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NANDHA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, ERODE – 52.

FIRST YEAR BASIC SCIENCES

SEMESTER – I

BASIC PHYSICS [PH231330]

English Medium
Study Material

Name : .........................................................................................

Roll no : .........................................................................................

Dept : ..........................................................................................

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UNIT - 1
UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS
1. What are the fundamental quantities? Write down all the seven fundamental quantities
and their units.
The quantities which cannot be expressed in terms of any other physical quantities are
called Fundamental quantities.
Example : Length , Mass , Time.
Fundamental quantities and their units:
[Link] Physical Quantity Unit Symbol
1 Length metre m
2 Mass kilogram kg
3 Time second s
4 Temperature Kelvin K
5 Electric current ampere A
6 Luminous Intensity candela cd
7 Amount of Substance mole mol

2. What are the derived quantities? Write down the derived quantities SI units and
dimensional formula.
The physical quantities which can be expressed in terms of Fundamental quantities are
called derived quantities.
Example : Area , Volume , Density.
Some derived quantities are given below:
S. Physical Dimensional
Expression SI UNIT
No quantity Formula
1 Area side x side meter 2 m2 L2
2 Volume side x side x side metre 3 m3 L3
3 Density mass / volume kilogram / metre 3 kg m - 3 M L-3
4 Velocity displacement / time metre / second m s -1 L T -1
5 Acceleration velocity / time metre / second 2 m s -2 L T -2
6 Momentum mass x velocity kilogram x metre / second kg m s - 1 M L T -1
kilogram x metre / second 2
7 Force mass x acceleration N M L T -2
(or) newton
8 Impulse force x time newton second Ns M L T -1
Work /
9 force x displacement Joule J M L2 T - 2
Energy
10 Power work / time watt W M L -2 T - 3
11 Pressure force / area newton / metre 2 N m-2 M L T -1

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3. Explain the multiples and submultiples and prefixes of SI units.

[Link] Multiplication Factor Prefix Symbol

1 10 - 18 atto a
2 10 - 15 femto f
3 10 - 12 pico p
4 10 - 9 nano n
5 10 - 6 micro µ
6 10 - 3 milli m
7 10 - 2 centi c
8 10 - 1 deci d
9 10 1 deca da
10 10 2 hecto h
11 10 3 kilo K
12 10 6 mega M
13 10 9 giga G
14 10 12 tera T
15 10 15 peta P
16 10 18 exa E

4. Explain the use of Screw Gauge and Vernier Caliper with figure in measuring small
distances. (or) List out the industrial applications of screw gauge and vernier calliper.

SCREW GAUGE VERNIER CALIPER

1. It is used for measuring the diameter 1. It is used for measuring the inner and
of a thin wire and thickness of a metal outer diameter of round objects, depth
sheet. of a hole.
2. Measuring range : 0.01 mm to 50 mm. 2. Measuring range : 0.01 cm to 50 cm.
3. Principle : magnification of linear 3. Principle : alignment of certain numeral
motion using the circular motion lines.
4. Least Count : 0.01 mm 4. Least Count : 0.01 cm
5. Parts : i) Pitch Scale (PSR) 5. Parts : i) Main Scale (MSR)
ii) Head Scale (HSC) ii) Vernier Scale (VSC)
6. Errors : 6. Errors :
i) Positive Error i) Positive Error
ii) Negative Error ii) Negative Error

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SCREW GAUGE VERNIER CALIPER

6. Industrial Applications : 6. Industrial Applications :

1) To measure the diameter of a given 1) In Automobile , measures the depth

wire. and thickness of small parts.
2) To measure the thickness of a glass 2) In Medical , surgical tools.
or metal sheet. 3) In Aviation , ensure the safety
3) To measure the diameter of a lead standards of the small parts using
shot. the flying function.
4) To measure the volume of an 4) In research , measure the expansion
irregular glass plate of uniform of metal and metallic products.
thickness. 5) In Steel , measure the holes and
5) Industrial process control. width of the pipes , etc.

