1. The pituitary gland controls and starts the cycle.

2. The pituitary gland releases hormones that cause the egg in the ovary to mature.
The luteinizing hormone (LH) initiates the maturation of the follicles, converts
ruptured follicles into corpus luteum and causes the secretion of the progesterone.
The follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) assists in the maturation of the follicles and
causes the secretion of estrogen from the follicles.
3. Meanwhile, the ovary itself releases a hormone called estrogen, which causes the
uterine lining to increase in thickness. The uterine lining becomes thicker so that
the fertilized egg can attach to it.
4. The ovary releases an egg on day 14. Assume that no sperm is present.
5. The egg moves through the oviduct and enters the uterus.
6. Meanwhile the uterine lining continues to thicken.
7. The egg has not been fertilized; therefore, it will not attach to the uterus.
8. The thick uterine lining is no longer necessary, so the cells of the thickened uterine
lining break off and leave the vagina. The unfertilized egg is lost, and some blood
is lost too. This loss of cells from the uterine lining, blood, and egg is called
menstruation.
9. After menstruation, the cycle starts again.
 Endocrine Glands and their Hormones
Glands Location Hormones Function
Pituitary At the base of the Oxytocin, Stimulates growth,
brain Vasopressin, Growth and controls the
Hormones, functions of other
Adrenocorticotropic glands
Hormones (ACTH),
Prolactin,
Luteinizing
Hormone, Follicle
Stimulating
Hormone (FSH)

Thyroid Below the voice box Thyroxin, Calcitonin Regulates body

metabolism, and
causes storage of
the calcium in
bones
Parathyroid In the neck Parathyromone Controls the calcium
levels in your body,
and normalize bine
growth
Thymus In front of the heart Thymosin Enables the body to
produce certain
anti-bodies
Adrenal On top of the kidney Adrenaline Prepares the body
for actions, controls
the heart rate and
breathing in times
of emergency
Pancreas Between the Insulin Regulates blood
kidneys sugar levels
Reproductive Lower abdomen
Tastes(male) -Androgen, -control maturation
Testosterone and male
Ovaries (Female) -Estrogen, characteristics
Progesterone -influence female
traits, and support
reproductive
function
 Heredity: Inheritance and Variation
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

 Composed of three types of component molecule

 Phosphate
 Sugar (deoxyribose)
 Bases
 Adenine (A)
 Thymine (T)
 Cytocine (C)
 Guanine (G)
 There are three molecules that form the basic building block of DNA, the
nucleotides
 Each nucleotide is composed of one phosphate group, and one of the four
bases.
 Across the strands of the helix, A always pairs with T, and G always pairs with C.
 This is double stranded
 The function of DNA is to provide information how our cells are manufactured
 We can find our DNA in every cell of our body.

RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)

 Composed of three types of components

 Phosphate
 Sugar (ribose)
 Base
 Adenine
 Uracil
 Guanine
 Cytocine
 Single stranded

TYPES

1. mRNA (messenger RNA)

 Carry the based off of the DNA
2. rRNA (ribosomal RNA)
  Responsible for reading the order of amino acids and linking amino acids
together
3. tRNA (transfer RNA)
 Transfer amino acids to match the correct mRNA codon

 When the amino acids are joined together, they make a polypeptide chain. Proteins
are made of one or more of these polypeptide chains, and protein has tons of
different roles.

REPLICATION

 The process of copies of DNA

 When DNA replicates, two identical copies of DNA molecules are produced which
are exactly the same as the original.

TRANSCRIPTION

 It is the process by which the information in a strand of DNA is copied into a new
molecule of messenger RNA.

TRANSLATION

 It is the process by which the mRNA codes for particular protein

 The process of coding in the codon to its corresponding amino acid.

