Lecture 19

Calculating absolute extrema

why the above conditions? recall the extreme value theorem

example 1: Find the absolute extrema of f (x) = x 2 on [−2, 1].
f is differentiable on [−2, 1] with f ′ (x) = 2x
critical point: f ′ (x) = 0 ⇒ x = 0
endpoints: x = −2 and x = 1
f (0) = 0, f (−2) = 4, f (1) = 1
Therefore f has an absolute maximum value of 4 at x = −2 and an
absolute minimum value of 0 at x = 0.
R. Klages (QMUL) MTH4100 Calculus 1 Week 8 3 / 35
Absolute extrema with f ′ (c) being undefined

example 2: Find the absolute extrema of f (x) = x 2/3 on [−2, 3].

f is differentiable with f ′ (x) = 23 x −1/3

except at x = 0
critical point: f ′ (x) = 0 or f ′ (x)
undefined ⇒ x = 0
endpoints: x = −2 and x = 3
√ √
f (−2) = 3 4, f (0) = 0, f (3) = 3 9

√
3
Therefore f has an absolute maximum value of 9 at x = 3 and an
absolute minimum value of 0 at x = 0.

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Rolle’s theorem
motivation:

Theorem
Let f (x) be continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b). If
f (a) = f (b) then there exists a c ∈ (a, b) with

f ′ (c) = 0 .
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 Lecture 19

Rolle’s theorem: proof

Theorem
Let f (x) be continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b). If
f (a) = f (b) then there exists a c ∈ (a, b) with
f ′ (c) = 0 .

Proof.
extreme value theorem: f is continuous on [a, b], so it has absolute
maximum and minimum.
these occur only at critical points or endpoints – here: at f ′ (x) = 0
on (a, b), or else at a or b.
apply first derivative theorem for extrema: if one of them occurs at
c ∈ (a, b), then f ′ (c) = 0 (and we’re done).
If not, both must occur at the endpoints. But as f (a) = f (b), f (x)
must then be constant and therefore f ′ (x) = 0 on [a, b].
R. Klages (QMUL) MTH4100 Calculus 1
 Lecture 19

Assumptions in Rolle’s theorem

Theorem
Let f (x) be continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b). If
f (a) = f (b) then there exists a c ∈ (a, b) with
f ′ (c) = 0 .

It is essential that all of the hypotheses in the theorem are fulfilled!

examples:

R. Klages (QMUL) MTH4100 Calculus 1

 Lecture 19

Horizontal tangents of a cubic polynomial

x3
example: Apply Rolle’s theorem to f (x) = 3 − 3x on [−3, 3].

polynomial f is continuous on [−3, 3]

and differentiable on (−3, 3)

f (−3) = f (3) = 0

by Rolle’s theorem there exists (at

least!) one c ∈ [−3, 3] with f ′ (c) = 0

√
From f ′ (x) = x 2 − 3 = 0 we find that indeed x = ± 3.

R. Klages (QMUL) MTH4100 Calculus 1 Week 8 8 / 35

 Lecture 19

The mean value theorem

motivation: “slanted version of Rolle’s theorem”

Theorem
Let f (x) be continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b). Then there
exists a c ∈ (a, b) with
f (b) − f (a)
f ′ (c) = .
b−a
R. Klages (QMUL) MTH4100 Calculus 1 Week 8 9 / 35
 Lecture 19

The mean value theorem: proof

basic idea:

Proof.
secant through (a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)) is given by
f (b) − f (a)
g (x) = f (a) + (x − a) (point-slope form)
b−a
shift graph: for h(x) = f (x) − g (x), both h(a) = 0 and h(b) = 0
apply Rolle’s theorem: there is a c ∈ (a, b) with h′ (c) = 0
f (b)−f (a) f (b)−f (a)
as h′ (x) = f ′ (x) − b−a , this implies f ′ (c) = b−a .
R. Klages (QMUL) MTH4100 Calculus 1 Week 8 10 / 35
 Lecture 19

Applying the mean value theorem

example: Consider f (x) = x 2 on [0, 2].

f (x) is continuous and differentiable on

[0, 2].
Therefore there is a c ∈ (0, 2) with

f (2) − f (0)
f ′ (c) = =2.
2−0

Since f ′ (x) = 2x we find that c = 1.

R. Klages (QMUL) MTH4100 Calculus 1 Week 8 11 / 35

 Lecture 19

Functions with zero derivatives are constant

know f ′ (x) ⇒ know f (x)? special case:
Corollary
If f ′ (x) = 0 on (a, b) then f (x) = C for all x ∈ (a, b).

Proof.
For any x1 , x2 ∈ (a, b) with x1 < x2 , f is differentiable and continuous on
[x1 , x2 ]. According to the mean value theorem there is thus a c ∈ (x1 , x2 )
with f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
f ′ (c) = .
x2 − x1
But as f ′ (c) = 0 by assumption, it follows that

f (x2 ) = f (x1 ) .