5. Explain the various types of errors in measurement. (or)

Write a note on systematic errors and random errors in measurement.
Error :
 The uncertainty in a measurement is called an error.
 The errors are mainly classified as ,
1) Systematic Error and
2) Random Error.
1) Systematic Error :
 Every measurement will differ from the true measurement in the same
direction. The difference is called systematic error.
 This error occurs due to the person performing the experiment , imperfect
instrument calibration and environment interference.

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 Systematic error can be classified as follows ,

1. Instrumental errors
2. Imperfections in experimental procedure
3. Personal errors
4. External causes
5. Least count error.
2) Random Error :
 Random errors are those errors which occur irregularly.
 It may arise due to random and unpredictable conditions like pressure ,
temperature, voltage supply , ect.
 It also called as Chance error.
6) Write a note on Absolute error and Relative error. (or) Explain about error analysis.
 The main purpose of error analysis is to check whether the result of the
experiment agrees with the theoretical prediction.
1) Absolute error :
The magnitude of difference between the true value and the measured value of a
quantity.
Absolute error = True value - Measured value.
For example,
The true length of the hall = 12 m
But, measured value = 11.65
The absolute error = 12 - 11.65
= 0.35 m
In an experiment , a1 , a2 , a3 ..... an are the measured values for n times.
a1+ a2 + a3+ … + an
am =
n
am is the true value.
The absolute error in each values given by,
𝛥𝑎1 = 𝑎𝑚 − 𝑎1
𝛥𝑎2 = 𝑎𝑚 − 𝑎2
𝛥𝑎3 = 𝑎𝑚 − 𝑎3
−−−−−−
𝛥𝑎n = 𝑎𝑚 − 𝑎𝑛

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The mean absolute error is,

𝜟𝒂𝟏 + 𝜟𝒂𝟐 + 𝜟𝒂𝟑 + … + 𝜟𝒂𝒏
𝚫𝐚𝐦 =
𝒏

2) Relative error :
The ratio of mean absolute error and the true value is called relative error.
Mean absolute error
Relative Error =
True value
𝚫 𝐚𝐦
=
𝐚𝐦

7. Explain error propagation , error estimation and error precautions. (or)

What are the precaution to avoid systematic and random errors ? (or)
Write the precautions that should be made during an a experiment.

Error Propagation :
 Different types of instruments might have been used for taking readings.
 The error in the final results depends on ,
i) Individual measurements and
ii) Mathematical operator
 Types :
1) Errors in the sum of two quantities.
2) Errors in the difference of two quantities.
3) Errors in the product of two quantities.
4) Errors in the division of two quantities.
5) Errors in the power of two quantities.

Error Estimation :
 Error Estimation is the process to determine the errors using various statistical
methods.
 It can helps to measure the accurate readings.

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Error Precautions :
 A precaution is something that you can do to reduce the error of the results.
1) Minimize the measurement errors.
2) Use quality equipment.
3) Calibrate your equipment properly.
4) Properly train the lab staff.
5) Controlled environment.
6) Double check the reading.
 Precautions used in Engineering field
1) Electrical safety
2) Fire safety
3) Chemical safety
4) Machine safety
5) Construction site safety

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UNIT - 2

STATICS

1. Explain how to resolve a vector quantity into two rectangular (perpendicular)

components.

 Consider a force R acting at the point ‘ O ’

 The magnitude and direction of R is represented by ‘ OC ‘
 Draw a rectangle OACB.
 OA represents horizontal component of the force.
 OB represents vertical component of the force.

In Δ OAC,
OA
Cos θ =
OC
OC Cos θ = OA
but OC = R ,
R Cos θ = OA
The Horizontal component of the force OA = R Cos θ

In Δ OAC,
OB
Sin θ = [AC = OB]
OC
OC Sin θ = OB
but OC = R ,
R Sin θ = OB
The Vertical component of the force OB = R Sin θ

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2. Describe an experiment to verify parallelogram law of forces.

