,000 psi and closes as soon as the fuel
pressure drops to 1,000 psi. This will keep the fuel lines filled with fuel at 1,000 psi and
ready for the next injection. This provides for a consistent and smooth engine power
curve.

TRANSFER PUMP.—With the introduction of the scroll metering fuel system, the
gear-type fuel transfer pump that had been used for years by Caterpillar was superseded
by the use of a piston-type transfer pump. Current scroll metering fuel systems use a
single-piston, double-acting pump with three one-way check valves.

The transfer pump is bolted to the low side of the injection pump housing. It is capable of
delivering up to 51 gallons of fuel per hour at 25 psi. There is no need for a relief valve in
this transfer pump due to the fact that maximum pressure is controlled automatically by
the force of the piston return spring.

The transfer pump is activated by an eccentric (a device that converts rotary motion into
reciprocating motion) on the injection pump camshaft, causing the pushrod to move in
and out, as the engine is running. This action causes the piston to move down against the
force of the piston return spring inside the transfer pump housing. The downward
movement of the piston will cause the inlet check valve and the outlet check valve to
close, while allowing the pumping check valve to open to allow fuel below the piston to
flow into the area immediately above the downward piston.

As the injection pump camshaft eccentric rotates around to its low point, the transfer
pump spring pushes the piston up inside its bore, causing the pumping check valve to
close, and both the out and inlet valves are forced open. Fuel above the piston will be
forced through the outlet check valve and the pump outlet port at approximately 35 psi.
As this occurs, fuel will also flow through the pump inlet port and the inlet check valve to
fill the area below the piston and the pump will repeat the cycle.
GOVERNOR.—The governor assembly used with the scroll metering fuel system is a
hydra-mechanical servo-type unit. The reason for using a servo-valve is to provide a
"boost" to the governor.

Without the servo-valve, both the governor spring and flyweights would have to be very
large and heavy. With the use of the servo assist, little force is required to move both the
accelerator and the governor control lever.

Basically, the governor assembly consists of three separate components:

1. The mechanical components of the governor, such as the weights, springs, and
linkage.
2. The governor servo that provides hydraulic assistance through the use of
pressurized engine oil to provide rapid throttle response and to reduce overall size
requirement of the flyweights and springs.
3. The dashpot assembly that is designed to provide stability to the governor during
rapid load/throttle changes.

FUEL INJECTOR NOZZLE.—The fuel injector nozzle, used with the scroll metering
fuel system, is a multiple-hole design, inward-opening, non-leakoff type. There are minor
changes between the earlier nozzles and current models. Older nozzles are identified by
the use of a color-coded black or blue washer, while the newer ones use a copper washer.

The nozzle is a multiple-hole design since it is used in direct injection engines only. The
number and size of the holes will vary between different series of engines. For example,
the 3306 engine nozzle uses a nine-hole tip, while the nozzle in the 3406 uses a six-hole
tip. These different nozzles cannot be intermixed in the same engine or switched from
one series engine to another.

The nozzle is designed for injection pressures of 15,000 psi and short injection duration
to prevent a loss in fuel economy due to stringent EPA emission requirements. The
nozzle incorporates a carbon dam on the lower end of the pencil part of the body and a
seal washer on the upper end. The carbon dam prevents carbon blow-by into the nozzle
bore in the cylinder head, while the upper seal prevents compression leakage from the
cylinder. Injector nozzle operation is as follows:

• The nozzle receives high-pressure fuel from the fuel pump through the inlet
passage and filter screen and into the fuel passage.
• When fuel pressure is high enough, the injector valve is lifted against the force of
the return spring and fuel is injected through the multiple holes in the spray tip.
This causes an increase in fuel pressure and the fuel to be finely atomized spray
for penetration of the compressed air in the combustion chamber.
• When fuel pressure drops below injection pressure, the return spring closes the
fuel valve.

NOTE
For information on the removal and repair of the fuel injector nozzle, consult the
manufacturer’s service manual.

DISTRIBUTOR-TYPE FUEL SYSTEMS

The distributor-type fuel system is found on small-to medium-sized diesel engines. Its
operation is similar to an ignition distributor found on gasoline engine. A rotating
member, called a rotor, within the pump distributes fuel at high pressure to the individual
injectors in engine firing-order sequence.
There are several manufacturers of distributor-type fuel injection systems. Operation of
the fuel distribution is similar, in that a central rotating member forms the pumping and
the distributing rotor is driven from the main drive shaft on which the governor is
mounted.

The distributor-type fuel system that will be discussed is the DB2 Roosa Master diesel
fuel-injection pump, manufactured by Stanadyne's Hartford Division.

Nozzle

The injector nozzle, used with the DB2 fuel injection pump, is opened outward by high
fuel pressure and closed by spring tension (fig. 5-22). It has a unique feature in that it is
screwed directly into the cylinder head An outward opening valve creates a narrow spray
that is evenly distributed into the precombustion chamber. Both engine compression and
combustion pressure forces assist the nozzle spring in closing an outward opening valve.
These factors allow the opening pressure settings of the nozzle to be lower than those of
conventional injectors.

During injection, a degree of swirl is imparted to the fuel before it actually emerges
around the head of the nozzle. This forms a closely controlled annular orifice with the
nozzle valve seat, which produces a high-velocity atomized fuel spray, forming a narrow
cone suitable for efficient burning of the fuel in the precombustion chamber.

The nozzle has been designed as basically a throwaway item. After a period of service,
the functional performance may not meet test specifications. Nozzle testing is comprised
of the following checks:

• Nozzle opening pressure

• Leakage
• Chatter
• Spray pattern

Each test is done independently of the others (for example, when checking the opening
pressure, do not check for leakage). If all the tests are satisfied, the nozzle can be reused.
If any one of the tests is not satisfied, replace the nozzle. For testing procedures, consult
the manufacturer’s service manual.

CAUTION

When testing nozzles, do not place your hand or arms near the top of the nozzle. The
high-pressure atomized fuel spray from the nozzle has sufficient penetrating power to
puncture flesh and destroy tissue and may result in blood poisoning. The nozzle tip
should always be enclosed in a receptacle, preferably transparent, to contain the spray.
DETROIT DIESEL UNIT INJECTION SYSTEMS

The fuel system used by Detroit diesel is known as a low-pressure fuel system, owing to
the fact that fuel delivered to the unit injectors averages 45 to 70 psi.

This is much lower than the average 2,500 to 300 psi that passes through the fuel line
from the injection pump and nozzles used in other systems.

The four main functions of the fuel system used with a Detroit diesel engine are as
follows:

1. To supply clean, cool fuel to the system by passing it through at least a primary
and secondary filter before the pump and injectors.
2. To cool and lubricate the injectors, as the fuel flows through them, and return to
the tank (recirculatory system).
3. To maintain sufficient pressure at all times through the action of the positive
displacement gear pump and the use of a restricted fitting located at the cylinder
head return fuel manifold.
4. To purge the fuel system of any air; the system is recirculator-y in operation,
therefore allowing any air to be returned to the fuel tank.

Since the basic fuel system used on all Detroit diesel engines is identical as far as
components used, the description of operation for one can be readily related to any other
series of Detroit diesel engine (fig. 5-23).

The basic fuel system consists mainly of the following:

1. Fuel injectors.
2. Fuel pipes to and from the injectors (inlet and outlet).
3. Fuel manifolds, which are cast internally within the cylinder head. The upper
manifold is the "inlet" and the lower is the "return" or "outlet." To prevent
confusion, the words in and out are cast in the side of the head.
4. Fuel pump (supply pump, not an injection pump).
 5. Fuel strainer or primary filter.
6. Fuel filter (secondary).
7. Fuel lines.
8. One-way check valve.
9. Restricted fitting on in-line engines or a restricted TEE on V-type engines.

AMERICAN BOSCH FUEL INJECTION SYSTEMS

The American Bosch fuel injection system is used on multifuel engines. The pump
meters and distributes fuel. It is a constant-stroke, distributing-plunger, and sleeve-
control type of pump. As with other fuel systems, only clean fuel should be used. Good
maintenance of the filtering system and reasonable care in fuel handling will give
trouble-free operation. Fuels used in the multifuel engine must contain sufficient
lubrication to lubricate the fuel pump and injectors. Because of close tolerances, extreme
cleanliness and strict adherence to service instructions are required when it is time to
service this system.

Fuel Pump
The PSB model fuel pump is similar to other distributor fuel system, in that a pump sends
a measured amount of fuel to each injector at a properly timed interval. The difference in
the PSB system is that the amount of fuel sent directly from the pump at high enough
pressure needed for injection. This eliminates the need for unit-type injectors and the
associated linkage and camshaft, making the system less cumbersome.

The purpose of the fuel pump (fig. 5-31) is to deliver measured quantities of fuel
accurately under high pressure to the spray nozzle for injection. The positive
displacement fuel supply pump (fig. 5-32) is gear-driven by the pump camshaft through
an engine camshaft gear and provides fuel to the hydraulic head for injection and cooling.

Figure 5-33 shows fuel intake at the hydraulic head. Injection (fig. 5-34) begins when
fuel flows around the fuel plunger annulus (fig. 5-35) through the open distributing slot to
the injection nozzle. A continued upward movement of the fuel plunger causes the spill
passage to pass through the plunger sleeve (fig. 5-36). This reduces pressure, allowing the
fuel delivery valve to close, ending injection. This is accomplished through a single
plunger, multi-outlet hydraulic head assembly (fig. 5-31).

The plunger is designed to operate at crankshaft speed on four-cycle engines. It is

actuated by a camshaft and tappet arrangement. The pump camshaft, which also includes
the gearing for fuel distribution, is supported on the governor end by a bushing-type
bearing and by a ball roller bearing on the driven end. An integral mechanical centrifugal
governor (fig. 5-37), that is driven directly from the pump camshaft without gearing,
controls fuel delivery in relation to engine speed. This pump has a smoke limit cam
within the governor housing to assist in controlling exhaust smoke of various fuels. The
mechanical centrifugal advance unit of this pump provides up to g-degrees advance
timing and is driven clockwise at crankshaft speed.
Types of Nozzles

Bosch nozzles are inward opening with a multiple orifice and hydraulically operated
nozzle valve. The two models of this nozzle in use are the American Bosch and Robert
Bosch. They may be easily identified by either the length of the nozzle tip holding nut or
the nozzle drilling code on the smaller diameter of the nozzle valve body. The American
Bosch nozzle nut is 3 inches long, and the nozzle tip has a hand-printed drilling code. The
Robert Bosch nozzle nut is 2 inches long, and the nozzle tip has a machined-etched
drilling code. Component parts, although similar, are not interchangeable between the
two nozzles.

Nozzle Operation

The pressurized fuel from the injection pump enters the top
of the nozzle body and flows through a passage in the body
and nozzle spring retainer. An annular groove in the top
face of the nozzle valve body fills with fuel, and two
passages in the nozzle valve body direct fuel around the
nozzle valve. When the fuel in the pressure chamber reaches
a predetermined pressure, the spring force (adjusted by
shims) is overcome and injection occurs. Atomized fuel
sprays from the orifice holes in the nozzle tip, as the nozzle
valve is opened inward by pressurized fuel. When injection
ends, spring pressure snaps the valve in its seat. During each
injection, a small quantity of high-pressurized fuel passes
between the nozzle valve stem and the nozzle valve body to
lubricate and to cool the nozzle valve. A manifold that
connects to all of the nozzles returns this fuel to the tank.

Fuel Density Compensator

The multifuel engine operates on a variety of fuels that have a broad range of viscosities
and heat values. These variations in the fuels affect engine output. Because it is
unacceptable for the power output of the engine to vary with fuel changes, the multifuel
engine is fitted with a device known as a fuel density compensator (fig. 5-38). The fuel
density compensator is a device that serves to vary the quantity of fuel injected to the
engine by regulating the full-load stop of the fuel pump. The characteristics of the fuels
show that their heat values decrease almost inversely proportional to their viscosities. The
fuel density compensator uses viscosity as the indicator for regulating fuel flow. Its
operation is as follows:

• The fuel enters the compensator through the fuel pressure regulator where the fuel
pressure is regulated to a constant 20 psi regardless of engine speed and load
range.
• The pressure-regulated fuel then passes through a series of two orifices. The two
orifices, by offering greatly different resistances to flow, form a system that is
sensitive to viscosity changes. The first orifice is annular, formed by the clearance
between the servo piston and its cylinder. This orifice is sensitive to viscosity.
The second orifice is formed by an adjustable needle valve and is not viscosity
sensitive.
• The higher the viscosity of the fuel, the more trouble that it will have passing
through the first orifice. Because of this, the fuel pressure under the servo piston
will rise proportionally with viscosity. Because the second orifice is not viscosity
 sensitive, the pressure over the servo piston will remain constant. This will cause
a pressure differential that increases proportional with viscosity, in turn, causing
the piston to seek a position in its bore that becomes higher as viscosity increases.
• The upward movement of the servo piston will move a wedge-shaped moveable
plate, which will decrease fuel delivery. A lower viscosity fuel will cause the
piston to move downward, causing the pump to increase fuel delivery.

After the fuel passes through the two orifices, it leaves the compensator through an outlet
port. From here the fuel passes back to the pump.

ETHER

Ether is a highly volatile fluid that is injected into the intake

manifold, as you crank the engine. It is found in an aerosol
or capsule type container. Since ether has a low ignition
point, the heat generated in the combustion chamber is able
to ignite it. Heat from this ignition then ignites the diesel
fuel and normal combustion takes place. Once the diesel
engine starts, no more fluid is required.

Cold starting aids, such as ether, should be used only in

extreme emergencies. Too much ether may detonate in the
cylinder too far before top dead center (BDTC) on the
compression stroke. This could cause serious damage, such
as broken rings, ring lands, pistons, or even cracked cylinder
heads. If you must use ether, the engine has to be turning
over before you spray it into the intake manifold.
DIESEL FUEL SYSTEM MAINTENANCE
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the basic
maintenance required for a diesel fuel system.
If all diesel engines had nearly identical fuel system
trouble, diagnosis and maintenance procedures could
follow a general pattern. But, with the exception of
similar fuel tanks and basic piping system, diesel fuel
systems differ considerably. Consequently, each engine
manufacturer recommends different specific
maintenance procedures. However, the tune-up and
maintenance procedures described are representative of
the job you will do. For all jobs, refer to the
manufacturer’s service manual for the fuel system you
are servicing, even if you fully understand all
procedures.

DIRT IN FUEL SYSTEM

Many diesel engine operating troubles result directly or indirectly from dirt in the fuel
system. That is why proper fuel storage and handling are so important. One of the most
important aspects of diesel fuel is cleanliness. The fuel should not contain more than a
trace of foreign substance; otherwise, fuel pump and injector troubles will occur. Diesel
fuel, because it is more viscous than gasoline, will hold dirt in suspension for longer
periods. Therefore, every precaution should be made to keep the fuel clean.

If the engine starts missing, running irregularly, rapping, or puffing black smoke from the
exhaust manifold, look for trouble at the spray nozzle valves. In this event, it is almost a
sure bet that dirt is responsible for improper fuel injection into the cylinder. A valve held
open or scratched by particles of dirt so that it cannot seat properly will allow fuel to pass
into the exhaust without being completely burned, causing black smoke. Too much fuel
may cause a cylinder to miss entirely. If dirt prevents the proper amount of fuel from
entering the cylinders by restricting spray nozzle holes, the engine may skip or stop
entirely. In most cases, injector or valve troubles are easily identified.
Improper injection pump operation, however, is not easily recognized It is more likely
caused by excessive wear than by an accumulation of dirt or carbon, such as the spray
nozzle is subjected to it in the cylinder combustion chambers. If considerable abrasive
dirt gets by the filters to increase (by wear) the small clearance between the injector
pump plunger and barrel, fuel will leak by the plunger instead of being forced into the
injector nozzle in the cylinder. This gradual decrease in fuel delivery at the spray nozzle
may remain unnoticed for some time or until the operator complains of sluggish engine
performance.

Although worn injector pumps will result in loss of engine power and hard starting, worn
piston rings, cylinder liners, and valves (intake and exhaust) can be responsible for the
same conditions. However, with worn cylinder parts or valves, poor compression, a
smoky exhaust, and excessive blow-by will accompany the hard starting and loss of
power from the crankcase breather.

WATER IN FUEL SYSTEM

It requires only a little water in a fuel system to cause an

engine to miss, and if present in large enough quantities, the
engine will stop entirely. Many fuel filters are designed to
clog completely when exposed to water, thereby stopping
all fuel flow. Water that enters a tank with the fuel or that is
formed by condensation in a partially empty tank or line
usually settles to the lowest part of the fuel system. This
water should be drained off daily.
AIR IN FUEL SYSTEM

Air trapped in diesel fuel systems is one of the main reasons for a hard starting engine.
Air can enter the fuel system at loose joints in the piping or through a spray nozzle that
does not close properly. Letting the vehicle run out of fuel will also cause air to enter the
system. Like water, air can interfere with the unbroken flow of fuel from the tank to the
cylinder. A great deal of air in a system will prevent fuel pumps from picking up fuel and
pushing it through the piping system. Air can be removed by bleeding the system as set
forth in the procedures described in the manufacturer’s maintenance manual.

CLEANING INJECTORS

Unless special servicing equipment and repair instructions are available, defective
nozzles and pumps are exchanged for new ones. However, in an emergency, and if spray
valves or pumps are not too badly worn, they may be returned to a serviceable condition,
with minor adjustment, after a thorough cleaning.

Injector spray nozzles or pumps should be disassembled in the field only when no other
recourse is available. Whenever possible, they should be removed from the equipment
and brought to the shop for repair. The first requirement for the cleaning job is a clean
working area.
Use clean diesel fuel for washing the parts. Disassemble one nozzle at a time to prevent
mixing of mating parts. Exercise care to prevent damage to nozzle parts. Inspect and
clean all parts as they are disassembled. Carbon may be scraped from the outside of the
nozzle, but be careful not to mar the edges of the holes (orifices). When cleaning fluid is
used to clean the nozzle parts, dip the parts in diesel fuel immediately after cleaning. This
will prevent moisture from the hands from marring the highly polished surfaces.

Reaming tools and special drills are provided for cleaning spray nozzle holes. No drills
other than those recommended by the manufacturer should be used. The drills are hand-
operated, using a cleaning needle that is held in place by a small chuck, called a pin vise
(fig. 5-45). In performing reaming operations, remove only the foreign matter; be
particularly careful not to burr the metal.

WARNING

Diesel fuel is a hazardous material. Avoid prolonged skin contact and wear goggles.
Keep fire and flame away. Dispose of waste material and cleaning rags as hazardous
waste.
EXHAUST AND EMISSION CONTROL SYSTEMS

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Identify components of the exhaust and emission control

systems. Describe the operation of the exhaust and emission control systems.

Over the past several years, exhaust and emission control has greatly increased because
of stringent antipollution laws and EPA guidelines. This has made the exhaust and
emission control systems of vehicles invaluable and a vital part of today’s vehicles.