As x1 and x2 are chosen arbitrarily in (a, b), f (x) is constant for all
x ∈ (a, b).
 Lecture 19

Functions with the same derivative differ by a constant

know f ′ (x) = g ′ (x) ⇒ know relation between f and g ?

example:
Corollary
If f ′ (x) = g ′ (x) for all x ∈ (a, b), then

f (x) = g (x) + C .

Proof.
Consider h(x) = f (x) − g (x). As

h′ (x) = f ′ (x) − g ′ (x) = 0

for all x ∈ (a, b), h(x) = C by the previous

corollary and so f (x) = g (x) + C .

R. Klages (QMUL) MTH4100 Calculus 1 Week 8 13 / 35

 Lecture 19

Application of the last corollary

example: Find the function f (x) whose derivative is sin x and whose
graph passes through the point (0, 2).
g (x) = − cos x satisfies
g ′ (x) = sin x = f ′ (x)

Therefore f (x) = g (x) + C , i.e.

f (x) = − cos x + C

f (0) = 2 gives
2 = − cos 0 + C
so that C = 3.
⇒ f (x) = 3 − cos x

R. Klages (QMUL)
 Lecture 20

Revision

calculating absolute extrema

Rolle’s theorem

mean value theorem

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 Lecture 20

Increasing and decreasing functions

motivation:

make increasing/decreasing
mathematically precise
clarify relation to
positive/negative derivative

example: f (x) = x 2 decreases on (−∞, 0] and increases on [0, ∞). It is

monotonic on (−∞, 0] and [0, ∞) but not monotonic on (−∞, 0∞).
R. Klages (QMUL) MTH4100 Calculus 1 Week 8 16 / 35
 Lecture 20

First derivative test for monotonic functions

Corollary (of the mean value theorem)

Suppose that f is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b).
If f ′ (x) > 0 at each point x ∈ (a, b), then f is increasing on [a, b].
If f ′ (x) < 0 at each point x ∈ (a, b), then f is decreasing on [a, b].

Proof.
Consider any x1 , x2 ∈ [a, b] with x1 < x2 . According to the mean value
theorem for f on [x1 , x2 ] we have

f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) = f ′ (c)(x2 − x1 )

for some c ∈ (x1 , x2 ). Since x2 − x1 > 0 (why?), the sign of the right hand
side is the same as the sign of f ′ (c). Hence, f (x2 ) > f (x1 ) if f ′ > 0 on
(a, b) and f (x2 ) < f (x1 ) if f ′ < 0 on (a, b).

R. Klages (QMUL) MTH4100 Calculus 1 Week 8 17 / 35

 Lecture 20

Using the first derivative test for monotonic functions

example: Find the critical points of f (x) = x 3 − 12x − 5 and identify the
intervals on which f is increasing and decreasing.

f ′ (x) = 3x 2 − 12 = 3(x 2 − 4) = 3(x + 2)(x − 2)

⇒ x1 = −2, x2 = 2
These critical points subdivide the natural domain into
(−∞, −2), (−2, 2), (2, ∞) .
rule: If a < b are two nearby critical points for f , then f ′ must be positive
on (a, b) or negative there. (proof relies on continuity of f ′ ).This implies
that for finding the sign of f ′ it suffices to compute f ′ (x) at one x ∈ (a, b)!
here: f ′ (−3) = 15 , f ′ (0) = −12 , f ′ (3) = 15

R. Klages (QMUL) MTH4100 Calculus 1 Week 8 18 / 35

 Lecture 20

Summary: identifying monotonicity on subintervals

intervals −∞ < x < −2 −2 < x < 2 2<x <∞

sign of f’ + - +
behaviour of f increasing decreasing increasing

R. Klages (QMUL) MTH4100 Calculus 1 Week 8 19 / 35

 Lecture 20

First derivatives and local extrema

example:

whenever f has a minimum, f ′ < 0 to the left and f ′ > 0 to the right
whenever f has a maximum, f ′ > 0 to the left and f ′ < 0 to the right
⇒ At local extrema, the sign of f ′ (x) changes!