The experimental arrangement is shown in the figure.

Procedure :
1) Two pulleys are fixed on the wooden board.
2) Two strings are passed over the pulleys.
3) Third string is left freely.
4) Three weight hangers P, Q , R suspended at the end of the strings.
5) Drawing sheet is fixed on the board.
6) Directions of the strings are marked on the paper.
7) Draw the lines OA , OB , OC , OD .
8) Complete the parallelogram OADB.
9) The length OD and angle COD are measured.
10) The readings are tabulated.
11) The experiment is repeated for repeated weights.

S. No P Q R OA OB OC OD COD
1.
2.
3.

In all cases, Equilibrant = Resultant

OC = OD
COD = 1800
Hence, the parallelogram law of force is verified.

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3. Describe an experiment to verify the Lami’s theorem. (or) Prove Lami’s theorem.

The experimental arrangement is shown in the figure.

Procedure :
1) Two pulleys are fixed on the wooden board.
2) Two strings are passed over the pulleys.
3) Third string is left freely.
4) Three weight hangers P, Q , R suspended at the end of the strings.
5) Drawing sheet is fixed on the board.
6) Directions of the strings are marked on the paper.
7) Draw the lines P, Q , R and
8) Find the angles α , β , γ.
9) The readings are tabulated.
10) The experiment is repeated for different weights.

𝑷 𝑸 𝑹
S. No P Q R α β γ
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛃 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛄
1.
2.
3.

In all cases,
𝐏 𝐐 𝐑
= =
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛃 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛄

Hence, the Lami’s theorem is verified.

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4) Describe an experiment to determine the mass of a given body by using principle of

moments.

The experimental arrangement is shown in the figure.

Procedure :
1) A meter scale is placed on the knife edge.
2) A known mass m1 is suspended at point A .
3) A given unknown mass m2 is suspended at point B .
4) The distances d1 and d2 are adjusted until the scale is balanced.
5) The experiment is repeated by changing the values of m1 .
6) The readings are tabulated.

𝒎𝟏 𝒅 𝟏
S. No m1 d1 d2 m2 =
𝒅𝟐

By using the principle of moments ,

Sum of clockwise moments = Sum of anti clockwise moments
m1 x d1 = m2 x d2
𝒎𝟏 𝐱 𝒅 𝟏
m2 =
𝒅𝟐

The unknown mass m2 is calculated using the above formula.

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UNIT - 3
DYNAMICS

1. Explain the Newton’s law of motion.

First Law :
An object will not change its rest or motion unless an external force acts on it.
Examples :

i) A book resting on a table.

ii) A ball rolling down a hill will continue to roll unless friction or another
force stops it.

Second Law :
The force on an object is equal to its mass times its acceleration.
F = ma
Examples :

i) Pushing a car and a truck.

ii) Kick the ball.

Third Law :
For every action, there is always an equal and opposite reaction.
Examples :
i) A horse pulls a cart.
ii) A person walks on the ground.
iii) Hammer pushes a nail.

2. Write the fundamental equations of motion for objects (i) moving in horizontal , (ii)
falling freely , (iii) thrown vertically upwards.

1) Horizontal equation of motion : (Straight line motion)

Consider a body moving along a straight line in horizontal direction.
Examples :
a) A car moving along straight road.
b) A bullet fired from a gun.

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S displacement
t time
u initial velocity
v final velocity
a acceleration
The equation of motion,
i) v = u + a t
ii) v 2 = u 2 + 2 a s
𝟏
iii) s = u t + a t 2
𝟐
The above three equations are called the fundamental equation of motion.
2) Falling freely :
Consider a body falling freely from the height in vertically downward direction.
Examples :
a) Fruit Falling from the Tree.
b) Sky Diving.