The waste products of combustion are carried away from the engine to the rear of the
vehicle by the exhaust system where they are expelled to the atmosphere. The exhaust
system also serves to dampen engine noise. The parts of a typical exhaust system include
the following: exhaust manifold, header pipe, catalytic converter, intermediate pipe,
muffler, tailpipe, hangers, heat shields, and muffler clamps.

The control of exhaust emissions is a difficult job. The ideal situation would be to have
the fuel combine completely with the oxygen from the intake air. The carbon would then
combine with the oxygen to form carbon dioxide (CO2 ); the hydrogen would combine to
form water (HO); and the nitrogen present in the intake would stand alone. The only
other product present in the exhaust would be oxygen from the intake air that was not
used in the burning of the fuel. In a real life situation, however, this is not what happens.
The fuel never combines completely with the oxygen, and undesirable exhaust emissions
are created as a result.

The most dangerous of the emissions is carbon monoxide (CO) which is a poisonous gas
that is colorless and odorless. CO is formed as a result of insufficient oxygen in the
combustion mixture and combustion chamber temperatures that are too low.

Other exhaust emissions that are considered major pollutants are as follows:

• Hydrocarbons (HC) are unburned fuel. They are particulate (solid) in form, and,
like carbon monoxide, they are manufactured by insufficient oxygen in the
combustion mixture and combustion chamber temperatures that are too low.
Hydrocarbons are harmful to all living things. In any urban area where vehicular
traffic is heavy, hydrocarbons in heavy concentrations react with the sunlight to
produce a brown fog, known as photochemical smog.
• Oxides of nitrogen (NOX ) are formed when nitrogen and oxygen in the intake air
combine when subjected to high temperatures of combustion. Oxides of nitrogen
are harmful to all living things.

The temperatures of the combustion chamber would have to be raised to a point that
would melt pistons and valves to eliminate carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide
emissions. This is compounded with the fact that oxides of nitrogen emissions go up with
any increase in the combustion chamber temperature. Knowing these facts, it can be seen
that emission control devices are necessary.
EXHAUST MANIFOLD

The exhaust manifold (fig. 4-47) connects all the engine cylinders to the exhaust system.
It is usually made of cast iron. If the exhaust manifold is properly formed, it can create a
scavenging action that will cause all of the cylinders to help each other get rid of exhaust
gases. Back pressure (the force that the pistons must exert to push out the exhaust gases)
can be reduced by making the manifold with smooth walls and without any sharp bends.
All these factors are taken into consideration when the exhaust manifold is designed, and
the best possible manifold is manufactured to fit into the confines of the engine
compartment.

MANIFOLD HEAT CONTROL VALVE

On some gasoline engines, a valve is placed in the exhaust manifold to deflect exhaust
gases toward a hot spot in the intake manifold until the engine reaches operating
temperature (fig. 4-48). This valve is a flat metal plate that is the same shape as the
opening that controls it. It pivots on a shaft and is operated by a thermostatic coil spring.
The spring pulls the valve closed against a counterweight before warm-up. The spring
expands as the engine warms up, and the counterweight pulls the valve open.
MUFFLER

The muffler (fig. 4-49) reduces the acoustic pressure of exhaust gases and discharges
them to the atmosphere with a minimum of noise. The muffler usually is located at a
point about halfway in the vehicle with the exhaust pipe between it and the exhaust
manifold and the tailpipe leading from the muffler to the rear of the vehicle.

The inlet and outlet of the muffler usually is slightly larger than their connecting pipes, so
that it may hook up by slipping over them. The muffler is then secured to the exhaust
pipe and tailpipe by clamps.

A typical muffler has several concentric chambers with openings between them. The gas
enters the inner chamber and expands, as it works its way through a series of holes in the
other chambers and finally to the atmosphere. They must be designed also to quiet
exhaust noise while creating minimum back pressure. High back pressure could cause
loss of engine power and economy and also cause overheating.

Exhaust system components usually are made of steel. They are coated with aluminum or
zinc to retard corrosion. Stainless steel also is used in exhaust systems in limited
quantities due to its high cost. A stainless steel exhaust system will last indefinitely.
CATALYTIC CONVERTERS

It is impossible to keep carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions at acceptable levels

by controlling them in the cylinder without shortening engine life considerably. The most
.

practical method of controlling these emissions is outside the engine using a catalytic
converter. The catalytic converter is similar in appearance to the muffler and is positioned
in the exhaust system between the engine and muffler. As the engine exhaust passes
through the converter, carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons are oxided (combined with
oxygen), changing them into carbon dioxide and water.

The catalytic converter contains a material (usually platinum or palladium) that acts as a
catalyst. The catalyst is something that causes a reaction between two substances without
actually getting involved. In the case of the catalytic converter, oxygen is joined
chemically with carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons in the presence of its catalyst.
Because platinum and palladium are both very precious metals and the catalyst must have
a tremendous amount of surface area in order to work properly, it has been found that the
following internal structures work best for catalytic converters:

• Pellet type (fig. 4-50) is filled with aluminum oxide pellets that have a very thin
coating of catalytic material. Aluminum oxide has a rough outer surface, giving
each pellet a tremendous amount of surface area. The converter contains baffles to
ensure maximum exposure of the exhaust to the pellets.
• Monolithic type (fig.4-50) uses a one-piece ceramic structure in a honeycomb
style form. The structure is coated thinly with a catalytic material. The
honeycomb shape has a tremendous surface area to ensure maximum exposure of
exhaust gases to the catalyst.

An adequate amount of oxygen must be present in the exhaust system for the catalytic
converter to operate; therefore, a supporting system, such as an air injection system,
usually is placed on catalytic converter equipped engines to dilute the exhaust stream
with fresh air.
 AIR INJECTION SYSTEM

An air injection system (fig. 4-51) forces fresh air into the exhaust ports of the engine to
reduce HC and CO emissions. The exhaust gases leaving an engine can contain unburned
and partially burned fuel. Oxygen from the air injection system causes this fuel to
continue to burn. The major parts of the system are the air pump, the diverter valve, the
air distribution manifold, and the air check valve.

• The AIR PUMP is belt-driven and forces air at low pressure into the system. A
hose is connected to the output of the diverter valve.
• The DIVERTER VALVE keeps air from entering the exhaust system during
deceleration. This prevents backfiring in the exhaust system. Also, the diverter
valve limits maximum system air pressure when needed, releasing excessive
pressure through a silencer or a muffler.
• AIR DISTRIBUTION MANIFOLD directs a stream of fresh air toward each
engine exhaust valve.
• Fittings on the air distribution manifold screw into a threaded hole in the exhaust
manifold or cylinder head.
• AIR CHECK VALVE is usually located in the line between the diverter valve and
the air distribution manifold. It keeps exhaust gases from entering the air injection
system.
Basic operation of the air injection system is as follows:

1. When the engine is running, the spinning vanes of the air pump force air
into the diverter valve. If not decelerating, the air is forced through the
diverter valve, the check valve, the air injection manifold, and into the
engine. The fresh air blows on the exhaust valves.
2. During periods of deceleration, the diverter valve blocks air flow into the
engine exhaust manifold. This prevents a possible backfire that could
damage the exhaust system of the vehicle. When needed, the diverter
valve will release excess pressure in the system.
POSITIVE CRANKCASE VENTILATION (PCV) SYSTEM

The positive crankcase ventilation system uses manifold vacuum to purge the crankcase
blow-by fumes. The fumes are then aspirated back into the engine where they are
reburned.

A hose is tapped into the crankcase at a point that is well above the engine oil level. The
other end of the hose is tapped into the intake manifold or the base of the carburetor.

NOTE

An inlet breather is installed on the crankcase in a location that is well above the level of
the engine oil. The inlet breather also is located strategically to ensure complete purging
of the crankcase fresh air. The areas of the crankcase where the vacuum hose and inlet
breather are tapped have baffles to keep motor oil from leaving the crankcase.

A flow control valve is installed in the line that connects the crankcase to the manifold. It
is called a positive crankcase ventilation (PCV) valve (fig. 4-52) and serves to avoid the
air-fuel mixture by doing the following:

• Any periods of large throttle opening will be accompanied by heavy engine loads.
Crankcase blow-by will be at its maximum during heavy engine loads. The PCV
valve will react to the small amount of manifold vacuum that also is present
during heavy engine loading by opening fully through the force of its control
valve spring. In this way, the system provides maximum effectiveness during
maximum blow-by periods.
• Any period of small throttle opening will be accompanied by small engine loads,
high manifold vacuum, and a minimum amount of crankcase blow-by. During
these periods, the high manifold vacuum will pull the PCV valve to its position of
minimum opening. This is important to prevent an excessively lean air-fuel
mixture.
• In the event of engine backfire (flame traveling back through the intake
manifold), the reverse pressure will push the rear shoulder of the control valve
against the valve body. This will seal the crankcase from the backfire which could
otherwise cause an explosion. The positive crankcase ventilation system can be
either the open or closed type (fig. 4-52).
• The open type has an inlet breather that is open to the atmosphere. When this
system is used, it is possible for a portion of the crankcase blow-by to escape
through the breather whenever the engine is under a sustained heavy load.
• The closed type has a sealed breather that is connected to the air filter by a hose.
Any blow-by gases that escape from the breather when this system is used will be
aspirated into the carburetor and reburned.
EXHAUST GAS RECIRCULATION (EGR) SYSTEM

When the temperature of the combustion flame exceeds approximately 2,500°F, the
nitrogen that is present in the intake air begins to combine with oxygen to produce oxides
of nitrogen (NOX). The exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) system (fig. 4-53) helps to
control the formation of oxides of nitrogen by recirculating a portion of the exhaust gases
back through the intake manifold, resulting in cooler combustion chamber temperatures.

A basic EGR system is simple, consisting of a vacuum operated EGR valve and a
vacuum line from the carburetor. The EGR valve usually bolts to the engine intake
manifold or a carburetor plate. Exhaust gases are routed through the cylinder head and
intake manifold to the EGR valve.
The EGR valve consists of a vacuum diaphragm, a spring, an exhaust gas valve, and a
diaphragm housing. It is designed to control exhaust flow into the intake manifold.

Although there are minor differences between systems, the basic operation of an exhaust
gas recirculation system is as follows:

• At idle, the throttle plate in the carburetor or fuel injection throttle body is closed.
This blocks off engine vacuum, so it cannot act on the EGR valve. The EGR
spring holds the valve shut, and the exhaust gases do NOT enter the intake
manifold. If the EGR valve were to open at idle, it could upset the air-fuel mixture
and the engine would stall.
• When the throttle plate is swung open to increase speed, engine vacuum is applied
to the EGR hose. Vacuum pulls the EGR diaphragm up. In turn, the diaphragm
pulls the valve open. Engine exhaust can enter the intake manifold and
combustion chambers. At higher engine speeds, there is enough air flowing into
the engine that the air-fuel mixture is not upset by the open EGR valve.

There are two different methods of supply vacuum to the EGR valve. The first method
uses a vacuum port into the carburetor throat located just above the throttle plate. As the
throttle begins to open, vacuum will begin to be applied to the port and operates the EGR
valve. The valve will continue to operate fully until approximately half throttle is
reached. As the throttle is open past the halfway point, exhaust gas recirculation
gradually will diminish to zero, as the throttle approaches the fully opened position.

The second method uses a vacuum port that is directly in the carburetor venturi (fig. 4-
53). The carburetor venturi provides vacuum for the EGR valve any time the engine is
running at high speed. The problem with using venturi vacuum is that it is not strong
enough to open the EGR valve. So to make it work, manifold vacuum is used to operate
the EGR valve through a vacuum amplifier. The vacuum amplifier switches the manifold
vacuum supply to the EGR valve whenever venturi vacuum is applied to its signal port.
At times of large engine loading (wide, open throttle), manifold vacuum will be weak,
producing the desired condition of no exhaust gas recirculation.

An engine coolant temperature switch may be used to prevent exhaust gas recirculation
when the engine is cold. A cold engine does not have extremely high combustion
temperatures and does not produce very much NOx . By blocking vacuum to the EGR
valve below 100°F, you can improve the drivability and performance of the cold engine.
FUEL EVAPORIZATION CONTROL SYSTEM

The fuel evaporization control system prevents vapors from the fuel tank and carburetor
from entering the atmosphere (fig. 4-54). Older, pre-emission vehicles used vented fuel
tank caps. Carburetor bowls were also vented to the atmosphere. This caused a
considerable amount of emissions. Modern vehicles commonly use fuel evaporization
control systems to prevent this source of pollution. The major components of the fuel
evapotization control systems are the sealed fuel tank cap, fuel air dome, liquid-vapor
separator, roll-over valve, fuel tank vent line, charcoal canister, carburetor vent line, and
the purge line.
 • SEALED FUEL TANK CAP is used to keep fuel vapors from entering the
atmosphere through the tank filler neck. It may contain pressure and vacuum
valves that open in extreme cases of pressure or vacuum.
• When the fuel expands (from warming), tank pressure forces fuel vapors out a
vent line or line at the top of the fuel tank, not out of the cap.
• FUEL AIR DOME is a hump designed into the top of the fuel tank to allow for
fuel expansion. The dome normally provides about 10 percent air space to allow
for fuel heating and volume increase.
• LIQUID-VAPOR SEPARATOR is frequently used to keep liquid fuel from
entering the evaporation control system. It is simply a metal tank located above
the main fuel tank. Liquid fuel condenses on the walls of the separator and then
flows back into the fuel tank.
• ROLL-OVER VALVE is sometimes used in the vent line from the fuel tank. It
keeps liquid fuel from entering the vent line after an accident where the vehicle
rolled upside down. The valve contains a metal ball or plunger valve that blocks
the vent line when the valve is turned over.
• FUELTANK VENTLINE carries fuel vapors up evaporization control to a
charcoal canister in the engine compartment
• CHARCOAL CANISTER stores fuel vapors when the engine is NOT running.
The metal or plastic canister is filled with activated charcoal granules capable of
absorbing fuel vapors.
• CARBURETOR VENT LINE connects the carburetor fuel bowl with the charcoal
canister. Bowl vapors flow through this line and into the canister.
• PURGE LINE is used for removing or cleaning the stored vapors out of the
charcoal canister. It connects the canister and the engine intake manifold.

Basic operation of a fuel. system is as follows:

1. When the engine is running, intake manifold vacuum acts on the purge line,
causing fresh air to flow through the filter at the bottom of the canister. The
incoming fresh air picks up the stored fuel vapors and carries them through the
purge line. The vapors enter the intake manifold and are pulled into the
combustion chambers for burning.
2. When the engine is shut off, engine heat produces excess vapors. These vapors
flow through the carburetor vent line and into the charcoal canister for storage.
The vapors that form in the tank flow through the liquid vapor separator into the
tank vent line to the charcoal canister. The charcoal canister absorbs these fuel
vapors and holds them until the engine is started
DIESEL FUEL SYSTEMS

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the different type of diesel fuel systems, how the
components function to provide fuel to the engine in proper quantities, and servicing of
the diesel fuel systems.

Maintenance personnel form part of an important network of dedicated people who

ensure that medium-and heavy-duty trucks and construction equipment are kept in a state
of safe and acceptable performance standards. The diesel fuel injection system is a major
component of a properly operating engine. An engine out of adjustment can cause
excessive exhaust smoke, poor fuel economy, heavy carbon buildup within the
combustion chambers, and short engine life.

DIESEL FUEL SYSTEMS

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Identify the properties of diesel fuel. Describe the function
and operation of governors and fuel system components.
Like the gasoline engine, the diesel engine is an internal combustion engine using either a
two- or four-stroke cycle. Burning or combustion of fuel within the engine cylinders
obtains power. The diesel engine does not use a carburetor because the diesel fuel is
mixed in the cylinder with compressed air.

Compression ratios in the diesel engine range between 14:1 and 19:1. This high ratio
causes increased compression pressures of 400 to 600 psi and cylinder temperature reach
800°F to 1200°F. At the proper time, the diesel fuel is injected into the cylinder by a fuel
injection system, which usually consists of a pump, fuel line, and injector or nozzle.
When the fuel oil enters the cylinder, it will ignite because of the high temperatures. The
diesel engine is known as a compression-ignition engine, while the gasoline engine is a
spark-ignition engine.

Figure 5-1 shows the comparison of the four strokes of a four-cycle diesel engine and a
four-cycle gasoline engine.

The speed of a diesel engine is controlled by the amount of fuel injected into the
cylinders. In a gasoline engine, the speed of the engine is controlled by the amount of air
admitted into the carburetor or gasoline fuel injection systems.

Mechanically, the diesel engine is similar to the gasoline engine. The intake,
compression, power, and exhaust strokes occur in the same order. The arrangement of the
pistons, connecting rods, crankshaft, and engine valves is about the same. The diesel
engine is also classified as in-line or v-type.

In comparison to the gasoline engine, the diesel engine produces more power per pound
of fuel, is more reliable, has lower fuel consumption per horsepower per hour, and
presents less of a fire hazard.

These advantages are partially offset by higher initial cost, heavier construction needed
for its high compression pressures, and the difficulty in starting which results from these
pressures.

DIESEL FUEL

Diesel fuel is heavier than gasoline because it is obtained from the residue of the crude oil
after the more volatile fuels have been removed. As with gasoline, the efficiency of diesel
fuel varies with the type of engine in which it is used. By distillation, cracking, and
blending of several oils, a suitable diesel fuel can be obtained for all engine operating
conditions. Using a poor or improper grade of fuel can cause hard starting, incomplete
combustion, a smoky exhaust, and engine knocks.

The high injection pressures needed in the diesel fuel system result from close tolerances
in the pumps and injectors. These tolerances make it necessary for the diesel fuel to have
sufficient lubrication qualities to prevent rapid wear or damage. It must also be clean, mix
rapidly with the air, and burn smoothly to produce an even thrust on the piston during
combustion.

Diesel Fuel Oil Grades

Diesel fuel is graded and designated by the American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM), while its specific gravity and high and low heat values are listed by the
American Petroleum Institute (API). Each individual oil refiner and supplier attempts to
produce diesel fuels that comply as closely as possible with ASTM and API
specifications. Because of different crude oil supplies, the diesel fuel may be on either the
high or low end of the prescribed heat scale in Btu per pound or per gallon. Because of
deterioration of diesel fuel, there are only two recommended grades of fuel that is
considered acceptable for use in high-speed heavy-duty vehicles. These are the No. 1D or
No. 2D fuel oil classification.

Grade No. 1D comprises the class of volatile fuel oils from kerosene to the intermediate
distillates. Fuels within this classification are applicable for use in high-speed engines in
service involving frequent and relatively wide variations in loads and speeds. In cold
weather conditions, No. 1D fuel allows the engine to start easily. In summary, for heavy-
duty high-speed diesel vehicles operating in continued cold-weather conditions, No. 1D
fuel provides better operation than the heavier No. 2D.