MTH4100 Calculus 1 Week 8 20 / 35

Checking for local extrema

R. Klages (QMUL) MTH4100 Calculus 1 Week 8 21 / 35

 Lecture 20

Using the first derivative test for local extrema

example: Find the critical points of f (x) = x 4/3 − 4x 1/3 . Identify the
intervals on which f is increasing and decreasing. Find the function’s
extrema.
4 4 4x −1
f ′ (x) = x 1/3 − x −2/3 =
3 3 3 x 2/3

⇒ x1 = 1 , x2 = 0
intervals x <0 0<x <1 1<x
sign of f’ - - +
behaviour of f decreasing decreasing increasing
Apply the first derivative test to identify local extrema:
f ′ does not change sign at x = 0 ⇒ no extremum
f ′ changes from − to + ⇒ local minimum

R. Klages (QMUL) MTH4100 Calculus 1 Week 8 22 / 35

 Lecture 20

Summary: geometrical picture

Since limx→±∞ = ∞, the minimum at x = 1 with f (1) = −3 is also an

absolute minimum.
Note that f ′ (0) = −∞!
R. Klages (QMUL) Week 8 23 / 35
 Lecture 21

Revision

increasing, decreasing, monotonicity

checking for local extrema

R. Klages (QMUL) MTH4100 Calculus 1

 Lecture 21

Concavity of a function
example:

intervals x <0 0<x

turning of curve turns to the right turns to the left
tangent slopes decreasing increasing
The turning or bending behaviour defines the concavity of the curve.
R. Klages (QMUL) MTH4100 Calculus 1 Week 8 25 / 35
Testing for concavity

If f ′′ exists, the last corollary of the mean value theorem implies that f ′
increases if f ′′ > 0 on I and decreases if f ′′ < 0:

MTH4100 Calculus 1 Week 8 26 / 35

 Lecture 21

Applying the concavity test

example 1:

y = x 3 ⇒ y ′′ = 6x
for (−∞, 0) it is y ′′ < 0:graph
concave down;
for (0, ∞) it is y ′′ < 0:
graph concave up

example 2:

y = x 2 ⇒ y ′′ = 2 > 0
graph is concave up
everywhere

R. Klages (QMUL)
Point of inflection

motivation: y = x 3 changes concavity at the point (0, 0); specify:

At a point of inflection it is y ′′ > 0 on one, y ′′ < 0 on the other side, and

either y ′′ = 0 or undefined at such point.
If y ′′ exists at an inflection point it is y ′′ = 0 and y ′ has a local maximum
or minimum.

R. Klages (QMUL) Week 8 28 / 35

 Lecture 21

Types of inflection points

example 1:
y = x 4 ⇒ y ′′ = 12x 2
y ′′ (0) = 0 but y ′′ does not
change sign:no inflection point
at x = 0!

example 2:
y = x 1/3
1 −2 ′
 
′′ 2 5
y = x 3 = − x− 3
3 9
y ′′ (0) = 0 and y ′′ does change
sign: inflection point at x = 0
but y ′′ (0) does not exist!
R. Klages (QMUL) MTH4100 Calculus 1 Week 8 29 / 35
Second derivatives at extrema
Look at second derivative instead of sign changes at critical points in order
to test for local extrema:

proof of 1. and 2.:

proof of 3.:
consider y = −x 4 , y = x 4 and
y = x 3 as examples.
In this case use first derivative
test to identify local extrema.

R. Klages (QMUL) MTH4100 Calculus 1 Week 8 30 / 35

 Lecture 21

Summary: curve sketching

R. Klages (QMUL) MTH4100 Calculus 1 Week 8 31 / 35

 Lecture 21

Application: curve sketching

2
example: Sketch the graph of f (x) = (x+1)
1+x 2
.
1 The natural domain of f is(−∞, ∞); no symmetries about any axis.

2 calculate derivatives:

f ′ (x) = [calculation on whiteboard]

2(1 − x 2 )
=
(1 + x 2 )2

f ′′ (x) = [calculation on whiteboard]

4x(x 2 − 3)
=
(1 + x 2 )3

3 critical points: f ′ exists on (−∞, ∞) with f ′ (±1) = 0 and

f ′′ (−1) = 1 > 0, f ′′ (1) = − 1 < 0:
(−1, 0) is a local minimum and (1, 2) a local maximum.
R. Klages (QMUL) MTH4100 Calculus 1 Week 8 32 / 35
 Lecture 21

Example continued 1

4 On (−∞, −1) it is f ′ (x) < 0: curve decreasing; on (−1, 1) it is

f ′ (x) > 0: curve increasing; on (1, ∞) it is f ′ (x) < 0: curve
decreasing
√ √
5 f ′′ (x) = 0 if x√= ± 3 or 0; f ′′ < 0 on (−∞, −√ 3): concave down;
f ′′ > 0 on (− ′′
√ 3, 0): concave up; f < 0 on (0, 3): concave down;
′′
f > 0 on ( 3, ∞): concave up. Each point is a point of inflection.
6 calculate asymptotes:

(x + 1)2 x 2 + 2x + 1 1 + 2/x + 1/x 2

f (x) = = =
1 + x2 1 + x2 1/x 2 + 1

f (x) → 1+ as x → ∞ and f (x) → 1− as x → −∞: y = 1 is a

horizontal asymptote. No vertical asymptotes.

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 Lecture 21

Example continued 2

8 sketch the curve:

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 Lecture 21

Learning about functions from derivatives

R. Klages (QMUL) MTH4100 Calculus 1