The equation of motion becomes,

u=0,a=+g
i) v = g t
ii) v 2 = 2 g s
𝟏
iii) s = gt2
𝟐
3) Vertically thrown :
Consider a body is vertically move or thrown in upward direction.
Examples :
a) Bouncing ball.
b) Elevator ride.
The equation of motion becomes,
a=-g,v=0
i) u = g t
ii) u2 = 2 g s
𝟏
iii) s = gt2
𝟐

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3. Explain the projectile motion.

 A body is thrown into space with some initial velocity in a particular direction is
called projectile motion.
Examples :
a) Javelin throw.
b) Motion of cricket ball.

Consider a body is projected from the point P with initial velocity v .

In the above figure ,
H Maximum height
R Range
T Time of flight
PAQ Trajectory.
θ Angle of projection

Maximum height : The maximum vertical displacement of the projectile.

Trajectory : The path of the projectile is called trajectory.
Time of flight : The time taken from beginning of projection to the end of projection.
Range: The distance between the point of projection and the end of projection.
 The condition for maximum range is 450 .
 The path of the projectile is a Parabola.
 The following assumptions are made in the projectile motion.
i) The g value is constant throughout the motion.
ii) The air resistance is negligible.

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4. Derive an expression of relation between linear velocity and angular velocity. (or)
Show that V = r ω.

 Let us Consider a particle is in circular motion from the point O .

 r is the radius of the circle.
 t is the time taken from point A to B.
 θ is the angle turned in t seconds , then angular velocity
𝛉
ω =
𝒕
Linear velocity of the particle is ,
𝐀𝐁
V =
𝐭
𝐫𝛉
V = (AB = 𝛉 )
𝐭
V = rω

5. Write the applications of centripetal and centrifugal force.

Centripetal force Centrifugal force

1. The force acts towards the axis of 1. The force acts outwards from the
rotation or centre of the circle in the axis of rotation or outwards from the
circular motion. centre of circular motion.
2. F = m r ω 2 2. F = - m r ω 2
3. Example : 3. Example :
 The moon revolving around  Vehicle driving around a curve.
the earth.
 Mud flying of a tire.
 A satellite orbiting a planet.

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Centripetal force Centrifugal force

4. Applications : 4. Applications :
1) Banking of curved roads. 1. Centrifugal pumps
2) Washing machine dryer. 2. Centrifugal clutches
3) Cream separator. 3. Isotope seperation
4) Motion on a vertical circle. 4. Seperation of blood constituents.
5) Bending of cyclist round a curve. 5. Generate artificial gravity

6. Explain the working of centrifuge device with diagram.

 Centrifuges work by separating out two materials with different densities.

 It separates the components of liquid or fluid using the centrifugal force.
 There are two basic assemblies to all centrifuges,
i) The rotor assembly
ii) Electrical motor
 The rotor assembly part of the centrifuge transfer the rotational motion produced
by Electrical motor which rotates with high speed.
 A centrifuge work on the principle of sedimentation process under the
gravitational force in order to separate the substances.
 The extraction of fat from milk in order to produce the skimmed milk.
 The spin - drying of water in a washing machine to remove the water from the
washed clothes.
 The separation of solid blood and urine materials in to forensic and testing
laboratories.

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7. Explain simple pendulum and also obtain an expression for frequency of oscillation in
simple pendulum.

 A simple pendulum consists of mass less and inelastic thread.

 One end is fixed on the rigid support.
 A small bob (m) is suspended in the other end of the thread.
 Let , l be the length of the pendulum.
 The bob is slightly displaced and released , it oscillates about its equilibrium
position.
F = - m g sin θ
F = - mg θ (sin θ is very small, sin θ = θ)
𝒙
but , θ =
ℓ
𝒙
F = -mg
ℓ
Comparing this equation with Newton’s second law , F = m a
𝒙
a = -g
ℓ
2
a = -ω 𝑥
𝑔 𝑔
ω2 = , ω = √
ℓ ℓ
The time period T = 2π/ω
𝓵
T = 2π√
𝐠
Therefore the frequency of oscillation ,
1 𝟏 𝒈
n = , n = √
T 𝟐𝛑 𝓵

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8. Describe an experiment to determine the acceleration due to gravity (g) by using simple
pendulum.