Grade No. 2D includes the class of distillate oils of lower volatility. They are applicable
for use in high-speed engines in service involving relatively high loads and speeds. This
fuel is used more by truck fleets, due to its greater heat value per gallon, particularly in
warm to moderate climates. Even though No. 1D fuel has better properties for cold
weather operations, many still use No. 2D in the winter, using fuel heater/water
separators to provide suitable starting, as well as fuel additive conditioners, which are
added directly into the fuel tank.

Selecting the correct diesel fuel is a must if the engine is to perform to its rated
specifications. Generally, the seven factors that must be considered in the selection of a
fuel oil are as follows:

1. Starting characteristics
2. Fuel handling
3. Wear on injection equipment
4. Wear on pistons
5. Wear on rings, valves, and cylinder liners
6. Engine maintenance
7. Fuel cost and availability

Other considerations in the selection of a fuel oil are:

• Engine size and design

• Speed and load range
 • Frequency of load and speed changes
• Atmospheric conditions

Cetane Number

Cetane number is a measure of the fuel oils volatility; the higher the rating, the easier the
engine will start and the combustion process will be smoother within the ratings specified
by the engine manufacturer. Current 1D and 2D diesel fuels have a cetane rating between
40 and 45.

Cetane rating differs from octane rating that is used in gasoline in that the higher the
number of gasoline on the octane scale, the greater the fuel resistance to self-ignition,
which is a desirable property in gasoline engines with a high compression ratio. Using a
low octane fuel will cause pm-ignition in high compression engines. However, the higher
the cetane rating, the easier the fuel will ignite once injected into the diesel combustion
chamber. If the cetane number is too low, you will have difficulty in starting. This can be
accompanied by engine knock and puffs of white smoke during warm-up in cold weather.

High altitudes and low temperatures require the use of diesel fuel with an increased
cetane number. Low temperature starting is enhanced by high cetane fuel oil in the
proportion of 1.5°F—lower starting temperature for each cetane number increase in the
fuel.

Volatility

Fuel volatility requirements depend on the same factors as cetane number. The more
volatile fuels are best for engines where rapidly changing loads and speeds are
encountered. Low volatile fuels tend to give better fuel economy where their
characteristics are needed for complete combustion and will produce less smoke, odor,
deposits, crankcase dilution, and engine wear.

The volatility of a fuel is established by a distillation test where a given volume of fuel is
placed into a container that is heated gradually. The readiness [Link] which a liquid
changes to a vapor is known as the volatility of the liquid The 90 percent distillation
temperature measures volatility of diesel fuel. This is the temperature at which 90 percent
of a sample of the fuel has been distilled off. The lower the distillation temperature, the
higher the volatility of the fuel. In small diesel engines higher fuel volatility is needed
than in larger engines in order to obtain low fuel consumption, low exhaust temperature,
and minimum exhaust smoke.

Viscosity

The viscosity is a measure of the resistance to flow of the fuel, and it will decrease as the
fuel oil temperature increases. What this means is that a fluid with a high viscosity is
heavier than a fluid with low viscosity. A high viscosity fuel may cause extreme
pressures in the injection systems and will cause reduced atomization and vaporization of
the fuel spray.

The viscosity of diesel fuel must be low enough to flow freely at its lowest operational
temperature, yet high enough to provide lubrication to the moving parts of the finely
machined injectors. The fuel must also be sufficiently viscous so that leakage at the pump
plungers and dribbling at the injectors will not occur. Viscosity also will determine the
size of the fuel droplets, which, in turn, govern the atomization and penetration qualities
of the fuel injector spray.

Recommended fuel oil viscosity for high-speed diesel engines is generally in the region
of 39 SSU (Seconds Saybolt Universal) which is derived from using a Saybolt
Viscosimeter to measure the time it takes for a quantity of fuel to flow through a
restricted hole in a tube. A viscosity rating of 39 SSU provides good penetration into the
combustion chamber, atomization of fuel, and suitable lubrication.

Sulfur Content

Sulfur has a definite effect on the wear of the internal components of the engine, such as
piston ring, pistons, valves, and cylinder liners. In addition a high sulfur content fuel
requires that the engine oil and filter be changed more often. This is because the corrosive
effects of hydrogen sulfide in the fuel and the sulfur dioxide or sulfur triioxide that is
formed during the combustion process combines with water vapor to form acids. High
additive lubricating oils are desired when high sulfur fuels are used. Refer to the engine
manufacturer’s specifications for the correct lube oil when using high sulfur fuel.

Sulfur content can only be established by chemical analysis of the fuel. Fuel sulfur
content above 0.4% is considered as medium or high and anything below 0.4% is low.
No. 2D contains between 0.2 and 0.5% sulfur, whereas No. 1D contains less than 0.1%.

Sulfur content has a direct bearing on the life expectancy of the engine and its
components. Active sulfur in diesel fuel will attack and corrode injection system
components in addition to contributing to combustion chamber and injection system
deposits.

Cloud and Pour Point

Cloud point is the temperature at which wax crystals in the fuel (paraffin base) begin to
settle out with the result that the fuel filter becomes clogged. This condition exists when
cold temperatures are encountered and is the reason that a thermostatically controlled fuel
heater is required on vehicles operating in cold weather environments. Failure to use a
fuel heater will prevent fuel from flowing through the filter and the engine will not run.
Cloud point generally occurs 9-14°F above the pour point.
Pour point of a fuel determines the lowest temperature at which the fuel can be pumped
through the fuel system. The pour point is 5°F above the level at which oil becomes a
solid or refuses to flow.

Cleanliness and Stability

Cleanliness is an important characteristic of diesel fuel. Fuel should not contain more
than a trace of foreign substances; otherwise, fuel pump and injectors difficulties will
develop leading to poor performance or seizure. Because it is heavier and more viscous,
diesel fuel will hold dirt particles in suspension for a longer period than gasoline.
Moisture in the fuel can also damage or cause seizure of injector parts when corrosion
occurs.

Fuel stability is its capacity to resist chemical change caused by oxidation and heat. Good
oxidation stability means that the fuel can be stored for extended periods of time without
the formation of gum or sludge. Good thermal stability prevents the formation or carbon
in hot parts, such as fuel injectors or turbine nozzles. Carbon deposits disrupt the spray
patterns and cause inefficient combustion.
COMBUSTION CHAMBER DESIGN

The fuel injected into the combustion chamber must be mixed thoroughly with the
compressed air and distributed as evenly as possible throughout the chamber if the engine
is to function at maximum efficiency and exhibit maximum drivabilty. A well-designed
engine uses a combustion chamber that is designed for the intended usage of the engine.
The injects used should compliment the combustion chamber. The combustion chambers
described on the following pages are the most common and cover virtually all of the
designs that are currently in use. These are the open chamber, precombustion chamber,
turbulence chamber, and spherical (hypercycle) chamber.

Open Combustion Chamber

The open combustion chamber (fig. 5-2) is the simplest form of chamber. It is suitable for
only slow-speed, four-stroke cycle engines, but is widely used in two-stroke cycle diesel
engines. In the open chamber, the fuel is injected directly into the space on top of the
cylinder. The combustion space, formed by the top of the piston and the cylinder head,
usually is shaped to provide s swirling action of the air, as the piston comes up on the
compression stroke. There are no special pockets, cells, or passages to aid the mixing of
the fuel and air. This type of chamber requires a higher injection pressure and a greater
degree of fuel atomization than is required by other combustion chambers to obtain an
acceptable level of fuel mixing. To equalize combustion in the combustion chamber, use
a multiple orifice-type injector tip for effective penetration. This chamber design is very
susceptible to ignition lag.

Precombustion Chamber
The precombustion chamber (fig. 5-3) is an auxiliary chamber at the top of the cylinder.
It is connected to the main combustion chamber by a restricted throat or passage. The
precombustion chamber conditions the fuel for final combustion in the cylinder. A
hollowed-out portion of the piston [Link] turbulence in the main combustion
chamber, as the fuel enters from the precombustion chamber to aid in mixing with air.
The following steps occur during the precombustion process:

• During the compression stroke of the engine, air is forced into the precombustion
chamber and, because the air is compressed, it is hot. At the beginning of
injection, the precombustion chamber contains a definite volume of air.
• As the injection begins, combustion begins in the precombustion chamber. The
burning of the fuel, combined with the restricted passage to the main combustion
chamber, creates a tremendous amount of pressure in the combustion chamber.
The pressure and the initial combustion cause a super-heated fuel charge to enter
the main combustion chamber at a high velocity.
• The entering mixture hits the hollowed-out piston top, creating turbulence in the
chamber to ensure complete mixing of the fuel charge with the air. This mixing
ensures even and complete combustion. This chamber design provides
 satisfactory performance with low fuel injection pressures and coarse spray
patterns because a large amount of vaporization occurs in the precombustion
chamber. This chamber also is not very susceptible to ignition lag, making it
suitable for high-speed operations.

Turbulence Chamber The turbulence chamber (fig. 5-4) is similar in appearance to the
precombustion chamber, but its function is different. There is very little clearance
between the top of the piston and the head, so a high percentage of the air between the
piston and cylinder head is forced into the turbulence chamber during the compression
stroke. The chamber is usually spherical, and the small opening through which the air
must pass causes an increase in air velocity, as it enters the chamber. This turbulence
speed is about 50 times crankshaft speed. The fuel injection is timed to occur when the
turbulence in the chamber is greatest. This ensures a thorough mixing of the fuel and air,
causing the greater part of combustion to take place in the turbulence chamber. The
pressure, created by the expansion of the burning gases, is the force that drives the piston
downward on the power stroke.

Spherical (Hypercycle) Chamber

The spherical (hypercycle) combustion chamber (fig. 5-5) is designed principally for use
in the multifuel diesel engine. The chamber consists of a basic open type chamber with a
spherical shaped relief in the top of the piston head. The chamber works in conjunction
with a strategically positioned injector and an intake port that produces a swirling effect,
as it enters the chamber. Operation of the chamber is as follows:

1. As the air enters the combustion chamber, the shape of the intake port (fig. 5-5)
introduces a swirling effect to it.
2. During the compression stroke, the swirling motion of the air continues as the
temperature in the chamber increases (fig. 5-5).
3. As the fuel is injected, approximately 95 percent of it is deposited on the head of
the piston and the remainder mixes with the air in the spherical combustion
chamber (fig. 5-5).
4. As combustion begins, the main portion of the fuel is swept off the piston head by
the high-velocity swirl that was created by the intake and the compression strokes.
As the fuel is swept off of the head, it burns through the power stroke,
maintaining even combustion and eliminating detonation (fig. 5-5).
Types of Governors

The type of governor used on diesel engines is dependent upon the application required.
The six basic types of governors are:

1. Mechanical centrifugal flyweight style that relies on a set of rotating

flyweights and a control spring; used since the inception of the diesel
engine to control its speed.
2. Power-assisted servomechanical style that operates similar to the
mechanical centrifugal flyweight but uses engine oil under pressure to
move the operating linkage.
3. Hydraulic governor that relies on the movement of a pilot valve plunger to
control pressurized oil flow to a power piston, which, in turn, moves the
fuel control mechanism.
4. Pneumatic governor that is responsive to the air flow (vacuum) in the
intake manifold of an engine. A diaphragm within the governor housing is
connected to the fuel control linkage that changes its setting with increases
or decreases in the vacuum.
5. Electromechanical governor uses a magnetic speed pickup sensor on an
engine-driven component to monitor the rpm of the engine. The sensor
sends a voltage signal to an electronic control unit that controls the current
flow to a mechanical actuator connected to the fuel linkage.
6. Electronic governor uses magnetic speed sensor to monitor the rpm of the
engine. The sensor continuously feeds information back to the ECM
(electronic control module). The ECM then computes all the information
sent from all other engine sensors, such as the throttle position sensor,
turbocharger-boost sensor, engine oil pressure and temperature sensor,
engine coolant sensor, and fuel temperature to limit engine speed.

The governors, used on heavy-duty truck applications and construction equipment, fall
into one of two basic categories:

• Limiting-speed governors, sometimes referred to as minimum/maximum models

since they are intended to control the idle and maximum speed settings of the
engine. Normally there is no governor control in the intermediate range, being
regulated by the position of the throttle linkage.
• Variable-speed or all range governors that are designed to control the speed of the
engine regardless of the throttle setting.

Other types of governors used on diesel engines are as follows:

1. Constant-speed, intended to maintain the engine at a single speed from no load to

full load.
2. Load limiting, to limit the load applied to the engine at any given speed. Prevents
overloading the engine at whatever speed it may be running.
 3. Load-control, used for adjusting to the amount of load applied at the engine to suit
the speed at which it is set to run.
4. Pressure regulating, used on an engine driving a pump to maintain a constant inlet
or outlet pressure on the pump.

At this time on heavy-duty truck and construction equipment applications, straight

mechanically designed units dominate the governor used on nonelectronic fuel injection
systems.

Mechanical Governors

Many of the governors installed on today’s diesel engines use the centrifugal force of
rotating weights (fly balls) and the tensions of a helical coil spring (or springs). On this
basis, most of the governors used on diesel engines are generally called mechanical
centrifugal flyweight governors.

In mechanical centrifugal flyweight governors (fig.5-6), two forces oppose each other.
One of these forces is tension spring (or springs) which may be varied either by an
adjusting device or by movement of the manual throttle. The engine produces the other
force. Weights, attached to the governor drive shaft, are rotated, and a centrifugal force is
created when the engine drives the shaft. The centrifugal force varies with the speed of
the engine.

Transmitted to the fuel system through a connecting linkage, the tension of the spring (or
springs) tends to increase the amount of fuel delivered to the cylinders.

On the other hand, the centrifugal force of the rotating weights, through connecting
linkage, tends to reduce the quantity of fuel injected. When the two opposing forces are
equal, or balanced, the speed of the engine remains constant

To show how the governor works when the load increases and decreases, let us assume
you are driving a truck in hilly terrain. When a truck approaches a hill at a steady engine
speed, the vehicle is moving from a set state of balance in the governor assembly
(weights and springs are equal) with a fixed throttle setting to an unstable condition. As
the vehicle starts to move up the hill at a fixed speed, the increased load demands result
in a reduction in engine speed. This upsets the state of balance that had existed in the
governor. The reduced rotational speed at the engine results in a reduction in speed, and,
therefore, the centrifugal force of the governor weights. When the state of balance is
upset, the high-speed governor spring is allowed to expand, giving up some of its stored
energy, which moves the connecting fuel linkage to an increased delivery position. This
additional fuel delivered to the combustion chambers would result in an increase in
horsepower, but not necessarily an increase in engine speed.

When the truck moves into a downhill situation, the operator is forced to back off the
throttle to reduce the speed of the vehicle; otherwise, the brakes or engine/transmission
retarder has to be applied. The operator can also downshift the transmission to obtain
additional braking power. However, when the operator does not reduce the throttle
position or brake the vehicle mass in some way, an increase in road speed results. This is
due to the reduction in engine load because of the additional reduction in vehicle
resistance achieved through the mass weight of the vehicle and its load pushing the truck
downhill. This action causes the governor weights to increase in speed, and they attempt
to compress the high-speed spring, thereby reducing the fuel delivery to the engine.
Engine overspeed can result if the road wheels of the vehicle are allowed to rotate fast
enough that they, in effect, become the driving member.

The governor assembly would continue to reduce fuel supply to the engine due to
increased speed of the engine. If over speed does occur, the valves can end up floating
(valve springs are unable to pull and keep the valves closed) and striking the piston
crown. Therefore, it is necessary in a downhill run for the operator to ensure that the
engine speed does not exceed maximum governed rpm by application of the vehicle,
engine, or transmission forces.

Favorable, as well as unfavorable, characteristics are to be found in mechanical

governors. Advantages are as follows:

• They are inexpensive.

• They are satisfactory when it is not necessary to maintain exactly the same speed,
regardless of load.
• They are extremely simple with few parts.
• Disadvantages are as follows: They have large deadbands, since the speed-
measuring device must also furnish the force to move the engine fuel control.
• Their power is relatively small unless they are excessively large.
• They have an unavoidable speed droop, and therefore cannot truly provide
constant speed when this is needed.
Hydraulic Governors

Although hydraulic governors have more moving parts and are generally more expensive
than mechanical governors, they are used in many applications because they are more
sensitive, have greater power to move the fuel control mechanism of the engine, and can
be timed for identical speed for all loads.

In hydraulic governors (fig. 5-7), the power which moves the engine throttle does NOT
come from the speed-measuring device, but instead comes from a hydraulic power piston,
or servomotor. This is a piston that is acted upon by fluid pressure, generally oil under the
pressure of a pump. By using appropriate piston size and oil pressure, the power of the
governor at its output shaft (work capacity) can be made sufficient to operate the fuel-
changing mechanism of the largest engines.

The speed-measuring device, through its speeder rod, is attached to a small cylindrical
valve, called a pilot valve. The pilot valve slides up and down in a bushing, which
contains ports that control the oil, flow to and from the servomotor. The force needed to
slide the pilot valve is very little; a small ball head is able to control a large amount of
power at the servomotor.
The basic principle of a hydraulic governor (fig. 5-7) is very simple. When the governor
is operating at control speed or state of balance, the pilot valve closes the port and there is
no oil flow.

When the governor speed falls due to an increase in engine load, the flyweights move in
and the pilot valve moves down. This opens the port to the power piston and connects the
oil supply of oil under pressure. This oil pressure acts on the power piston, forcing it
upward to increase the fuel.

When the governor speed rises due to a decrease of engine load, the flyweights move out
and the pilot valve moves up. This opens the port from the power piston to the drain into
the sump. The spring above the power piston forces the power piston down, thus
decreasing the speed.

Unfortunately, the simple hydraulic governor has a serious defect, which prevents its
practical use. It is inherently unstable; that is, it keeps moving continually, making
unnecessary corrective actions. In other words it hunts. The cause of this hunting is the
unavoidable time lag between the moment the governor acts and the moment the engine
responds. The engine cannot come back to the speed called for by the governor.

Most hydraulic governors use a speed droop to obtain stability. Speed droop gives
stability because the engine throttle can take only one position for any speed.

Therefore, when a load change causes a speed change, the resulting governor action
ceases at a particular point that gives the amount of fuel needed for a new load. In this
way speed droop prevents unnecessary governor movement and overcorrection (hunting).

Electronic Governors

The introduction of electronically controlled diesel fuel injection system on several

heavy-duty high-speed truck engines has allowed the speed of the diesel engine to be
controlled electronically, rather than mechanically. The same type of balance condition in
a mechanical governor occurs in an electronic governor.
The major difference is that in the electronic governor, electric currents (amperes) and
voltages (pressure) are used together instead of mechanical weight and spring forces.
This is possible through the use of magnetic pickup sensor (MPS), which is, in effect, a
permanent-magnet single-pole device. This magnetic pickup concept is being used on all
existing electronic systems and its operation can be considered common to all of them.
MPS’s are a vital communications link between the engine crankshaft speed and the
onboard computer (ECM). The MPS is installed next to a drive shaft gear made of a
material that reacts to a magnetic field. As each gear tooth passes the MPS, the gear
interrupts the MPS’s magnetic field. This, in turn, produces an ac current signal, which
corresponds to the rpm of the engine. This signal is sent to the ECM to establish the
amount of fuel that should be injected into the combustion chambers of the engine.
Electronic speed governing systems are set up to provide six basic governing modes:

1. Idle speed control

2. Maximum speed control
3. Power takeoff speed control
4. Vehicle speed cruise control
5. Engine speed cruise control
6. Road speed limiting

Each of the control modes above is described in more detail below.