MUTATION

 Changes in the Genetic Code

 When the code in a gene is changed, a different message may result any changes
in the transcription of genetic information from DNA to RNA or pairing of the codon
and anticodon, may cause changes in the kind, sequence and number of amino
acids of proteins synthesized by cells.
 Changes in the genes can occur for a variety of reasons. Mutation may be induced
by factors called Mutagens
▫ Mutagens are commonly in the form of toxic chemicals, and harmful
radiation.
 Mutation can occur in two different types of cells: reproductive cells and body cells.
▫ Mutations affect the reproductive cells of an organism by changing the
sequence of an organism by changing the sequence of nucleotides within a
gene in a sperm or an egg cell. If these are fertilized, then the mutated gene
becomes a part of the genetic makeup of the offspring.

TYPES

1. Gene mutation- is a permanent change in the DNA sequence that makes up a

gene.
 2. Chromosomal Mutation- occurs at the chromosome level resulting in gene deletion,
duplication or rearrangement that may occur during the cell cycle and meiosis. It
may cause parts of chromosomes breaking off or rejoining incorrectly.

HARMFUL EFFECTS

 In body cells it can cause cancer.

 In sex cell can cause birth defects.
 A severe mutation may lead to cell death and may have no effect on the body.

KINDS OF MUTATION

1. TRANSLOCATION- it means a change in location. It often refers to genetics, when

part of a chromosome is transferred to another chromosome.
2. DELETION- it means when one chromosome was deleted. It involves the loss of any
number of nucleotides, from a single nucleotide to an entire piece of a
chromosome.
3. INVERTION- occurs when a section of DNA break aways from a chromosome during
the reproductive process and then reattaches to the chromosome in reversed
order.

 Abnormalities in chromosomal structure may occur during meiosis

 The normal process of crossing- over and recommendation may be affected, such
that chromosome break and reunite the wrong segments. If there is a loss or gain
of chromosomal material, then there can be significant clinical consequences.
 Changes that can affect many genes along the chromosome and disrupt the
proteins made from these genes.
 These changes can affect many genes along the chromosome and disrupt the
proteins made from these genes.
 The effect of structural changes depends on their size and location, and whether
any genetic material is gained or lost.
 This gain or loss of chromosomes material can lead to a variety of genetic
disorders.

EXAMPLE OF MUTATIONS.

1. Cru di chat
 Caused by the deletion of part of the short arm of chromosome 5.
 It is French and the condition is named because affected babies make high-
pitched cries that sound like a cat.
 Affected individuals have wide set eyes, a small head and jaw, are moderately
to severely mentally retarded, and very short.
2. Downs syndrome
  Usually caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21.
 Characteristics include decreased muscle tone, stockier build: asymmetrical
skull, slanting eyes and mild to moderate mental retardation.
3. Edward's syndrome
 It is a trisomy of chromosome 18.
 Symptoms include mental and motor retardation and numerous congenital
annomalies causing serious health problems.
 About 99% die in infancy, those who love past their first birthday usually are
quite healthy, therefore.
 They have a characteristics hand appearance with clenched hands and
overlapping fingers.
4. Jacobsen syndrome
 Also called terminal 11q deletion disorders. This is a very rare disorder.
 Most have a breeding disorder called Paris-Trousseau syndrome.
5. Klinefelter’s syndrome
 Men with this condition are usually sterile and trend to have longer arms and
legs and to be taller than their peers.
 They are often shy and quiet and have a higher incident of speech delay.
6. Turner’s syndrome
 Female sexual characteristics are present but underdeveloped.
 They often have a short structure, lox hairline, abnormal aye features and bone
development and a “caved-in” appearance to the chest.

 Kinetic engineering is a process that uses laboratory-based technology to alter the

DNA make up of an organism.
 BIODIVERSITY AND EVOLUTION
EVOLUTION
 Change in species over time
 Organism's structures, traits and abnormalities allowed them to adopt and survive.

THEORIES OF EVOLUTION

1. Jean Baptiste de Lamarck

 The first evolutionist to believe that organisms change over time.

A. Theory of Needs
 Organisms change in response to their environment
 Their ability to survive hellped them develop characteristics necessary for
them to adapt in each environment.
 Their ability to survive helped them to adapt in each environment.
B. Theory of Use and Disuse
 Organs not in use will develop
C. Theory of Acquired Characteristics
 Acquired characteristics were believed to be inherited by their offsprings
and propagated by the next generation.
 Changes in a cell or body structure, there could be changes in the genetic
information of the genes.