Procedure :
1) A simple pendulum consists of mass less and inelastic thread.
2) One end is fixed on the rigid support.
3) A small bob (m) is suspended in the other end of the thread.
4) Let , l be the length of the pendulum.
5) The bob is slightly displaced and released , it oscillates about its equilibrium
position.
6) Note down the time taken (t) for 10 oscillations using stop watch.
7) The period of oscillation T = t/10 is calculated.
8) Repeat the experiment for different length of the pendulum.
9) Readings are tabulated.

Length of Time taken for 10 oscillations

the L
T T2
pendulum Trial - 1 Trial - 2 Average T2
L (m)

Find the value of acceleration due to gravity (g) using the given formula ,
𝟒 𝝅𝟐 𝓵
g = ms2
𝑻𝟐

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UNIT - 4
ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

1. Explain the Stress - Strain curve for material of a wire with neat diagram.

A graph is drawn taking Strain along X - axis and Stress along Y - axis.
The elastic characteristic of the materials can be analysed from the curve.
1) Portion OA :
 In this region, stress is very small.
 Hook’s law is valid.
 The point A is called proportional limit.
 Above this point A Hook’s law is not valid.
 Slope of OA gives the Young’s modulus of the wire.
2) Portion AB :
 In this region, stress increased by a very small amount.
 Stress is not proportional to the strain.
 The wire will regain its original length.
 The point B is called elastic limit.
 The region OAB represents the elastic behaviour of the material.
3) Portion BC :
 In this region, stress is increased.
 The wire will not regain its original length.
4) Portion CD :
 In this region, stress is increased the maximum level.
 Beyond the point D , the wire breaks.
 The corresponding point D is known as fracture point.
 The region BCDE represents the plastic behaviour of the material.

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2) Explain uniform and non-uniform bending of beams.

Uniform bending Non-Uniform bending

1) When a beam is bent in the form of 1) When a beam is bent in the form of a
an arc by applying load, the type of curve by applying load, the type of
bending is called uniform bending. bending is called non-uniform
2) The given beam is placed on the two bending.
knife edges at equal distance from its 2) The given beam is placed on the two
ends. knife edges at equal distance from its
3) The distance between the two knife ends.
edges is L . 3) The distance between the two knife
4) The beam is loaded with equal edges is L .
weights (W , W) at equal distances as 4) The beam is loaded (W) at mid point
shown in figure. as shown in figure.
5) For this action the beam is bent in the 5) For this action the beam is bent in the
form of an arc. form of a curve.
6) The bending is uniform at all points of 6) The bending is maximum at center of
the beam. the beam.
7) Hence , the radius of the curvature is 7) Hence , the radius of the curvature is
constant at every point. differ at every point.
8) This type of bending is called uniform 8) This type of bending is called
bending. non-uniform bending.

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3) Describe an experiment to determine the young’s modulus of a beam by uniform

bending method.

Procedure :
1) The given beam is placed on the two knife edges at equal distance from its ends.
2) The distance between the two knife edges is L .
3) The beam is loaded with equal weights (W , W) at equal distances as shown in figure.
4) A pin is fixed at the centre of the beam and travelling microscope is placed in front of
it.
5) Weights are added , For this action the beam is bent in the form of an arc.
6) The bending is uniform at all points of the beam.
7) Readings are noted.
8) Similarly, readings are taken while unloading and tabulated.
9) The breadth (b) and thickness (d) of the beams are measured.
10) The young’s modulus of the material is calculated by using this formula,
𝟑 𝐦 𝐠 𝐚 𝓵𝟐
E = Nm- 2
𝟐 𝐛 𝐝𝟑 𝐲

Load Microscope Reading

Elevation (𝑦)
in Kg Load increasing Load decreasing Mean

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4) Write the engineering applications of elasticity.