1. The idle speed control provides fixed speed control over the entire torque
capability of the engine. Also, the idle speed set point is calculated as a function
of the engine temperature to provide an optional cold idle speed, which is usually
several hundred rpm higher than normal operating temperature.
2. The engine maximum rpm setting can be programmed for different settings. This
can improve fuel economy by eliminating engine overspeed in all gear ranges.
3. The power takeoff speed control setting can operate at any speed between idle and
maximum. The operator uses rotary control or a toggle switch in the cab to vary
electronically the engine power to the PTO from idle to the preset rpm.
4. Vehicle and engine cruise control includes set, resume, and coast features similar
to that of a passenger car, as well as an accelerate (ACCEL) mode to provide a
fixed speed increase each time the control switch is activated.
5. The road speed limiting function allows the organization assigned to determine
what maximum vehicle road speed they desire independent of the maximum
governed speed setting of the engine. Road speed governing provides the best
method for ensuring ideal fuel economy.

The major advantage of the electronic governor over the mechanical governor lies in its
ability to modify speed reference easily by various means to control such things as
acceleration and deceleration, as well as load.

Governor
Detroit diesel engines use both mechanical and hydraulic governors on the engines of the
following type:

1. Mechanical limiting speed governor

2. Variable mechanical speed governor
3. Variable low-speed limiting speed mechanical governor
4. Mechanical constant speed governor (earlier engines)
5. Dual-range limiting speed mechanical governor
6. Woodward SG hydraulic governor
7. Woodward PSG hydraulic governor
8. Woodward electric governor

On Detroit diesel engines the type of governor used is dependent on the particular engine
application; therefore, setup can vary slightly between engines. All Detroit diesel
mechanical governors are easily identifiable by a nameplate attached to the governor
housing. The following letters are typical examples.

DWLS: double-weight limiting speed (mobile equipment)

SWLS: single-weight limiting speed (mobile equipment)

SWVS: single-weight variable speed (industrial and marine)

VLSLS: variable low-speed limiting speed (highway vehicles)

DWDRG: double-weight dual range governor (highway vehicles)

SG, PSG, SGX, UG8: Woodward

The functions of all these governors, whether mechanical or hydraulic, are to control
engine speed and correct for any change in load applied or removed from the engine.
They all work on the basic principle of weights against spring pressure; therefore, all
governors are of the speed-sensing type.

Since the action of all these governors is the same,the two most common types found on
a Detroit diesel engine—the limiting and variable speed governors.

The limiting speed type governor is found in both single- and double-weight version and
can also be found on both in-line and V-type engines. Riveted on the side of the governor
housing is an identification plate, which shows the following:

1. Governor part number

2. Date of manufacture
3. Idle speed range
4. Type, such as DWLS, meaning double-weight limiting speed
5. Drive ratio
Regardless of whether the limiting speed governor is of the single- or double-weight
variety, the action of the governor is the same. The purpose of the limiting speed
governor is as follows:

• Controls engine idle speed

• Limits the maximum speed of the engine

The application of the engine determines whether a single- or double-weight governor

will be used. The most prominent application for the limiting speed governor is highway
truck engines, since the governor has no control in the intermediate engine speed range.

This allows the operator to have complete control of the injector rack movement through
throttle action alone. his permits fast throttle response for engine acceleration or
deceleration.

The variable speed mechanical governor is found extensively on industrial and marine
applications, since it is designed for the following functions:

1. Controls the engine idle speed

2. Controls the maximum engine speed hydraulic-type governors (industrial and
generator sets)
3. Holds the engine speed at any position between idle and maximum as desired and
set by the operator.

The response and reaction of the variable speed mechanical governor is similar to that of
the limiting speed type with just a few exceptions. Since the variable speed mechanical
governor controls speed through-out the total rpm range, there is no intermediate range as
with the limiting speed governor. The variable speed governor uses only one set of
weights and one spring.

In a variable speed mechanical governor, any given but with a difference only in purpose,
we will discuss throttle setting or load from idle to maximum speed, a state of balance
can exist. If, however, the load is increased or decreased, a corrective action will be
initiated. The bell crank lever and pivoting differential lever will be moved by the action
of the governor spring or weights to reestablish a state of balance.

Remember the governor can only react and change to the rpm of the engine.

The variable speed mechanical governor is readily identifiable from the limiting speed
governor by the fact that it has only one lever on the top of the governor cover, which is
the stop/run lever. The speed control lever is located vertically on the end of the governor
spring housing. A large booster spring is attached between the speed control lever and a
bracket on the cylinder head, used to assist the operator in overcoming governor
resistance during throttle movement. The letters SWVS (single-weight variable speed) are
stamped on the governor identification plate.
CUMMINS DIESEL FUEL SYSTEMS

Over the years Cummins has produced a series of

innovations, such as the first automotive diesel, in addition
to being the first to use supercharging and then
turbocharging. All cylinders are commonly served through a
low-pressure fuel line. The camshaft control of the
mechanical injector controls the timing of injection
throughout the operating range. This design eliminates the
timing-lag problems of high-pressure systems.

To meet Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) exhaust

emissions standards, Cummins offers the Celect
(electronically controlled injection) system.

Since the Celect system did not start production until 1989,
there are literally thousands of Cummins with pressure-time
(PT) fuel systems. We will discuss the operation of the PT
system first, then discuss the basic operating concept of the
Celect system.

Pressure-Time Fuel System

The pressure-time (PT) fuel system (fig. 5-28) is exclusive to Cummins diesel engines; it
uses injectors that meter and injects the fuel with this metering [Link] a pressure-time
principle. A gear-driven positive displacement low-pressure fuel pump naturally supplies
fuel pressure. The time for metering is determined by the interval that the metering
orifice in the injector remains open. This interval is established and controlled by the
engine speed, which determines the rate of camshaft rotation and consequently the
injector plunger movement.

Since Cummins engines are all four-cycle, the camshaft is driven from the crankshaft
gear at one-half of engine speed. The fuel pump turns at engine speed. ecause of this
relationship, additional governing of fuel flow is necessary in the fuel pump.

A flyball type mechanical governor controls fuel pressure and engine torque throughout
the entire operating range. It also controls the idling speed of the engine and prevents
engine overspeeding in the high-speed range. The throttle shaft is simply a shaft with a
hole; therefore, the alignment of this hole with the fuel passages determines pressure at
the injectors.

A single low-pressure fuel line from the fuel pump serves all injectors; therefore, the
pressure and the amount of metered fuel to each cylinder are equal.

The fuel-metering process in the IT fuel system has three main advantages:
1. The injector accomplishes all metering and injection functions.
2. The injector injects a finely atomized fuel spray into the combustion chamber at
spray-in-pressures exceeding 20,000 psi.
3. A low-pressure common-rail system is used, with the pressure being developed in
a gear-type pump. This eliminates the need for high-pressure fuel lines running
from the fuel pump to each injector.
GASOLINE FUEL INJECTION SYSTEMS

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Identify and describe the different gasoline fuel injection
systems.

A modern gasoline injection system uses pressure from an electric fuel pump to spray
fuel into the engine intake manifold. Like a carburetor, it must provide the engine with
the correct air-fuel mixture for specific operating conditions. Unlike a carburetor,
however, PRESSURE, not engine vacuum, is used to feed fuel into the engine. This
makes the gasoline injection system very efficient.

A gasoline injection system has several possible advantages over a carburetor type of fuel
system. Some advantages are as follows:

• Improved atomization. Fuel is forced into the intake manifold under pressure that
helps break fuel droplets into a fine mist.
• Better fuel distribution. Equal flow of fuel vapors into each cylinder.
• Smoother idle. Lean fuel mixture can be used without rough idle because of better
fuel distribution and low-speed atomization.
• Lower emissions. Lean efficient air-fuel mixture reduces exhaust pollution.
• Better cold weather drivability. Injection provides better control of mixture
enrichment than a carburetor.
• Increased engine power. Precise metering of fuel to each cylinder and increased
air flow can result in more horsepower output.
• Fewer parts. Simpler, late model, electronic fuel injection system have fewer parts
than modern computer-controlled carburetors.

There are many types of gasoline injection systems. Before studying the most common
ones, you should have a basic knowledge of the different classifications. Systems are
classified either single- or multi-point injection and indirect or direct injection.

The point or location of fuel injection is one way to classify a gasoline injection system.
A single-point injection system, also call throttle body injection (TBI), has the injector
nozzles in a throttle body assembly on top of the engine. Fuel is sprayed into the top
center of the intake manifold.

A multi-point injection system, also called port injection, has an injector in the port (air-
fuel passage) going to each cylinder. Gasoline is sprayed into each intake port and toward
each intake valve. Thereby, the term multi-point (more than one location) fuel injection is
used.

An indirect injection system sprays fuel into the engine intake manifold. Most gasoline
injection systems are of this type. Direct injection forces fuel into the engine combustion
chambers. Diesel injection systems are direct type.
There are three basic configurations of gasoline fuel injection—timed, continuous, and
throttle body.

TIMED FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM

Timed fuel injection systems for gasoline engines inject a measured amount of fuel in
timed bursts that are synchronized to the intake strokes of the engine. Timed injection is
the most precise form of fuel injection but is also the most complex. There are two basic
forms of timed fuel injection-mechanical and electronic.

The basic operation of a mechanical-timed injection system (fig. 4-43) is as follows:

• A high-pressure electric pump draws fuel from the fuel tank and delivers it to the
metering unit. A pressure relief valve is installed between the fuel pump and the
metering unit to regulate fuel line pressure by bleeding off excess fuel back to the
tank.
• The metering unit is a pump that is driven by the engine camshaft. It is always in
the same rotational relationship with the camshaft, so it can be timed to feed the
fuel to the injectors just at the right moment.
• Each injector contains a spring-loaded valve that is opened by fuel pressure,
injecting fuel into the intake at a point just before the intake valve.
• The throttle valve regulates engine speed and power output by regulating
manifold vacuum, which, in turn, regulates the amount of fuel supplied to the
injectors by the metering pump.

The more common type of timed fuel injection is the electronic-timed fuel injection, also
known as electronic fuel injection (EFI) (fig. 4-44). An electronic fuel injection system
can be divided into four subsystems:

1. Fuel delivery system

2. Air induction system
3. Sensor system
4. Computer control system

The fuel delivery system of an EFI system includes an electric fuel pump, a fuel filter, a
pressure regulator, the injector valves, and the connecting lines and hoses.

• The ELECTRIC FUEL PUMP draws fuel out of the tank and forces it into the
pressure regulator.
• The FUEL PRESSURE REGULATOR controls the amount of pressure entering
the injector valves.
• When sufficient pressure is attained, the regulator returns excess fuel to the tank.
This maintains a preset amount of fuel pressure for injector valve operation.
• The FUEL INJECTOR for an EFI system is a coil or solenoid-operated fuel valve.
When not energized, spring pressure keeps the injector closed, keeping fuel from
entering the engine. When current flows through the injector coil or solenoid, the
 magnetic field attracts the injector armature. The injector opens, squirting fuel
into the intake manifold under pressure.

The air induction system for the EFI typically consists of a throttle valve, sensors, an air
filter, and connecting ducts.

The throttle valve regulates how much air flows into the engine. In turn, it controls
engine power output. Like the carburetor throttle valve, it is connected to the gas pedal.
When the pedal is depressed, the throttle valve swings open to allow more air to rush into
the engine.

The EFI sensor system monitors engine operating conditions and reports this information
to the computer. A sensor is an electrical device that changes circuit resistance or voltage
with a change in a condition (temperature, pressure, position of parts, etc.). For example,
the resistance of a temperature sensor may decrease as temperature increases. The
computer can use the icreased current flow through the sensor to calculate any needed
change in the injector valve opening. Typical sensors for an EFI system include the
following:

1. Exhaust gas or oxygen sensor

2. Manifold pressure sensor
3. Throttle position sensor
4. Engine temperature sensor
5. Air flow sensor
6. Inlet air temperature sensor
7. Crankshaft position sensor

Since some of these sensors were discussed in the section on computerized carburetor
systems, we will only concentrate on the sensors that are particular to the EFI system.
These sensors are as follows:

• The THROTTLE POSITION SENSOR is a variable resistor connected to the

throttle plate shaft. When the throttle swings open for more power or closes for
less power, the sensor changes resistance and signals the computer. The computer
can then enrich or lean the mixture as needed
• The AIR FLOW SENSOR is used in many EFI systems to measure the amount of
outside air entering the engine. It is usually an air flap or door that operates a
variable resistor. Increased air flow opens the air flap more to change the position
of the resistor. Information is sent to the computer indicating air inlet volume.
• The INLET AIR TEMPERATURE SENSOR measures the temperature of the air
entering the engine. Cold air is more dense, requiring a little more fuel.
• Warm air is not as dense as cold, requiring a little less fuel. The sensor helps the
computer compensate for changes in outside air temperature and maintain an
almost perfect air-fuel mixture ratio.
• The CRANKSHAFT POSITION SENSOR is used to detect engine speed It
allows the computer to change injector openings with changes in engine rpm.
The signal from the engine sensors can be either a digital or an analog type output.
Digital signals are on-off signals. An example is the crankshaft position sensor that shows
engine rpm. Voltage output or resistance goes from maximum to minimum, like a switch.
An analog signal changes in strength to let the computer know about a change in
condition. Sensor internal resistance may smoothly increase or decrease with
temperature, pressure, or part position. The sensor acts as a variable resistor.

Basic operation of an electronic-timed injection system is as follows:

1. Fuel is fed by a high-pressure electric fuel pump to the injectors that are
connected in parallel to a common fuel line.
2. The fuel pressure regulator is installed in-line with the injectors to keep fuel
pressure constant by diverting excess fuel back to the tank.
3. Each injector contains a solenoid valve and is normally in a closed position. With
a pressurized supply of fuel behind it, each injector will operate individually
whenever electric current is applied to the solenoid valve.
4. The electronic computer sends the electric impulses and provides the proper
amount of fuel. The computer receives a signal for the ignition distributor to
establish the timing sequence.
5. By sending electric current impulses to the injectors in a sequence timed to
coincide with the needs of the engine, the system will supply fuel to the engine as
it should.
CONTINUOUS FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM

Continuous fuel injection systems (fig. 4-45) provide a continuous spray of fuel from
each injector at a point in the intake port located just before the intake valve. Because the
entrance of the fuel into the cylinder is controlled by the intake valve, the continuous
system fulfills the requirements of a gasoline engine.

Basic operation of a continuous fuel injection is as follows:

1. Fuel is fed to the system by an electric fuel pump that delivers fuel to the mixture
control unit. A fuel pressure regulator maintains fuel line pressure and sends
excess fuel back to the tank.
2. The mixture control unit regulates the amount of fuel that is sent to the injectors
based on the amount of air flow through the intake and the engine temperature.
The unit is operated by the air flow sensing plate and warm-up regulator.
3. The accelerator pedal regulates the rate of air flow through the intake by opening
and closing the throttle valve.
4. A cold-start injector is installed in the intake to provide a richer mixture during
engine start-up and warm-up. It is actuated by electric current from the thermal
sensor any time the temperature of the coolant is below a certain level.
The injector for a continuous fuel injection system is a simple spring-loaded valve. It
injects fuel all the time the engine is running. A spring holds the valve in a normally
closed position with the engine OFF. This action keeps fuel from dripping into the
engine. When the engine STARTS, fuel pressure builds and pushes the injector valve
open. A steady stream of gasoline then sprays toward each intake valve. The fuel is
pulled into the engine when the intake valves open.
Fuel Pump

The fuel pump is a positive displacement gear-type unit that transfers fuel from the tank
to the injectors at 65 to 75 psi (fig. 5-24). The standard pump has the ability to deliver 1.5
gallons per minute, or 90 gallons per hour.

The fuel pump body and cover are aligned by means of two dowels. The body and cover
are machined surfaces that contain no gasket between them, although a thin coat of
sealant applied to these surfaces is recommended at installation. A relief valve bypasses
fuel back to the inlet side of the pump when pressure reaches above the 65 to 75 psi.

There are two oil seals pressed into the pump bore from the flanged end for the following
purposes:

1. The seal closest to the drive coupling prevents lube oil from entering the fuel
pump.
2. The inner seal closest to the pump gears prevents fuel leakage.

The installed seals do not butt up against each other, but have a small space between
them. Drilled and taped into this cavity in the fuel pump body are two small holes—one
which is usually plugged and the other one is open to allow any fuel or lube oil to drain,
thereby indicating damaged seals. Sometimes a small fitting and tube extend from one of
these holes to direct any leakage to a noticeable spot. Acceptable leakage should not
exceed 1 drop per minute.

If you are ever in doubt as to the rotation of the fuel pump, it can be identified as follows:

1. Stamped on the pump cover are the letters LH or RH, plus an arrow indicating the
direction of rotation.
2. On in-line engines, the rotation of the fuel pump can be determined by its location
on the engine. When viewed from the flywheel end: left-hand side location, LH
pump rotation; right-hand side location, RH pump rotation.
3. A similar method would be to grasp the pump in your left or right hand, as it
mounts on the engine. Whichever thumb covers the relief valves indicates the
rotation of the pump.

The letter I/L (inlet) is also stamped on the pump cover; however, if not visible, the inlet
side is the hole on the pump cover closest to the relief valve plug.

Since the pump constantly circulates a supply of fuel to and through the injectors, the
unused fuel cools and lubricates the injectors and purges the system of any air, then
returns to the fuel tank via the restricted fitting and return line.

All Detroit diesel engines are equipped with a return Line restricted fitting, the actual size
varying with the engine injector size and application. Every restricted fitting has the letter
R followed by a number that indicates its hole size in thousandths of an inch.
Therefore, a fitting with R80 stamped on it indicates a 0.080-inch-diameter hole drilled
within the fitting.

These fittings may look like an ordinary brass fittings externally; therefore, care must be
taken to ensure that, in fact, the proper restricted fitting, and not just any fitting, is
installed into the return line. Use of too large a fitting can lead to a low fuel pressure
within the fuel manifold. This condition can cause poor engine performance. A small
fitting can lead to increased fuel temperatures and some restriction against the fuel flow.

Refer to the service manual of the engine for any particular specifications.