2. Charles Darwin
A. Theory of Natural Selection
 Giraffe species vary in neck lengths originally, but natural
selection favored the survival of giraffes with longer necks, that could feed on
taller trees.
  In Galapos Island. He observed that finish species have different beak structures
for different food types.
 Environmental factors promote the survival of the fittest and eliminate the less
fit.

EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION

[Link]

 Traces of organisms that lived in the past and were preserved by natural process.
 They can remain of organisms which include bones, shells, teeth and also feces
embedded in rocks, peat, resin and ice.

 Paleontologists are person who studies fossils

 Relative dating- method used to determine the image of rocks by comparing with
the rocks in the other layer.
 This suggests that invertebrates are probably one of the first and oldest organisms
that live fossils found at the bottom part of the rock layer.

2. Comparative anatomy

 Structures from different species which have similar internal framework, position,
and embryonic development are considered to be homologous.

a. Homologous
 Divergent; different function but the same structure.

b. Analogous

 Convergent; same function but different structures.

♦ Divergent- splitting of an ancestral population into 2 or more sub-populations in

different places.
♦ Convergence- increase in similarities among species derived from different
ancestors as a result of similar environment

3. Embryonic development
 Early stage of development in organisms.
 Species closely related exhibit similar embryonic development in adult stage.

4. Molecular Biology (DNA)

 Biochemical analysis and amino acid sequence of organisms
BIODIVERSITY
 Variation of organisms living in one area
 Ecosystem-stability (balance)- exist in long time

TYPES OF VALUES

1. Direct economic value

 Their products are sources of food, medicine, clothing and so on.
2. Indirect economic value
 There are benefits produced by the organisms without using them.
3. Aesthetic value
 Provides visual or artistic enjoyment like a natural park.

POPULATION
 Biodiversity is very important because it sustains through flow of energy that food
web on earth and contributes to environmental stability
 Stability of an ecosystem can be described as the resilience to withstand changes
that may occur in the environment.
 There are many changes that occur in the environment which may be a result of
natural or human activities.
 The changes may severely reduce biodiversity and result in the instability of the
ecosystem.

Population

 A group of organisms of the same species that live in a certain area.

 An Ecologist is the person that monitors the population in one place.

FACTORS THAT CAN CAUSE A POPULATION’S SIZE TO CHANGE

1. Birth rate (natality)

 The number of births in population
2. Death rate (mortality)
 The number of organisms that are dying in a population.

 If the bith rate is greater than the death rate, a population will grow but if the
death rate is greater than the birth rate, than the population will decrease.
 o Exponential growth- unlimited resources and increase of population at a constant
rate.
o Logistic growth- population slows down.
o Carrying Capacity- the number of capacity that the place can sustain

Population density

 Refers to the number of organisms per unit area

 If a population’s density is very high, that means there are a lot of organisms
crowded into a certain area.
 If the population’s density is low, that means that there are very few organisms in
an area.

FACTORS AFFECTING POPULATION DENSITY

1. Density- dependent Limiting Factors

 Factor that regulates a population’s growth and is influenced by population
density.
 Examples are the parasites
2. Density- independent limiting factors.
 If the population’s density does not directly influence changes in population’s
growths
 Examples are natural disasters, temperature, sunlight, and the activities of
humans

LIMITING FACTORS THAT DEPEND ON POPULATION DENSITY

1. Disease and parasites

 Infectious diseases and parasites spread faster in densely populated areas

2. Competition of resources.
 Organisms with better adoptions to obtain resources will be able to reproduce
more often and its population will grow.

3. Predation-
 Plenty of prey are available, predators will be able to eat sufficiently, thus have
energy to reproduce much and increase the numbers.
4. Emigration
 It occurs when a population approaches it carrying capacity, and individuals
and organisms leave and go to a new enough resource for survival
reproduction.