 Elastic materials are used in the field of
 Civil
 Mechanical
 Aeronautical and
 Materials engineering
 Elastic behaviour of materials used in the construction of buildings , bridges , beams ,
etc.
 It is used in determining the strength and load carrying ability of various engineering
parts.
 The bridges are designed do not bend much or break under the load of heavy traffic.
 The thickness of a metallic rope used in the crane are decided by the elastic limit and
maximum weight to be lifted.
 The metallic part of the machinery are never beyond elastic limit , otherwise they will
get deformed permenantly.

5) Describe the three moduli of Elasticity.

The modulus of elasticity is defined as the ratio of stress to the strain.
The three types of modulus are,
1) Young’s modulus (E)
2) Bulk modulus (k)
3) Rigidity modulus (η)
Young’s modulus (E) Bulk modulus (k) Rigidity modulus (η)

It is defined as the ratio of It is defined as the ratio of It is defined as the ratio of

linear stress to the linear bulk stress to the bulk shearing stress to the
strain. strain. shearing strain.
Young’s modulus Bulk modulus Rigidity modulus
linear stress Bulk stress shearing stress
= = =
linear strain Bulk strain shearing strain
F L F V F
Young’s modulus = X Bulk modulus = X Rigidity modulus =
A ℓ A ν Aθ

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UNIT - 5
HEAT
1. Write the properties of thermal radiation.
1) They have longer wavelength.
2) They are electromagnetic waves.
3) They are not visible.
4) They do not heat the medium passing through it.
5) It travels along straight line.
6) It travels with the speed of light. ( 3 x 108 ms-2)
7) It travels through vacuum.
8) It is reflected and refracted as light.
9) It obeys inverse square law.
10) It can be polarise and diffracted as light.
2. Explain the three types of heat transfer.
Heat is transmitted to one place to other by three different ways,
1) Conduction 2) Convection 3) Radiation
1) Conduction :
 Heat transfer from one place to another place without movement of
particles is called as conduction.
 It takes place in Solids , Liquids and Gases.
Example : Heating of steel rod.
Uses : Heating of utensils while cooking.
Heating of metallic plate in electric iron.
2) Convection :
 Heat transfer from one place to another place with movement of particles
is called as convection.
 It takes place in Liquids and Gases.
Example : Heating of water.
Uses : Air conditioner.
Refrigerator.
3) Radiation :
 Heat transfer from one place to another place without medium is called as
radiation.
Example : Solar radiation. Uses : Solar cooking , Solar charging.
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3. Explain different types of thermo dynamical process with examples. (or)

Explain Isothermal Change (Process) and Adiabatic Change (Process).
 When we heat the gas , there is a change in pressure and volume of the gas.
 According to changes there are two types of heat process.
They are , i) Isothermal Change ii) Adiabatic Change
Isothermal Process Adiabatic Process
1. Any change occurring in the pressure 1. Any change occurring in the pressure
and volume of a gas at constant and volume of a gas under thermally
temperature is known as isothermal isolated condition is known as adiabatic
change. change.

2. Consider a gas enclosed in a cylinder 2. Consider a gas enclosed in a cylinder

with a frictionless piston. with a frictionless piston.
3. The cylinder and piston are made up of 3. The cylinder and piston are made up of
conducting materials. insulating materials.
4. When piston moves downwards, 4. When piston moves downwards,
Pressure increases Pressure increases
Volume decreases Volume decreases
Temperature increases. Temperature increases.
5. The heat is transferred to the 5. The heat cannot flow to the
surroundings. So the temperature surroundings. The temperature changes
remains constant. It is called inside the system. The change is called
isothermal compression. adiabatic compression.
6. When piston moves upwards, 6. When piston moves upwards,
Pressure decreases Pressure decreases
Volume increases Volume increases
Temperature decreases. Temperature decreases.
7. The heat flows to the gas from 7. The heat cannot flow to the
surroundings. So the temperature surroundings. The temperature changes
remains constant. It is called inside the system. The change is called
isothermal expansion. adiabatic expansion.
8. PV = Constant 8. PVγ = Constant
9. P1 V1 = P2 V2 9. P1 V1γ = P2 V2γ
10. It is a slow process. 10. It is a quick process.