The basic fuel flow is as follows:

• The fuel pump draws fuel from the tank past a one-way no-return check valve into
the primary filter. Here the fuel passes through a 30-micron-filteringcapacity,
cotton-wound, sock-type element. From the primary filter it passes up to the
suction side of the fuel pump. Here the fuel is forced out at 65 to 75 psi to the
secondary filter that is a pleated paper element of lo-micron filtering capacity.
• Fuel then passes up to the inlet fuel manifold of the cylinder head where it is
distributed through the fuel jumper lines into each injector.
• All surplus fuel (not injected) returns from the injectors through fuel jumper lines
to the return fuel manifold, through the restricted fitting, which maintains
adequate fuel pressure in the cylinder head at all times, then back to the tank.
Injectors

The fuel injector, or what is often referred to as a unit injector (fig. 5-25), is used by
Detroit diesel in all series of engine that they build. Certainly, there are some variations
in basic design and in the actual testing procedures used; however, the function and
operation is the same for all.

Unit injectors were designed with simplicity in mind both from a control and adjustment
outlook. They are used on direct-injection, open-type, two-cycle combustion chamber
engines manufactured by General Motors. No high-pressure fuel lines or air-fuel mixing
or vaporizing devices are required with these injectors.

The fuel from the fuel pump is delivered to the inlet fuel manifold (cast internally within
the cylinder head) at a pressure of 65 to 75 psi. The fuel then flows to the injectors
through fuel pipes called jumper lines. Once the fuel from the pump reaches the injector,
it performs the following functions:

1. Times injection: liming of the injector is accomplished by movement of the

injector control rack, which causes rotation of the plunger within the injector
bushing. Since the plunger is manufactured with a helical chamber area, this
rotation will either advance or retard closing of the ports in the injector bushing,
and therefore the start and end of the actual injection period. Pushrod adjustment
establishes the height of the injector follower above the body. In turn, this factor
establishes the point or time that the descending plunger closes the bushing ports,
allowing injection to begin.
2. Meter the fuel: The rotation of the plunger by movement of the injector control
rack will advance or retard the start and end of injection. If the length of time that
the fuel can be injected is varied, the amount of fuel will be varied.
3. Pressurizes the fuel: Fuel that is trapped underneath the plunger on its downward
stroke will develop enough pressure to force its way past the check valve or
needle valve, therefore entering the combustion chamber.
4. Atomizes the fuel: Fuel under pressure that forces its way past the check or
needle valve must than pass through small holes or orifices in the injector spray
tip. This passage breaks the fuel down into a finely atomized spray, as it enters the
combustion chamber.

The two-stroke Detroit diesel engine unit fuel injector is located in the cylinder head. The
injector sits in a copper tube in the head that is surrounded by water for cooling purposes.
The injector is placed in the cylinder head by a dowel pin on the underside of its body.
The injector is held in place by a single bolt and clamp arrangement. The clamp sits low
on the injector body, which allows clearance for the valve bridge operating mechanism.
The injector is also known as an offset body because the fuel inlet and outlet are offset to
one another. This arrangement allows sufficient clearance between the valves.

Each injector has a circular disc pressed into a recess at the front side of the injector for
identification purposes. The identification tag indicates the nominal output of the injector
in cubic millimeters. Both the plunger and bushing are marked with corresponding
numbers to identify them as mating parts. Therefore, if either the plunger or bushing
requires replacement, both must be replaced as an assembly.

The injector control rack for each injector is actuated by a lever on the injector control
tube that, in turn, is connected to the governor by mean of a fuel rod. hese levers can be
adjusted, thus permitting a uniform setting of all injector racks. Basic operation of the
unit injector is as follows:

• Fuel, under pressure, enters the injector at the inlet side through a filter cap and
filter element. rom the filter element, the fuel passes through a drilled passage into
the supply chamber—that area between the plunger bushing and the spill deflector
and the area underneath the injector plunger within the bushing. The plunger
operates up and down in the bushing, the bore of which is open to the fuel supply
in the annular chamber by two funnel-shaped ports in the plunger bushing.
• The plunger descends, under pressure of the injector rocker arm, first closing of
the lower port and then the upper. Before the upper port is shut off, fuel being
displaced by the descending plunger flows up through the "T" drilled hole in the
plunger and escapes through the upper port and into the supply chamber.
• With the upper and lower ports closed off, the remaining fuel is subjected to
increased pressure by the continued downward movement of the plunger. When
sufficient pressure is built up, it opens the flat, non-return, check valve. The fuel
is compressed until the pressure force acting on the needle valve is sufficient to
open the valve against the downward force of the valve spring. As soon as the
needle valve lifts off its seat, the fuel is forced through the small orifices in the
spray tip and atomized into the combustion chamber.
• As the plunger continues to descend, it uncovers the lower port, so fuel pressure is
relieved, and the valve spring closes the needle valve, ending injection. Then the
plunger returns to its original position and waits for the next injection cycle.
Injector Timing

Whenever an injector has been removed and reinstalled or a new injector has been
installed in an engine, the injector must be timed and the control rack positioned.

The injector plunger is timed by the fact that it meshes with a flat area on the internal
rack gear inside the injector body. It is also timed to the fuel control rack—a dot on the
gear that is centered between two dots on the injector control rack. Actual effective
length that the plunger moves down in its bushing is controlled by the height of the
injector follower above the injector body.

To time an injector properly, adjust the injector follower to a definite height in relation to
the injector body (fig. 5-26). This will vary according to the size of the injector being
used. This dimension is given in the engine tune-up section of the service manual.
Current timing pin dimensions can also be found stamped on the valve rocker cover
emissions decal. Be certain that you select the proper timing pin gauge (fig. 5-27);
otherwise, the engine will run rough and fail to perform properly under load. In addition,
continued operation of the injector set at the wrong timing height can result in engine
damage.
All the injectors can be timed in firing-order sequence during one full revolution of the
crankshaft on all two-cycle engines. A four-cycle engine requires two revolutions of the
crankshaft. The sequence for injector timing is as follows:

1. The governor speed control lever should be in the IDLE position. If a stop
lever is provided, secure it in the STOP position.

2. Rotate the engine crankshaft, using an engine barring tool, until the exhaust
valves are fully depressed on the cylinder that you wish to set the injector. If a
barring tool is not available, a 3/4inch-square drive socket set with a suitable
socket to fit over the crankshaft pulley will also do.

3. Insert the small end of the timing pin (gauge) into the hole provided in the top
on the injector body, with the flat portion of the gauge facing the injector
follower.

4. Gently push the gauge by holding the knurled stem with the thumb and
forefinger towards the follower. There should be a slight drag between the
gauge and the follower.

5. If this cannot be done, loosen the injector pushrod locknut and adjust it until
the drag of the gauge (slight feel) has been determined. old the pushrod and
tighten the locknut. Recheck the feel, and, if needed, readjust.

6. When hot setting this adjustment, wipe off the top of the injector follower and
place a clean drop of oil on it. When properly adjusted, the gauge should just
wipe off the oil film from the follower when the slight drag is felt.

7. Time remaining injectors in the same manner.

Equalizing Injectors

Since all the injector racks are connected to the fuel control tube and then to the governor
by the fuel rod or rods, they must be set correctly. This ensures that they are equally
related to the governor. Their positions determine the amount of fuel that will be injected
into the individual cylinders, ensuring equal distribution of the load. Failure to set the
racks properly will result in poor performance and a lack-of-power complaint.

Adjusting the inner and outer adjusting screws on the rack control lever (fig. 5-27)
equalizes the injectors. This is a rather delicate adjustment. and it may be necessary to
make these adjustments several times before the engine operates just right.

To increase the amount of fuel injected, loosen the outer adjusting screw and tighten the
inner adjusting screw, thereby moving the control rack inward. To decrease fuel
injection, loosen the inner adjusting screw slightly and tighten the outer adjusting screw
which moves the control rack outward. In making the operating adjustments, never turn
the adjusting screws more than one-fourth turn at a time; for if one injector is adjusted too
far out of line with the others, it will prevent the full travel of the racks and reduce the
maximum power to the engine.

NOTE

For exact procedures for adjusting the injector rack control levers, refer to the
manufacturer’s service manual.
Sometimes smoother engine operation can be obtained by making slight changes to the
adjustments after the engine is warmed to operating temperature (above 140°F). For
example, one cylinder may not be carrying its share of the load as indicated by a
comparatively cooler cylinder. Therefore, the control rack should be adjusted for more
fuel. A slight knocking noise from another cylinder would indicate an adjustment for
slightly less fuel.

Do not attempt to obtain a smooth running engine by changing control-rack settings

without first timing and equalizing injection in the recommended manner.
Celect System

The Celect system is a full electronic controlled injection and governing system. The
major reason behind the adoption of electronic fuel injection control is to be able to meet
not only the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) exhaust emission controls but also
ensure optimum fuel economy. This is done by constantly monitoring major engine
operating parameters that have a direct bearing on engine combustion efficiency. A
number of engine- and vehicle-mounted sensors are used to update timing and metering
values continually. The Celect system controls the following major operating factors:

1. Engine torque and horsepower curves

2. AFC (air-fuel control) to limit exhaust smoke
3. Engine low idle and high speeds
4. Functions as a vehicle road speed governor
5. Optional vehicle/engine cruise control
6. PTO (power takeoff) operation
7. Idle shutdown, 3 to 60 seconds
8. Gear down protection

For the Celect system to operate, major components are required. These components are
as follows:

1. The electronic control module (ECM) contains the hardware required to activate
the ECI system. Within the ECM are such controls as the EPROM (electrically
erasable programmable read-only memory), CPU (central processing unit), RAM
(random access memory), and also contain in the ECM is the A/D (analog/digital)
converter. The ECM sends electrical signals to the injectors, engine brake
solenoids, the fuel shutoff valve, and other optional items. The ECM is mounted
to a cooling plate which has diesel fuel continually routed through it from the
pump in order to keep the internal solid-state components at a safe operating
temperature.
2. The engine position sensor (EPS) is required to tell the ECM where the various
pistons are and what stroke they are on, so the correct injector solenoid can be
activated at the right time.
3. The oil temperature sensor (OTS) is used to advise the ECM of the oil
temperature. The signal is used by the ECM to determine the engine idle speed at
start-up as well as reducing the fueling rate any time the oil temperature rises to
an undesirable level.
4. The oil pressure sensor (OPS) is used by the ECM to monitor engine oil pressure
during operation.
5. The coolant temperature sensor (CTS) is used to monitor the temperature of the
engine coolant.
6. The coolant level sensor (CLS) is used to tell the ECM of a coolant level loss.
7. The ambient air pressure sensor (APS) is used by the ECM to determine the basic
operating altitude of the vehicle.
 8. The intake manifold temperature sensor (IMTS) allows the ECM to determine air
temperature and adjust fuel rate accordingly.
9. The throttle position sensor (TPS) is basically a potentiometer or variable resistor
arrangement that is designed to a output voltage signal to the ECM, based on the
degree of the throttle pedal depression. The ECM is able to determine how much
fuel the operator is asking for.
10. The vehicle speed sensor (VSS) is required to tell the ECM the road speed of the
vehicle. The VSS sensor is mounted into the transmission 11.
11. output shaft housing in order to monitor the output shaft speed. The electronically
controlled injectors receive low-pressure fuel from a simple engine-driven gear
pump. Each injector is mechanically operated; however, timing and duration of
injection is controlled electronically by a signal from the ECM. This signal is
referred to as pulse-width-modulated (PWM). The longer the PWM signal is, the
longer the injector will deliver fuel to the combustion chamber. The greater the
fuel delivery, the greater the horsepower produced.

Two other major control switches are required with the Celect-ECI system in order to
control the cruise control, the PTO (power takeoff), and the engine compression brake:

• A clutch switch is used to allow cruise control or engine brake activation. It is

mounted so that when the clutch pedal is pushed down (clutch disengaged), the
clutch switch opens the switch and deactivates the engine brake or PTO.
• A brake switch is located in the service air line and will remain in the closed
position any time the brakes are released. Applying the brakes will cause the
brake switch to open and break the electrical circuit to both the cruise control and
PTO systems.

In addition to the engine-mounted components, there are several cab-mounted controls

arranged on a small control panel that can be activated by the operator through a series of
small toggle-type switches. This control panel contains the following:

• The idle-speed adjustment switch is used to adjust the engine idle speed between
550 and 800 rpm. Each time the switch is moved briefly to the + or – position, the
idle speed will change by approximately 25 rpm.
• The cruise control panel has two toggle switches—one is a simple ON/OFF
switch and the other is the actual cruise control position select switch that the
operator uses to set and adjust the cruise control speed during operation.
• The engine brake panel has two toggle switches—one switch has an ON/OFF
position to activate either a Jacobs or Cummins "C" brake system and the other
switch, used with the engine brake control, can be placed into position 1, 2, or 3.
In position 1 the compression brake is activated only on two cylinders; position 2
will activate the compression brake on four cylinders; position 3 will allow all six
cylinders to provide compression braking.

On the right-hand side of the control panel are two warning lights—one yellow, the other
one red. The yellow light is labeled warning, while the red light is labeled stop. When the
yellow light comes on during engine operation, this indicates that a Celect system
problem has been detected and recorded in the ECM memory. The problem is not serious
enough to shut down the engine, but should be checked out at the earliest opportunity. If
the red light comes on, the operator should immediately bring the vehicle to a stop and
shut off the engine.

Celect System Operation

The ECI (electronically controlled injection) Celect system uses an engine-driven gear
pump to pull fuel from the fuel tank. The fuel is passed through a primary filter or
filter/water separator unit, then to the ECM where the fuel is circulated through a cooling
plate. The cooling plate, mounted to the rear of-the ECM, ensures adequate cooling of the
electronic package.

The gear pump is designed to deliver fuel to the fuel manifold at 140 psi, which supplies
the electronically controlled injectors. A spring-loaded bypass valve allows excess fuel
under pressure to return to the suction side of the pump to maintain maximum system
pressure.

A rocker arm and pushrod assembly mechanically operates the injector. The injector
requires rocker arm actuation of the plunger to create high fuel pressure for injection. To
control both the start of injection timing and the quantity of fuel metered, the ECM sends
out a pulse-width-modulated (PWM) electrical signal to each injector. The PWM signal
determines the start of injection, while the duration of this signal determines how long the
injector can effectively continue to spray fuel into the combustion chamber, as the
plunger is forced down by the rocker arm assembly. A shorter PWM signal means that
the effective stroke of the injector plunger will be decreased. A longer PWM signal
means that the effective stroke will be increased.

The start of injection and the duration of the PWM signal is determined by the ECM,
based on the various input sensor signals and the preprogrammed PROM information
within the ECM. Each PROM is designed for a specific engine/vehicle combination,
based on the desired horsepower setting and rpm, the tire size, and gear ratios used in the
vehicle.

Contained within the injector are a timing plunger, a return spring, and an injector control
valve—that is the key to the operation. The control valve is electrically operated,
receiving signals from the ECM to energize/de-energize, which determines the start of
injection. The length of time that this solenoid is energized determines the quantity of
metered fuel to be injected into the combustion chamber. Also within the injector body is
a metering spill port which must be closed to allow injection, a metering piston, the bias
spring, and the spill-timing port. The injection sequence of events occur as follows:

1. The injector receives a signal from the ECM; the injector control valve will close
and the metering phase begins while the metering piston and timing plunger are
bottomed in the injector.
 2. As the camshaft rotates, the injector pushrod cam follower will ride down the cam
ramp, thereby allowing the rocker arm and pushrod to be forced up by the energy
of the timing plunger return spring. Fuel at gear pump pressure of 140 psi can
flow into the fuel supply passage and unseat the lower check valve, allowing the
metering chamber to be charged with pressurized fuel as long as the timing
plunger is being pulled upward by the force of the large external spring. Fuel
pressure, acting on the bottom of the metering piston, forces it to maintain contact
with the timing plunger within the bore of the injector body.
3. Metering ends when the ECM energizes the injector control valve, causing it to
open. Pressurized fuel can flow through the open injector control valve into the
upper timing chamber, which stops the upward travel of the metering piston. To
ensure that the metering piston remains stationary, the small bias spring in the
timing chambers holds it in place, while the timing plunger continues upward due
to camshaft rotation. Fuel and spring pressure, acting on the metering piston, will
ensure fuel pressure is maintained below the piston to keep the lower metering
ball-check valve closed. This allows a precisely metered quantity of fuel to be
trapped in the metering chamber.
4. As long as the timing plunger moves upward due to the rotating camshaft lobe
action and the force of the external return spring on the ECI injector, the upper
timing chamber will continue to fill with pressurized fuel.
5. When the engine camshaft lobe starts to lift the injector cam follower roller, the
pushrod moves up and the rocker arm reverses this motion to push the timing
plunger downward. On the initial downward movement, the injector control valve
remains open and fuel flows from the timing chamber and through the control
valve to the fuel supply passage. When the ECM closes the control valve, fuel is
trapped in the timing chamber; this fuel acts as a solid hydraulic link between the
timing plunger and metering piston. The downward movement of the timing
plunger causes a rapid pressure increase in the trapped fuel within the metering
chamber. At approximately 5,000 psi, the tapered needle valve in the tip of the
injector will be lifted against the force of its return spring and injection begins.

Injection will continue until the spill passage of the downward-moving metering piston
uncovers the spill port. Fuel pressure within the chamber is lost and the needle valve
reseats by spring pressure. This terminates injection. Immediately after the metering spill
port is uncovered, the upper edge of the metering piston also passes the timing spill port
to allow fuel within the upper timing chamber to be spilled back to the fuel drain, as the
timing plunger completes its downward movement. Injection has now been completed.
GENERAL TROUBLESHOOTING

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe general troubleshooting techniques used in the

maintenance of a diesel fuel system.

When troubleshooting a diesel engine, keep in mind that problems associated with one
make and type of engine (two-stroke versus four-stroke) may not occur exactly in the
same way as in another. Specifically, particular features of one four-stroke-cycle engine
may not appear on another due the type of fuel system used and optional features on that
engine. Follow the basic troubleshooting steps listed below before rolling up your sleeves
and trying to pinpoint a problem area.

1. Obtain as much information from the operator as possible concerning the

complaint.
2. Analyze the problem in detail first, beginning with the smallest and simplest
things.
3. Relate the problem symptoms to the basic engine systems and components.
4. Consider any recent maintenance or repair job that might tie into the problem.
5. Always double-check and think about the problem before disassembling anything.
6. Solve the problem by checking the easiest and simplest things first.
7. If possible, use the special tools and diagnostic equipment at your disposal to
verify acomplaint and pinpoint the general area.
8. Determine the cause(s) of the problem and carry out the repair.

Operate the engine and road test the vehicle to confirm that the problem is corrected.

EXHAUST SMOKE COLOR

One of the easiest methods to use when troubleshooting an engine for a performance
complaint is to monitor the color of the smoke coming from the exhaust stack visually.
There are four basic colors that may exit from the exhaust system at any time during
engine operation—white, black, gray, or blue. The color of the smoke tips you off to just
what and where the problem might lie.

White smoke is generally most noticeable at engine start-up, particularly during cold
conditions. As the combustion and cylinder temperatures increase during the first few
minutes of engine operation the white smoke should start to disappear which indicates the
engine is sound. However, if the white smoke takes longer than 3 to 5 minutes to
disappear a problem exist. The problems white smoke may indicate are as follows:

• Low cylinder compression from worn rings

• Scored piston or liner
• Valve seating problems
• Water leaking into the combustion chamber
• Faulty injectors
• Use of a low cetane diesel fuel.
Black or gray smoke generally is caused by the same conditions—the difference
between the colors being one of opacity or denseness of smoke. Black or gray smoke
should be checked with the engine at operating temperature of 160°F. Abnormal
amounts of exhaust smoke emission is an indication that the engine is not operating
correctly, resulting in a lack of power, as well as decreased fuel economy. Excessive
black or gray exhaust smoke is caused by the following:

• Improper grade of diesel fuel

• Air starvation
• High exhaust back pressure
• Incorrect fuel injection timing
• Faulty nozzles or injectors
• Faulty automatic timing advance unit
• Faulty injection pump Incorrect valve adjustment clearances

Blue smoke is attributed to oil entering the combustion chamber and being burned or
blown through the cylinder and burned in the exhaust manifold or turbocharger.
Remember always check the simplest things first, such as too much oil in the crankcase
or a plugged crankcase ventilation breather. The more serious problems that can cause
blue smoke are as follows:

• Worn valve guides

• Worn piston rings
• Worn cylinder walls
• Scored pistons or cylinder walls
• Broken rings
• Turbocharger seal leakage
• Glazed cylinder liner walls due to use of the wrong type of oil

NOTE

With the engine stopped, the condition of the pistons, rings, and liners on a two-stroke
cycle Detroit diesel engine can be checked visually by removing an air box inspection
cover on the side of the engine block and accessing the components through the cylinder
liner ports.

QUICK INJECTOR MISFIRE CHECK

Listed below are several quick and acceptable checks that can be performed on a running
engine to determine if one or more injectors are at fault on any type of engine.

On four-stroke-cycle engines with a high-pressure in-line pump or distributor system,

such as Caterpillar and Roosa Master, you can loosen off one injector fuel line, one at a
time, about one-half turn as you hold a rag around it while noting if there is any change in
the operating sound of the engine. If the injector is firing properly, there should be a
positive change to the sound and rpm of the engine when you loosen the line, since it
prevents the delivery of fuel to the cylinder.

On an engine with the PT fuel system, a cylinder misfire can be checked by running the
engine to a minimum of 160°F, removing the rocker covers, then installing a rocker lever
actuator over an injector rocker lever. Hold the injector plunger down while the engine is
running at low idle. This will stop the fuel flow to that injector. If the engine speed
decreases, the injector is good. If the engine rpm does not decrease, replace the injector.

On the two-stroke-cycle nonelectronic Detroit diesel engines, you can remove the rocker
cover, then using a large screwdriver push and hold down the injector follower while the
engine is idling. This action is like shorting out a spark plug on a gasoline engine, since it
prevents fuel from being injected into the combustion chamber. If there is no change to
the sound and speed of the engine, the injector is not firing. There should be a definite
change to indicate that the injector was in fact firing.
ENGINE LUBRICATING SYSTEMS

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Identify types of lubricating (oil) systems. Point out their
operational characteristics and maintenance requirements.

All internal combustion engines are equipped with an internal lubricating system (fig. 6-
17). Without lubrication, an engine quickly overheats and its working parts seize due to
excessive friction. All moving parts must be adequately lubricated to assure maximum
wear and long engine life.

PURPOSES OF LUBRICATION

The functions of an engine lubrication system are as follows:

• Reduces friction and wear between moving parts (fig. 6-18).

• Helps transfer heat and cool engine parts.
• Cleans the inside of the engine by removing contaminants (metal, dirt, plastic,
rubber, and other particles) (fig. 6-19).
• Absorbs shocks between moving parts to quiet engine operation and increase
engine life.

The properties of engine oil and the design of modern engines allow the lubrication
system to accomplish these functions.
ENGINE OIL
Engine oil, also called motor oil, is used to produce a lubricating film on the moving parts
in an engine. The military specification for this type of oil prescribes that the oil shall be
a petroleum or synthetic petroleum product or a combination thereof. This oil is intended
for lubrication of internal-combustion engines other than aircraft engines or for general-
purpose lubrication.

Oil Viscosity and Measurements

Oil viscosity, also called oil weight, is the thickness or fluidity (flow ability) of the oil. A
high viscosity oil is very thick and resists flow. A low viscosity oil is very thin and flows
easily.

Oils are graded according to their viscosity by a series of Society of Automotive

Engineers (SAE) numbers. The viscosity of the oil increases progressively with the SAE
number. An SAE 4 oil would be very light (low viscosity) and SAE 90 oil would be very
heavy (high viscosity). The viscosity of the oil used in internal-combustion engines
ranges from SAE 5 (arctic use) to SAE 60 (desert use). It should be noted that the SAE
number of the oil has nothing to do with the quality of the oil.

The viscosity number of the oil is determined by heating the oil to a predetermined
temperature and allowing it to flow through a precisely sized orifice while measuring the
rate of flow. The faster an oil flows, the lower the viscosity. The testing device is called a
viscosimeter. The viscosity of the oil is printed on top of the oil can. Oil viscosity is
written SAE 10, SAE 20, SAE 30, and so on. The letter W will follow any oil that meets
SAE low-temperature requirements. An example would be SAE 10W.

Multi-viscosity oil or multi-weight oil has the operating characteristics of a thin, light oil
when cold and a thicker, heavy oil when hot. A multi-weight oil is numbered SAE 10W-
30, 10W-40, 20W-50, and so on. For example, a 10W-30 oil will flow easily (like 10W
oil) when starting a cold engine. It will then act as a thicker oil (like 30 weight) when the
engine warms to operating temperature. This will make the engine start more easily in
cold weather. It will also provide adequate film strength (thickness) when the engine is at
full operating temperature.

Normally, you should use the oil viscosity recommended by the manufacturer, However,
in a very cold, high mileage, worn engine, higher viscosity may be beneficial. Thicker oil
will tend to seal the rings and provide better bearing protection. It may also help cut
engine oil consumption and smoking.

Oil Service Rating

The oil service rating is a set of letters printed on the oil can to denote how well the oil
will perform under operating conditions. The American Petroleum Institute (API) sets
this performance standard.

The API system for rating oil classifies oil according to its performance characteristics.
The higher rated oils contain additives that provide maximum protection against rust,
wear, oil oxidation, and thickening at high temperatures. The oil service ratings are as
follows:

1. SA—adequate for utility engines subjected to light loads, moderate speeds, and
clean conditions. Contains no additives.
2. SB—adequate for automotive use under favorable conditions (light loads, low
speeds, and moderate temperatures) with relatively short oil change intervals.
Generally offers only minimal protection to the engine against bearing scuffing,
corrosion, and oil oxidation.
3. SC—meets oil warranty requirements for 1964 through 1967 automotive gasoline
engines.
4. SD—meets oil warranty requirements for 1968 through 1970 automotive gasoline
engines. Offers additional protection over SC oils that are necessary with the
introduction of emission controls.
5. SE—meets oil warranty requirements for 1972 through 1979 automotive gasoline
engines. Stricter emission requirements created the need for this detergent oil.
6. SF—meets oil warranty requirements for 1980 through 1988 automotive gasoline
engines. The SF oil is designed to meet the demands of small, high-revving
engines. A SF oil can be used in all automotive vehicles requiring detergent oil.
7. SG—meets oil warranty requirements for 1989 through present automotive
gasoline engines. Contains more additives than SF oils. Can be used as CC or
diesel type oils. It is a detergent oil.
8. CA—meets all requirements for naturally aspirated diesel engines operated on
low sulfur fuel.
9. CB—meets all requirements for naturally aspirated diesel engines operated on
high sulfur fuel.
10. CC—meets all requirements for lightly supercharged diesel engines.
11. CD—meets all requirements for moderately supercharged diesel engines.

The operator's manual provides the service rating recommended for a specific vehicle.
You can use a better service rating than recommended, but NEVER a lower service
rating. A high service rating (SG, for example) can withstand higher temperatures and
loads while still maintaining a lubricating film. It will have more oil additives to prevent
oil oxidation, engine deposits, breakdown, foaming, and other problems.

LUBRICATING (OIL) SYSTEM COMPONENTS

It must be remembered that the lubricating system is actually an integral part of the
engine and the operation of one depends upon the operation of the other. Thus the
lubricating system, in actual practice, cannot be considered as a separate and independent
system; it is part of the engine. The lubricating system basically consists of the following:
Oil Pan—reservoir or storage area for engine oil.

• Oil Level Gauge—checks the amount of oil in the oil pan.

• Oil Pump—forces oil throughout the system.
• Oil Pickup and Strainers—carries oil to the pump and removes large particles.
 • Oil Filters—strains out impurities in the oil.
• Oil Galleries—oil passages through the engine.
• Oil Pressure Indicator—warns the operator of low oil pressure.
• Oil Pressure Gauge—registers actual oil pressure in the engine.
• Oil Temperature Regulator—controls engine oil temperature on diesel engines.

Oil Pan

The oil pan, normally made of thin sheet metal or aluminum, bolts to the bottom of the
engine block. It holds a supply of oil for the lubrication system. The oil pan is fitted with
a screw-in drain plug for oil changes. Baffles may be used to keep the oil from splashing
around in the pan.

The sump is the lowest area in the oil pan where oil collects. As oil drains from the
engine, it fills the sump. Then the oil pump can pull oil out of the pan for recirculation.

Oil Level Gauge

The oil level gauge, also known as a dipstick, is usually of the bayonet type (fig. 6-20). It
consists of a long rod or blade that extends into the oil pan. It is marked to show the level
of oil within the oil pan. Readings are taken by pulling the rod out from its normal place
in the crankcase, wiping it clean, replacing it, and again removing and noting the height
of the oil on the lower or marked end. This should be done with the engine stopped unless
the manufacturer recommends otherwise. It is important that the oil level not drop below
the LOW mark or rise above the FULL mark.

Oil Pump

The oil pump is the heart of the lubricating system; it forces oil out of the oil pan, through
the oil filter, galleries, and to the engine bearings. Normally, a gear on the engine
camshaft drives the oil pump; however, a cogged belt or a direct connection with the end
of the camshaft or crankshaft drives the pump in some cases.

There are two basic types of oil pumps—rotary and gear.

The ROTARY pump (fig. 6-21) has an inner rotor with lobes that match similar shaped
depressions in the outer rotor. The inner rotor is off center from the outer rotor.

As the oil pump shaft turns, the inner rotor causes the outer rotor to spin. The eccentric
action of the two rotors forms pockets that change size. A large pocket is formed on the
inlet side of the pump. As the rotors turn, the oil-filled pocket becomes smaller, as it
nears the outlet of the pump. This action squeezes the oil and makes it spurt out under
pressure. As the pump spins, this action is repeated over and over to produce a relatively
smooth flow of oil.

The GEAR pump (fig. 6-22) consists of two pump gears mounted within a close-fitting
housing. A shaft, usually turned by the distributor, crankshaft, or accessory shaft, rotates
one of the pump gears. The gear turns the other pump gear that is supported on a short
shaft inside the pump housing.

As a safety factor to assure sufficient oil delivery under extreme operating conditions, the
oil pump (gear or rotary) is designed to supply a greater amount of oil than is normally
required for adequate lubrication. This requires that an oil pressure relief valve be
incorporated in the pump to limit maximum oil pressure.

The pressure relief valve is a spring-loaded bypass valve in the oil pump, engine block, or
oil filter housing. The valve consists of a small piston, spring, and cylinder. Under normal
pressure conditions, the spring holds the relief valve closed. All the oil from the oil pump
flows into the oil galleries and to the bearings.

However, under abnormally high oil pressure conditions (cold, thick oil, for example),
the pressure relief valve opens. Oil pressure pushes the small piston back in its cylinder
by overcoming spring tension. This allows some oil to bypass the main oil galleries and
pour back into the oil pan. Most of the oil still flows to the bearings and a preset pressure
is maintained. Some pressure relief valves are adjustable. By turning a bolt or screw or by
changing spring shim thickness, the Oil on the inlet side of the pump is caught in the gear
teeth and carried around the outer wall inside the pump housing. When oil reaches the
outlet side of the pump, the gear teeth mesh and seal. Oil caught in each gear tooth is
forced into the pocket at the pump outlet and pressure is formed. Oil squirts out of the
pump and to the engine bearings. pressure setting can be altered.
Oil Pickup and Strainer

The oil pickup is a tube that extends from the oil pump to the bottom of the oil pan. One
end of the pickup tube bolts or screws into the oil pump or to the engine block. The other
end holds the strainer.

The strainer has a mesh screen suitable for straining large particles from the oil and yet
passes a sufficient quantity of oil to the inlet side of the oil pump. The strainer is located
so all oil entering the pump from the oil pan must flow through it. Some assemblies also
incorporate a safety valve that opens in the event the strainers become clogged, thus
bypassing oil to the pump. Strainer assemblies may be either the floating or the fixed
type.

The floating strainer has a sealed air chamber, is hinged to the oil pump inlet, and floats
just below the top of the oil. As the oil level changes, the floating intake will rise or fall
accordingly. This action allows all oil taken into the pump to come from the surface This
design prevents the pump from drawing oil from the bottom of the oil pan where dirt,
water, and sludge are likely to collect. The strainer screen is held to the float by a holding
clip. The up and down movement of the float is limited by stops.

The fixed strainer (fig. 6-23) is simply an inverted funnel-like device, placed about 1/2
inch to 1 inch from the bottom of the oil pan. This device prevents any sludge or dirt that
has accumulated from entering and circulating through the system. The assembly is
attached solidly to the oil pump in a fixed position.

Oil Filter

The oil filter removes most of the impurities that have been picked up by the oil, as it
circulates through the engine. Designed to be replaced readily, the filter is mounted in an
accessible location outside the engine.

There are two basic filter element configurations—the cartridge type and spin-on type.

1. The cartridge-type element (fig. 6-24) fits into a permanent metal container. Oil is
pumped under pressure into the container where it passes from the outside of the
filter element to the center. From here, the oil exits the container. The element is
changed easily by removing the cover from the container.
2. The spin-on filter (fig. 6-24) is completely self-contained, consisting of an
integral metal container and filter element. Oil is pumped into the container on the
 outside of the filter element. The oil then passes through the filter medium to the
center of the element where it exits the container. This type of filter is screwed
onto its base and is removed by spinning it off.

The elements themselves may be either metallic or nonmetallic. Cotton waste or resin-
treated paper is the most popular filter mediums. They are held in place by sandwiching
them between two perforated metal sheets. Some heavy-duty applications use layers of
metal that are thinly spaced apart. Foreign matter is strained out, as the oil passes
between the metal layers.

There are two filter configurations. These are the full-flow system and the bypass system.
Operations of each system is as follows:

1. The full-flow system (fig. 6-25) is the most oil filter to allow the oil to circulate
through common. All oil in a full-flow system is the system without passing
through the element circulated through the filter before it reaches the in the event
that it becomes clogged. This engine. When a full-flow system is used, it is
prevents the oil supply from being cut off to the necessary to incorporate a bypass
valve in the engine.
2. The bypass system (fig. 6-25) diverts only a small quantity of oil each time it is
circulated and returns it directly to the oil pan after it is filtered. This type of
system does not filter the oil before it is sent to the engine. The oil from the main
oil gallery enters the filter and flows through the filter element. It then passes into
the collector in the center of the filter. The filtered oil then flows out a restricted
outlet preventing the loss of pressure. The oil then returns directly to the oil pan.
Oil Galleries

Oil galleries are small passages through the cylinder block and head for lubricating oil.
They are cast or machined passages that allow oil to flow to the engine bearing and other
moving parts.

The main oil galleries are large passages through the center of the block They feed oil to
the crankshaft bearings, camshaft bearings, and lifters. The main oil galleries also feed oil
to smaller passages running up to the cylinder heads.

Oil Pressure Warning Light

The oil pressure warning light (fig. 6-26) is used in place of a gauge on many vehicles.
The warning light, although not as accurate, is valuable because of its high visibility in
the event of a low oil pressure condition. Because the engine can fail or be damaged in
less than a minute of operation without oil pressure, the warning light is used as a backup
for a gauge to attract instant attention to a malfunction.

The warning light receives battery power through the ignition switch. The circuit to
ground is completed through the oil pressure-sending unit that screws into the engine and
is exposed to one of the oil galleries. The sending unit consists of a pressure-sensitive
diaphragm that operates a set of contact points. The contact points are calibrated to turn
on the warning light anytime oil pressure drops below approximately 15 psi in most
vehicles.

When oil pressure is low, the spring in the sending unit holds a pair of contacts closed.
This action completes the circuit and the indicator light glows.

When oil pressure is normal, oil pressure acts on a diaphragm in the sending unit.
Diaphragm deflection opens the contact points to break the circuit. This action causes the
warning light to go out, informing the operator of good pressure.

Oil Pressure Gauge

The oil pressure gauge is mounted on the instrument panel

of a vehicle. Marked off on a dial in pounds per square inch
(psi), the gauge indicates how regularly and evenly the oil is
being delivered to all vital parts of the engine and warns of
any stoppages in this delivery. Pressure gauges may be
electrical or mechanical.

In the mechanical type, the gauge on the instrument panel is

connected to an oil line tapped into an oil gallery leading
from the pump. The pressure of the oil in the system acts on
a diaphragm within the gauge, causing the needle to register
on the dial.
In the electrical type, oil pressure operates a rheostat
connected to the engine that signals electrically to the
pressure gauge indicating oil pressure within the system.

Oil Temperature Regulator

The oil temperature regulator (fig. 6-27) must be used in diesel engine lubricating
systems, prevents oil temperature from rising too high in hot weather, and assists in
raising the temperature during cold starts in winter weather. It provides a more positive
means of controlling oil temperature than does cooling by radiation of heat from the oil
pan wells.

The regulator uses engine coolant in the cooling system to regulate the temperature of the
oil and is made up of a core and housing. The core, through which the oil circulates, is of
cellular or bellows construction and is built to expose as much oil as possible to the
coolant that circulates through the housing. The regulator is attached to the engine so that
the oil will flow through the regulator after passing through the pump. As the oil passes
through the regulator, it is either cooled or heated, depending on the temperature of the
coolant and then is circulated through the engine.

Some military vehicles use an oil cooler (fig. 6-28) that consists of a radiator through
which air is circulated by movement of the vehicle or by a cooling fan. Oil from the
engine is circulated through this radiator and back to the sump or supply tank. The
radiator acts to cool the oil only in this system. It will not heat oil in a cold engine.
TYPES OF LUBRICATING (OIL) SYSTEMS

Now that you are familiar with the lubricating system components, you are ready to study
the different systems that circulate oil through the engine. The systems used to circulate
oil are known as splash, combination splash force feed, force feed, and full force-feed.

Splash
The splash system is no longer used in automotive engines. It is widely used in small
four-cycle engines for lawn mowers, outboard marine operation, and so on.

In the splash lubricating system (fig. 6-29), oil is splashed up from the oil pan or oil trays
in the lower part of the crankcase. The oil is thrown upward as droplets or fine mist and
provides adequate lubrication to valve mechanisms, piston pins, cylinder walls, and
piston rings.
In the engine, dippers on the connecting-rod bearing caps enter the oil pan with each
crankshaft revolution to produce the oil splash. A passage is drilled in each connecting
rod from the dipper to the bearing to ensure lubrication.

This system is too uncertain for automotive applications. One reason is that the level of
oil in the crankcase will vary greatly the amount of lubrication received by the engine. A
high level results in excess lubrication and oil consumption and a slightly low level
results in inadequate lubrication and failure of the engine.

Combination Splash and Force Feed

In a combination splash and force feed (fig. 6-30), oil is delivered to some parts by means
of splashing and other parts through oil passages under pressure from the oil pump.

The oil from the pump enters the oil galleries. From the oil galleries, it flows to the main
bearings and camshaft bearings. The main bearings have oil-feed holes or grooves that
feed oil into drilled passages in the crankshaft. The oil flows through these passages to
the connecting rod bearings. From there, on some engines, it flows through holes drilled
in the connecting rods to the piston-pin bearings.

Cylinder walls are lubricated by splashing oil thrown off from the connecting-rod
bearings. Some engines use small troughs under each connecting rod that are kept full by
small nozzles which deliver oil under pressure from the oil pump. These oil nozzles
deliver an increasingly heavy stream as speed increases.

At very high speeds these oil streams are powerful enough to strike the dippers directly.
This causes a much heavier splash so that adequate lubrication of the pistons and the
connecting-rod bearings is provided at higher speeds.

If a combination system is used on an overhead valve engine, the upper valve train is
lubricated by pressure from the pump.

Force Feed
A somewhat more complete pressurization of lubrication is achieved in the force-feed
lubrication system (fig. 6-31). Oil is forced by the oil pump from the crankcase to the
main bearings and the camshaft bearings. Unlike the combination system the connecting-
rod bearings are also fed oil under pressure from the pump.

Oil passages are drilled in the crankshaft to lead oil to the connecting-rodbearings. The
passages deliver oil from the main bearing journals to the rod bearing journals. In some
engines, these opening are holes that line up once for every crankshaft revolution. In
other engines, there are annular grooves in the main bearings through which oil can feed
constantly into the hole in the crankshaft.

The pressurized oil that lubricates the connecting-rod bearings goes on to lubricate the
pistons and walls by squirting out through strategically drilled holes. This lubrication
system is used in virtually all engines that are equipped with semifloating piston pins.
Full Force Feed
In a full force-feed lubrication system (fig. 6-32), the main bearings, rod bearings,
camshaft bearings, and the complete valve mechanism are lubricated by oil under
pressure. In addition, the full force-feed lubrication system provides lubrication under
pressure to the pistons and the piston pins. This is accomplished by holes drilled the
length of the connecting rod, creating an oil passage from the connecting rod bearing

to the piston pin bearing. This passage not only feeds the piston pin bearings but also
provides lubrication for the pistons and cylinder walls. This system is used in virtually all
engines that are equipped with full-floating piston pins.
LUBRICATING SYSTEM PROBLEM DIAGNOSIS

To troubleshoot an engine lubricating system, begin by gathering information on the

problem. Ask the operator questions. Analyze the symptoms using your understanding of
system operation. You should arrive at a logical deduction about the cause of the
problem.

The four problems most often occur in the lubrication system are as follows:

1. High oil consumption (oil must be added frequently)

2. Low oil pressure (gauge reads low, indicator light glows, or abnormal engine
noises)
3. High oil pressure (gauge reads high, oil filter swelled)
4. Defective indicator or gauge circuit (inaccurate operation or readings)

When diagnosing these troubles, make a visual inspection of the engine for obvious
problems. Check for oil leakage, disconnected sending unit wire, low oil level, damaged
oil pan, or other troubles that relate to the symptoms.

High Oil Consumption

If the operator must add oil frequently to the engine, this is a symptom of high oil
consumption. External oil leakage out of the engine or internal leakage of oil into the
combustion chambers causes high oil consumption. A description of each of these
problems is as follows:

• External oil leakage—detected as darkened oil wet areas on or around the engine.
Oil may also be found in small puddles under the vehicle. Leaking gaskets or
seals are usually the source of external engine oil leakage.
 • Internal oil leakage—shows up as blue smoke exiting the exhaust system of the
vehicle. For example, if the engine piston rings and cylinders are badly worn, oil
can enter the combustion chambers and will be burned during combustion

NOTE

Do not confuse black smoke (excess fuel in the cylinder) and white smoke (water leakage
into the engine cylinder) with blue smoke caused by engine oil.

Low Oil Pressure

Low oil pressure is indicated when the oil indicator light glows, oil gauge reads low, or
when the engine lifters or bearings rattle. The most common causes of low oil pressure
are as follows:

1. Low oil level (oil not high enough in pan to cover oil pickup)
2. Worn connecting rod or main bearings (pump cannot provide enough oil volume)
3. Thin or diluted oil (low viscosity or fuel in the oil)
4. Weak or broken pressure relief valve spring (valve opening too easily)
5. Cracked or loose pump pickup tube (air being pulled into the oil pump)
6. Worn oil pump (excess clearance between rotor or gears and housing)
7. Clogged oil pickup screen (reduce amount of oil entering pump)

A low oil level is a common cause of low oil pressure. Always check the oil level first
when troubleshooting a low oil pressure problem.

High Oil Pressure

High oil pressure is seldom a problem. When it occurs, the oil pressure gauge will read
high. The most frequent causes of high oil pressure are as follows:

1. Pressure relief valve struckopen (not opening at specified pressure)

2. 2. High relief valve spring tension (strong spring or spring has been improperly
shimmed)
3. 3. High oil viscosity (excessively thick oil or use of oil additive that increases
viscosity)
4. 4. Restricted oil gallery (defective block casting or debris in oil passage)

Indicator or Gauge Problems

A bad oil pressure indicator or gauge may scare the operator into believing there are
major problems. The indicator light may stay on or flicker, pointing to a low oil pressure
problem. The gauge may read low or high, also indicating a lubrication system problem.

Inspect the indicator or gauge circuit for problems. The wire going to the sending unit
may have fallen off. The sending unit wire may also be shorted to ground (light stays on
or gauge always reads high).
To check the action of the indicator or gauge, remove the wire from the sending unit.
Touch it on a metal part of the engine. This should make the indicator light glow or the
oil pressure gauge read maximum. If it does, the sending unit may be defective. If it does
not, then the circuit, indicator, or gauge may be faulty.

LUBRICATING SYSTEM MAINTENANCE

There are certain lubricating system service jobs that are more or less done automatically
when an engine is repaired. For example, the oil pan is removed and cleaned during such
engine overhaul jobs as replacing bearing or rings. When the crankshaft is removed, it is
usual procedure to clean out the oil passages in the crankshaft. Also, the oil passages in
the cylinder block should be cleaned out as part of the overhaul.

As a Construction Mechanic, you will be required to maintain the lubrication system.

This maintenance normally consists of changing the oil and filter(s).

Occasionally you will be required to perform such maintenance tasks as replacing lines
and fittings, servicing or replacing the oil pump and relief valve, and flushing the system.
The following discussion provides information that will aid you in carrying out these
duties.

Oil and Filter Change

It is extremely important that the oil and filter(s) of the engine are serviced regularly.
Lack of oil and filter maintenance will greatly shorten engine service life.

Manufacturers give a maximum number of miles or hours a vehicle can be operated

between oil changes. Newer automotive vehicles can be operated 5,000 miles between
changes. Older automotive vehicles should have their oil changed about every 3,000
miles. Most construction equipment average between 200 and 250 hours of operation
between oil changes. However, depending on the climate and working conditions the
miles and hours between oil changes can be greatly reduced. Refer to the service manual
for exact intervals.

To change the engine oil, warm the engine to full operating temperature. This will help
suspend debris in the oil and make the oil drain more thoroughly.

Unscrew the drain plug and allow the oil to flow into a catchment pan Be careful of hot
oil; it can cause painful burns.

Usually the filter elements are replaced at the same time the oil is changed. The most
common filters are the spin-on filter or replaceable element type oil filter.

• Spin-on, throwaway oil filter—replaced as a complete unit. Unscrew the filter

from the base by hand or a filter wrench and throw the filter away. When
replacing, wipe the base clean with a cloth and place a small amount of oil or
grease on the gasket to ensure a good seal. Screw on a new filter, tightening at
 least a half a turn after the gasket contacts the base. Do not use a filter wrench
because the filter canister could distort and leak.
• Replaceable element oil filter—removed from the filter housing and replaced.
Place a pan underneath the filter to catch oil from the filter. Remove the fastening
bolt and lift off the cover or filter housing. Remove the gasket from the cover or
housing and throw it away. Take out the old element and throw it away. Clean the
inside of the filter housing and cover it. Install a new element and insert a new
cover or housing gasket (ensure the gasket is completely seated in the recess).
Replace the cover or housing and fasten it to the center bolt securely.

After the oil has been completely drained and the drain plug replaced, fill the crankcase
to the full mark on the dipstick with the proper grade and weight of oil. Start and idle the
engine. Check the oil pressure immediately. Inspect the filter or filter housing for leaks.
Stop the engine and check the crankcase oil level and add to the full mark.

Oil Pump Service

Service on oil pumps is limited since they are relatively trouble-free. An oil pump will
often still be operating trouble-free when the vehicle is ready for salvage.

A bad oil pump will cause low or no oil pressure and possibly severe engine damage.
When inner parts wear, the pump may leak and have a reduced output. The pump shaft
can also strip in the pump or distributor, preventing pump operation To replace the oil
pump, it is first necessary to determine its location. Some pumps are located inside the
engine oil pan Others are on the front of the engine under a front cover or on the side of
the engine. Since removal procedures vary, refer to the manufacturer’s service manual for
instructions.

Most mechanics install a new or factory rebuilt pump when needed. It is usually too
costly to completely rebuild an oil pump in the shop. Before installation, prime (fill) the
pump with engine oil. This will assure proper initial operation upon engine starting.

Install the pump in reverse order of removal. Anew gasket should be used and the
retaining bolts torqued as specified by the service manual.

Pressure Relief Valve Service

A faulty pressure relief valve can produce oil pressure problems. The valve may be
located in the oil pump, filter housing, or engine block.

If symptoms point to the pressure relief valve, it should be disassembled and serviced.
Cleaning and adjusting is all that is usually required. Remove the cup or cap, holding the
pressure relief valve. Then, slide the spring and piston out of their bore.

Measure the free length of the spring (length of extended spring) and compare it to the
specifications. If the spring is too short or long, install a new spring. Some manufacturers
recommend checking spring tension.
Use a micrometer and a small hole gauge to check the valve and valve bore wear. Also,
check the sides of the valve for scratches or scoring. Replace the parts if any problems
are found.

Assemble the pressure relief valve. Make sure that the valve is facing correctly in its
bore. Slide the spring into place. Install any shims and the cover plug or cap. Refer to the
service manual for details.

The pressure relief valve may be adjusted in one of two ways. One way is by an adjusting
screw (having a jam or locknut) which adds or relives pressure on the spring. The other
way is by adjusting shims that are added or removed to adjust opening pressure of the
relief valve.
SUPERCHARGERS AND TURBOCHARGERS

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the operation of and the differences between

superchargers and turbochargers.

Supercharging and turbocharging is a method of increasing engine volumetric efficiency

by forcing the air into the combustion chamber, rather than merely allowing the pistons to
draw it naturally. Supercharging and turbocharging, in some cases, will push volumetric
efficiencies over 100 percent.

SUPERCHARGERS

A supercharger is an air pump that increases engine power by pushing a denser air charge
into the combustion chamber. With more air and fuel, combustion produces more heat
energy and pressure to push the piston down in the cylinder. There are three basic types
of superchargers:

1. Centrifugal supercharger (fig. 5-39). The centrifugal supercharger has an

impeller equipped with curved vanes. As the engine drives the impeller, it draws
air into its center and throws it off at its rim. The air then is pushed along the
inside of the circular housing. The diameter of the housing gradually increases to
the outlet where the air is pushed out.
2. Rotor (Rootes) supercharger (fig. 5-40). The Rootes supercharger is of the
positive displacement type and consists of two rotors inside a housing. As the
engine drives the rotors, air is trapped between them and the housing. Air is then
carried to the outlet where it is discharged. The rotors and the housing in this type
of supercharger must maintain tight clearances and therefore are sensitive to dirt.
3. Vane-type supercharger (fig. 5-41). The vane-type supercharger has an integral
steel rotor and shaft, one end supported in the pump flange and the other end in
the cover, and revolves in the body, the bore of which is eccentric to the rotor.
Two sliding vanes are placed 180 degrees apart in slots in the rotor and are
pressed against the body bore by springs in the slots. When the shaft rotates, the
vanes pick up a charge of air at the inlet port, and it is carried around the body to
the outlet where the air is discharged. Pressure is produced by the wedging action
of the air, as it is forced toward the outlet port by the vane.

The term supercharger generally refers to a blower driven by a belt, chain, or gears.
Superchargers are used on large diesel and racing engines.

The supercharger raises the air pressure in the engine intake manifold. Then, when the
intake valves open, more air-fuel mixture (gasoline engine) or air (diesel engine) can flow
into the cylinders. An intercooler is used between the supercharger outlet and the engine
to cool the air and to increase power (cool charge of air carries more oxygen needed for
combustion).
A supercharger will instantly produce increased pressure at low engine speed because it
is mechanically linked to the engine crankshaft. This low-speed power and instant throttle
response is desirable for passing and entering interstate highways.

TURBOCHARGERS

A turbocharger is an exhaust-driven supercharger (fan or blower) that forces air into the
engine under pressure. Turbochargers are frequently used on small gasoline and diesel
engines to increase power output. By harnessing engine exhaust energy, a turbocharger
can also improve engine efficiency (fuel economy and emissions levels).
The turbocharger (fig. 5-42) consists of three basic parts—a turbine wheel; an impeller or
compressor; and housings that support the parts and direct the flow of exhaust gases and
intake air. Basic operation of a turbocharger is as follows:

• When the engine is running, hot gases blow out the open exhaust valves and into
the exhaust manifold. The exhaust manifold and connecting tubing route these
gases into the turbine housing.
• As the gases pass through the turbine housing, they strike the fins or blades on the
turbine wheel. When engine load is high enough, there is enough exhaust gas flow
to spin the turbine wheel rapidly.
• Since the turbine wheel is connected to the impeller by the turbo shaft, the
impeller rotates with the turbine. Impeller rotation pulls air into the compressor
housing. Centrifugal force throws the spinning air outward. This causes air to
flow out of the turbocharger and into the engine cylinder under pressure.

A turbocharger is located on one side of the engine. An exhaust pipe connects the exhaust
manifold to the turbine housing. The exhaust system header pipe connects to the outlet of
the turbine housing.

Theoretically, the turbocharger should be located as close to the engine manifold as

possible. Then a maximum amount of exhaust heat will enter the turbine housing. When
the hot gases move past the spinning turbine wheel, they are still expanding and help
rotate the turbine.

Turbocharger lubrication is required to protect the turbo shaft and bearings from damage.
A turbocharger can operate at speeds up to 100,000 rpm. For this reason, the engine
lubrication system forces oil into the turbo shaft bearings. Oil passages are provided in
the turbo housing and bearings and an oil supply line runs from the engine to the
turbocharger. With the engine running, oil enters the turbocharger under pressure. A
drain passage and drain line allows oil to return to the engine oil pan after passing
through the turbo bearings.

Sealing rings (piston-type rings) are placed around the turbo shaft at each end of the turbo
housing, preventing oil leakage into the compressor and turbine housings.

Turbochargers require little maintenance between overhauls if the air cleaners are
serviced regularly according to the manufacturer’s recommendations. The turbocharger
turbine requires periodic cleaning to remove carbon deposits that cause an unbalanced
condition at the high relative speeds at which the turbine must rotate.

Turbocharging system problems usually show up as inadequate boost pressure (lack of

engine power), leaking shaft seals (oil consumption), damaged turbine or impeller wheels
(vibration and noise), or excess boost (detonation).

NOTE
Refer to a factory service manual for a detailed troubleshooting chart. It will list the
common troubles for the particular turbocharging system.

There are several checks that can be made to determine turbocharging system conditions.
These checks include the following:

• Check connection of all vacuum lines to the waste gate and oil lines to the
turbocharger.
• Use regulated, low-pressure air to check for waste gate diaphragm leakage and
operation.
• Use a dash gauge or a test gauge to measure boost pressure. If needed connect the
pressure gauge to the intake manifold fitting. Compare to the manufacturer’s
specifications.
• Use a stethoscope to listen for bad turbocharger bearings.

Turbo Lag
Turbo lag refers to a short delay before the turbocharger develops sufficient boost
(pressure above atmospheric pressure).

As the accelerator pedal is pressed down for rapid acceleration, the engine may lack
power for a few seconds. This is caused by the impeller and turbine wheels not spinning
fast enough. It takes time for the exhaust gases to bring the turbocharger up to operating
speed. To minimize turbo lag, the turbine and impeller wheels are made very light so they
can accelerate up to rpm quickly.

Turbocharger Intercooler
A turbocharger intercooler is an air-to-air heat exchanger that cools the air entering the
engine. It is a radiator-like device mounted at the pressure outlet of the turbocharger.

Outside air flows over and cools the fins and tubes of the intercooler. As the air flows
through the intercooler, heat is removed. By cooling the air entering the engine, engine
power is increased because the air is more dense (contains more oxygen by volume).
Cooling also reduces the tendency for engine detonation.

Waste Gate
A waste gate limits the maximum amount of boost pressure developed by the
turbocharger. It is a butterfly or poppet-type valve that allows exhaust to bypass the
turbine wheel.

Without a waste gate, the turbocharger could produce too much pressure in the
combustion chambers. This could lead to detonation (spontaneous combustion) and
engine damage.

A diaphragm assembly operates the waste gate. Intake manifold pressure acts on the
diaphragm to control waste gate valve action. The valve controls the opening and closing
of a passage around the turbine wheel.
Under partial load, the system routes all of the exhaust gases through the turbine housing.
The waste gate is closed by the diaphragm spring. This assures that there is adequate
boost to increase power.

Under a full load, boost may become high enough to overcome spring pressure. Manifold
pressure compresses the spring and opens the waste gate. This permits some of the
exhaust gases to flow through the waste gate passage and into the exhaust system. Less
exhaust is left to spin the turbine. Boost pressure is limited to a preset value.

COLD WEATHER STARTING

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Identify the different types of cold weather starting aids.

Diesel fuel evaporates much slower than gasoline and requires more heat to cause
combustion in the cylinder of the engine. For this reason, preheating devices and starting
aids are used on diesel engines. These devices and starting aids either heat the air before
it is drawn into the cylinder or allow combustion at a lower temperature than during
normal engine operation.

GLOW PLUGS

The purpose of a glow plug is to beat up the air that is drawn into the precombustion
chamber to assist starting, especially in cold weather. Glow plugs are common on
precombustion chamber engines, but not on direct injection diesels because they use
shaped piston crowns that produce a very effective turbulence to the air in the cylinder.
Direct injection engines also have less immediate heat loss to the surrounding cylinder
area than in a precombustion engine and generally have a higher injection spray-in
pressure.
A glow plug is used for each cylinder located just below the injection nozzle and
threaded into the cylinder head (fig. 5-43). The inner tip of the glow plug extends into the
precombustion chamber. The glow plugs may be turned on using the ignition switch with
the length of time being controlled from an electronic module. On some older vehicles
and construction equipment, glow plugs are operated by manually depressing a switch or
button for 15 to 30 seconds. During colder weather, the system may have to be cycled
more than once to start the engine.

Glow plugs are not complicated and are easy to test. Disconnect the wire going to the
glow plug and use a multimeter to read the ohms resistance of the glow plug.

Specifications for different glow plugs vary according to the manufacturer. Be sure and
check the manufacturer’s service manual for the correct ohms resistance value.

MANIFOLD FLAME HEATER

The manifold flame heater (fig. 5-44) is another type of cold starting system found on
diesel engines. This system is composed of a housing, spark plug, flow control nozzle,
and two solenoid control valves. This system operates as follows:

• The flame heater ignition unit energizes the spark plug.

• The nozzle sprays fuel under pressure into the intake manifold assembly.
• The fuel vapor is ignited by the spark plug and burns in the intake manifold. The
heat from this fire warms the air before it enters the combustion chamber.

The flame fuel pump assembly is a rotary type, driven by an enclosed electric motor. The
fuel pump receives fuel from the vehicle fuel tank through the supply pump of the vehicle
and delivers it to the spray nozzle. The on/off switch, located on the instrument panel,
energizes the pump.
The intake manifold flame heater system has a filter to remove impurities from the fuel
before it reaches the nozzle.

The two fuel solenoid valves are energized (open) whenever the flame heater system is
activated. The valves ensure that fuel is delivered only when the system is operating.
These valves stop the flow of fuel the instant that the engine or heater is shut down.

NOTE

When troubleshooting or repairing these units, you should consult the manufacturer's
service manual.
 A Short Course on

Brakes

The modern automotive brake system has been refined for over 100 years and has
become extremely dependable and efficient.

The typical brake system consists of disk brakes in front and either disk or drum
brakes in the rear connected by a system of tubes and hoses that link the brake at each
wheel to the master cylinder. Other systems that are connected with the brake system
include the parking brakes, power brake booster and the anti-lock system.

When you step on the brake pedal, you are actually pushing against a plunger in the
master cylinder which forces hydraulic oil (brake fluid) through a series of tubes and
hoses to the braking unit at each wheel. Since hydraulic fluid (or any fluid for that matter)
cannot be compressed, pushing fluid through a pipe is just like pushing a steel bar
through a pipe. Unlike a steel bar, however, fluid can be directed through many twists
and turns on its way to its destination, arriving with the exact same motion and pressure
that it started with. It is very important that the fluid is pure liquid and that there are no
air bubbles in it. Air can compress, which causes a sponginess to the pedal and severely
reduced braking efficiency. If air is suspected, then the system must be bled to remove
the air. There are "bleeder screws" at each wheel cylinder and caliper for this purpose.
On a disk brake, the fluid from the master cylinder is
forced into a caliper where it presses against a piston. The
piston, in-turn, squeezes two brake pads against the disk
(rotor) which is attached to the wheel, forcing it to slow
down or stop.

This process is similar to a bicycle brake where two rubber

pads rub against the wheel rim creating friction.

With drum brakes, fluid is forced into the wheel cylinder

which pushes the brake shoes out so that the friction linings
are pressed against the drum which is attached to the wheel,
causing the wheel to stop.

In either case, the friction surfaces of the pads on a disk

brake system, or the shoes on a drum brake convert the
forward motion of the vehicle into heat. Heat is what causes
the friction surfaces (linings) of the pads and shoes to
eventually wear out and require replacement.
 Let's take a closer look at each of the components in a
brake system and see where other problems can occur...

Master Cylinder

The master cylinder is located in the engine

compartment on the firewall, directly in front of the
driver's seat. A typical master cylinder is actually two
completely separate master cylinders in one housing,
each handling two wheels. This way if one side fails, you will still be able to stop the
car. The brake warning light on the dash will light if either side fails, alerting you to
the problem. Master cylinders have become very reliable and rarely malfunction;
however, the most common problem that they experience is an internal leak. This will
cause the brake pedal to slowly sink to the floor when your foot applies steady
pressure. Letting go of the pedal and immediately stepping on it again brings the pedal
back to normal height.

Brake Fluid

Brake fluid is a special oil that has specific properties. It is designed to withstand cold
temperatures without thickening as well as very high temperatures without boiling. (If
the brake fluid should boil, it will cause you to have a spongy pedal and the car will be
hard to stop.) Brake fluid must meet standards that are set by the Department of
Transportation (DOT). The current standard is DOT-3 which has a boiling point of
460º F. But check your owners manual to see what your vehicle manufacturer
recommends.

The brake fluid reservoir is on top of the master cylinder. Most cars today have a
transparent reservoir so that you can see the level without opening the cover. The
brake fluid level will drop slightly as the brake pads wear. This is a normal condition
and no cause for concern. If the level drops noticeably over a short period of time or
goes down to about two thirds full, have your brakes checked as soon as possible.
Keep the reservoir covered except for the amount of time you need to fill it and never
leave a can of brake fluid uncovered. Brake fluid must maintain a very high boiling
point .Exposure to air will cause the fluid to absorb moisture which will lower that
boiling point.
NEVER PUT ANYTHING BUT APPROVED BRAKE FLUID IN YOUR
BRAKES. ANYTHING ELSE CAN CAUSE SUDDEN BRAKE FAILURE! Any
other type of oil or other fluid will react with the brake fluid and very quickly
destroy the rubber seals in the brake system causing brake failure.

Brake Lines

The brake fluid travels from the master cylinder to the wheels through a series of steel
 tubes and reinforced rubber hoses.
Rubber hoses are only used in places that
require flexibility, such as at the front
wheels, which move up and down as
well as steer. The rest of the system uses
non-corrosive seamless steel tubing with
special fittings at all attachment points. If
a steel line requires a repair, the best
procedure is to replace the complete line.
If this is not practical, a line can be
repaired using special splice fittings that
are made for brake system repair. You must never use brass "compression" fittings or
copper tubing to repair a brake system. They are dangerous and illegal.

Other Components in the Hydraulic System

• Proportioning valve or Equalizer Valve

These valves are mounted between the master cylinder and the rear wheels.
They are designed to adjust the pressure between the front and rear brakes
depending on how hard you are stopping. The shorter you stop, the more of the
vehicle's weight is transferred to the front wheels, in some cases, causing the
rear to lift and the front to dive. These valves are designed to direct more
pressure to the front and less pressure to the rear the harder you stop. This
minimizes the chance of premature lockup at the rear wheels.
• Pressure Differential Valve
This valve is usually mounted just below the master cylinder and is responsible
for turning the brake warning light on when it detects a malfunction. It
measures the pressure from the two sections of the master cylinder and
compares them. Since it is mounted ahead of the proportioning or equalizer
valve, the two pressures it detects should be equal. If it detects a difference, it
means that there is probably a brake fluid leak somewhere in the system.
• Combination Valve
The Combination valve is simply a proportioning valve and a pressure
differential valve that is combined into one unit.

• Electronic Brake Force Distribution

Newer cars use the antilock brake hardware and the onboard computer to
replace these proportioning valve systems with a system called Electronic
Brake force Distribution (EBD) in order to distribute the exact amount of
pressure at each wheel to insure a balanced brake system.

Disk Brakes
 The disk brake is the best brake we have found so far. Disk brakes are
used to stop everything from cars to locomotives and jumbo jets. Disk
brakes wear longer, are less affected by water, are self adjusting, self
cleaning, less prone to grabbing or pulling and stop better than any
other system around. The main components of a disk brake are the
Brake Pads, Rotor, Caliper and Caliper Support.

• Brake Pads
There are two brake pads on each caliper. They are constructed
of a metal "shoe" with the lining riveted or bonded to it. The
pads are mounted in the caliper, one on each side of the rotor.
Brake linings used to be made primarily of asbestos because of its heat absorbing
properties and quiet operation; however, due to health risks, asbestos has been
outlawed, so new materials are now being used. Brake pads wear out with use
and must be replaced periodically. There are many types and qualities of pads
available. The differences have to do with brake life (how long the new pads will
last) and noise (how quiet they are when you step on the brake). Harder linings
tend to last longer and stop better under heavy use but they may produce an
irritating squeal when they are applied. Technicians that work on brakes usually
have a favorite pad that gives a good compromise that their customers can live
with.

Brake pads should be checked for wear periodically. If the lining wears down to
the metal brake shoe, then you will have a "Metal-to-Metal" condition where the
shoe rubs directly against the rotor causing severe damage and loss of braking
efficiency. Some brake pads come with a "brake warning sensor" that will emit a
squealing noise when the pads are worn to a point where they should be changed.
This noise will usually be heard when your foot is off the brake and disappear
when you step on the brake. If you hear this noise, have your brakes checked as
soon as possible.
• Rotor
The disk rotor is made of iron with highly machined surfaces where the brake
pads contact it. Just as the brake pads wear out over time, the rotor also
undergoes some wear, usually in the form of ridges and groves where the brake
pad rubs against it. This wear pattern exactly matches the wear pattern of the
pads as they seat themselves to the rotor. When the pads are replaced, the rotor
must be machined smooth to allow the new pads to have an even contact surface
to work with. Only a small amount of material can be machined off of a rotor
before it becomes unusable and must be replaced. A minimum thickness
measurement is stamped on every rotor and the technician doing the brake job
will measure the rotor before and after machining it to make sure it doesn't go
below the legal minimum. If a rotor is cut below the minimum, it will not be able
to handle the high heat that brakes normally generate. This will cause the brakes
to "fade," greatly reducing their effectiveness to a point where you may not be
able to stop!
 • Caliper & Support
There are two main types of calipers: Floating
calipers and fixed calipers. There are other
configurations but these are the most popular.
Calipers must be rebuilt or replaced if they
show signs of leaking brake fluid.

Single Piston Floating Calipers are the

most popular and also least costly to
manufacture and service. A floating caliper
"floats" or moves in a track in its support so that
it can center itself over the rotor. As you apply brake pressure, the hydraulic fluid
pushes in two directions. It forces the piston against the inner pad which in turn
pushes against the rotor. It also pushes the caliper in the opposite direction against
the outer pad, pressing it against the other side of the rotor. Floating calipers are
also available on some vehicles with two pistons mounted on the same side. Two
piston floating calipers are found on more expensive cars and can provide an
improved braking "feel".

Four Piston Fixed Calipers are mounted rigidly to the support and are not
allowed to move. Instead, there are two pistons on each side that press the pads
against the rotor. Four piston calipers have a better feel and are more efficient,
but are more expensive to produce and cost more to service. This type of caliper
is usually found on more expensive luxury and high performance cars.

Drum Brakes

So if disk brakes are so great, how come we still have cars with drum brakes? The reason
is cost. While all vehicles produced for many years have disk brakes on the front, drum
brakes are cheaper to produce for the rear wheels. The main reason is the parking brake
system. On drum brakes, adding a parking brake is the simple addition of a lever, while
on disk brakes, we need a complete mechanism, in some cases, a complete mechanical
drum brake assembly inside the disk brake rotor! Parking brakes must be a separate
system that does not use hydraulics. It must be totally mechanical, but more on parking
brakes later.

Drum brakes consist of a backing plate, brake shoes, brake drum, wheel cylinder,
return springs and an automatic or self-adjusting system. When you apply the brakes,
brake fluid is forced, under pressure, into the wheel cylinder which, in turn, pushes the
brake shoes into contact with the machined surface on the inside of the drum. When the
pressure is released, return springs pull the shoes back to their rest position. As the
brake linings wear, the shoes must travel a greater distance to reach the drum. When the
distance reaches a certain point, a self-adjusting mechanism automatically reacts by
 adjusting the rest position
of the shoes so that they are
closer to the drum.

Brake Shoes
Like the disk pads, brake
shoes consist of a steel shoe
with the friction material or
lining riveted or bonded to
it. Also like disk pads, the
linings eventually wear out
and must be replaced. If the
linings are allowed to wear
through to the bare metal shoe, they will cause severe damage to the brake drum.

• Backing Plate
The backing plate is what holds everything together. It attaches to the axle and
forms a solid surface for the wheel cylinder, brake shoes and assorted hardware.
It rarely causes any problems.
• Brake Drum
Brake drums are made of iron and have a machined surface on the inside where
the shoes make contact. Just as with disk rotors, brake drums will show signs of
wear as the brake linings seat themselves against the machined surface of the
drum. When new shoes are installed, the brake drum should be machined smooth.
Brake drums have a maximum diameter specification that is stamped on the
outside of the drum. When a drum is machined, it must never exceed that
measurement. If the surface cannot be machined within that limit, the drum must
be replaced.
• Wheel Cylinder
The wheel cylinder consists of a cylinder that has two pistons, one on each side.
Each piston has a rubber seal and a shaft that connects the piston with a brake
shoe. When brake pressure is applied, the pistons are forced out pushing the shoes
into contact with the drum. Wheel cylinders must be rebuilt or replaced if they
show signs of leaking.
• Return
 Springs
Return springs pull the brake shoes back to their rest position after the pressure is
released from the wheel cylinder. If the springs are weak and do not return the
shoes all the way, it will cause premature lining wear because the linings will
remain in contact with the drum. A good technician will examine the springs
during a brake job and recommend their replacement if they show signs of
fatigue. On certain vehicles, the technician may recommend replacing them even
if they look good as inexpensive insurance.
• Self Adjusting System
The parts of a self adjusting system should be clean and move freely to insure that
the brakes maintain their adjustment over the life of the linings. If the self
adjusters stop working, you will notice that you will have to step down further
and further on the brake pedal before you feel the brakes begin to engage. Disk
brakes are self adjusting by nature and do not require any type of mechanism.
When a technician performs a brake job, aside from checking the return springs,
he will also clean and lubricate the self adjusting parts where necessary.

Parking Brakes

The parking brake (a.k.a. emergency brake) system controls the rear brakes through a
series of steel cables that are connected to either a hand lever or a foot pedal. The idea is
that the system is fully mechanical and completely bypasses the hydraulic system so that
the vehicle can be brought to a stop even if there is a total brake failure.
On drum brakes, the cable pulls on a lever mounted in the rear brake and is directly
connected to the brake shoes. this has the effect of bypassing the wheel cylinder and
controlling the brakes directly.
Disk brakes on the rear wheels add additional complication for parking brake systems.
There are two main designs for adding a mechanical parking brake to rear disk brakes.
The first type uses the existing rear wheel caliper and adds a lever attached to a
mechanical corkscrew device inside the caliper piston. When the parking brake cable
 pulls on the lever, this corkscrew device pushes the piston
against the pads, thereby bypassing the hydraulic system, to
stop the vehicle. This type of system is primarily used with
single piston floating calipers, if the caliper is of the four
piston fixed type, then that type of system can't be used.
The other system uses a complete mechanical drum brake
unit mounted inside the rear rotor. The brake shoes on this
system are connected to a lever that is pulled by the parking
brake cable to activate the brakes. The brake "drum" is
actually the inside part of the rear brake rotor.

On cars with automatic transmissions, the parking brake is

rarely used. This can cause a couple of problems. The
biggest problem is that the brake cables tend to get corroded
and eventually seize up causing the parking brake to
become inoperative. By using the parking brake from time
to time, the cables stay clean and functional. Another problem comes from the fact that
the self adjusting mechanism on certain brake systems uses the parking brake actuation to
adjust the brakes. If the parking brake is never used, then the brakes never get adjusted.

Power Brake Booster

The power brake booster is mounted on the firewall directly behind the master cylinder
and, along with the master cylinder, is directly connected with the brake pedal. Its
purpose is to amplify the available foot pressure applied to the brake pedal so that the
amount of foot pressure required to stop even the largest vehicle is minimal. Power for
the booster comes from engine vacuum. The automobile engine produces vacuum as a
by-product of normal operation and is freely available for use in powering accessories
such as the power brake booster. Vacuum enters the booster through a check valve on
the booster. The check valve is connected to the engine with a rubber hose and acts as a
one-way valve that allows vacuum to enter the booster but does not let it escape. The
booster is an empty shell that is divided into two chambers by a rubber diaphragm. There
is a valve in the diaphragm that remains open while your foot is off the brake pedal so
that vacuum is allowed to fill both chambers. When you step on the brake pedal, the
valve in the diaphragm closes, separating the two chambers and another valve opens to
allow air in the chamber on the brake pedal side. This is what provides the power assist.
Power boosters are very reliable and cause few problems of their own, however, other
things can contribute to a loss of power assist. In order to have power assist, the engine
must be running. If the engine stalls or shuts off while you are driving, you will have a
small reserve of power assist for two or three pedal applications but, after that, the brakes
will be extremely hard to apply and you must put as much pressure as you can to bring
the vehicle to a stop.

Anti-Lock Brakes (ABS)

The most efficient braking pressure takes place just before each wheel locks up. When
you slam on the brakes in a panic stop and the wheels lock up, causing a screeching
sound and leaving strips of rubber on the pavement, you do not stop the vehicle nearly as
short as it is capable of stopping. Also, while the wheels are locked up, you loose all
steering control so that, if you have an opportunity to steer around the obstacle, you will
not be able to do so. Another problem occurs during an extended skid is that you will
burn a patch of rubber off the tire which causes a "flat spot" on the tread that will
produce an annoying thumping sound as you drive.

Anti-lock brake systems solve this lockup problem by rapidly pumping the brakes
whenever the system detects a wheel that is locked up. In most cases, only the wheel that
is locked will be pumped, while full braking pressure stays available to the other wheels.
This effect allows you to stop in the shortest amount of time while maintaining full
steering control even if one or more wheels are on ice. The system uses a computer to
monitor the speed of each wheel. When it detects that one or more wheels have stopped
or are turning much slower than the remaining wheels, the computer sends a signal to
momentarily remove and reapply or pulse the pressure to the affected wheels to allow
them to continue turning. This "pumping" of the brakes occurs at ten or more times a
second, far faster then a human can pump the brakes manually. If you step on the brakes
hard enough to engage the anti-lock system, you may feel a strong vibration in the brake
pedal. This is a normal condition and indicates that the system is working, however, it
can be disconcerting to some people who don't expect it. If your vehicle has anti-lock
brakes, read your owner's manual to find out more about it.

The system consists of an electronic control unit, a hydraulic actuator, and wheel speed
sensors at each wheel. If the control unit detects a malfunction in the system, it will
illuminate an ABS warning light on the dash to let you know that there is a problem. If
there is a problem, the anti-lock system will not function but the brakes will otherwise
function normally.