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4. State the laws of thermodynamics.

 Zeroth Law :
Two systems which are individually in thermal equilibrium, with a third one
are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
 First Law of thermodynamics:
Work and heat are different forms of energy , one can be converted into
another.
ΔQ = ΔW + ΔU
The amount of heat energy supplied to a system is equal to the sum of
change in internal energy of the system and work done by the system.
Second law of thermodynamics :
 Kelvin Statement :
It is impossible to obtain continuous supply of work from a body by cooling
it cooler than its surroundings.
 Clausius Statement :
It is impossible for a self acting machine without the help of any external
agency, to transfer heat from a low temperature body to a high
temperature body.
5. What are the properties of good conductor and poor conductor with examples.
Good Conductors :
Materials which having high thermal conductivity is called as good conductors.
Example : Copper, Silver, Steel, Iron, Mercury.
Poor Conductors :
Materials which having low thermal conductivity is called as bad (poor)
conductors.
Example : Rubber, Wood, Glass, Brick, Air.
Applications :
1) Cooking vessels and boilers are made of good conductors like Copper, Aluminium,
Iron.
2) The handles of cooking vessels are made of wood and ebonite.
3) To avoid heat loss we use thermo flask. It is made of double walled vessels.
4) To avoid cold in winter season, we wear woollen clothes.
5) Ice berks are covered with a saw dust to prevent melting.

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6. List out the heat conversions and their useful facts.

The relation between Celsius , Fahrenheit and Kelvin scales of temperature given by ,
𝐂 𝐅 − 𝟑𝟐 𝐊 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑
= =
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎

Scale Conversion Examples

Celsius - 0 1. Convert 27 0C into Kelvin scale.
F = 9/5 (0C) + 32
Fahrenheit
K = 0C + 273 = 27 + 273 = 300 K
0
Kelvin - Fahrenheit F = 9/5 ( K - 273 ) + 32 2. Convert 373 K into Celsius scale.
0
Fahrenheit - 0
C = K - 273 = 373 - 273 = 100 0C
C = 5/9 ( 0F - 32 )
Celsius 3. Convert 106 0F into Celsius scale.
0
Celsius - Kelvin K = 0C + 273 C = 5/9 ( 0F - 32 ) = 5/9 (106 - 32)
= 41 0C
0
Kelvin - Celsius C = K - 273
[Link] 100 0C into Fahrenheit
scale.
Fahrenheit - Kelvin K = 5/9 ( F - 32 ) + 273 0F = 9/5 (0C) + 32 = 9/5 (100) + 32
0

= 212 0F

 Water boils at 100 0C or 212 0F

 Water freezes at 0 0C or 32 0F
 Absolute zero is 0 K
 Celsius and Fahrenheit are the same at - 400
 Celsius and Fahrenheit are degree scales.
 The degree symbol is not used to Kelvin scale.

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UNIT - 1
UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS

1. What are fundamental quantities ? Give example.

The quantities which cannot be expressed in terms of any other physical quantity are
called as fundamental quantities.
Example : Length , Mass , Time.
2. What are derived quantities ? Give example.
The quantities which can be expressed in terms of any other physical quantity are
called as derived quantities.
Example : Area , Volume , Velocity.
3. Write the dimensional formula for length, mass and time.
Length - L
Mass - M
Time - T
4. What is least count ?
The smallest value that can be measured by a measuring instrument is called least
count.
Least count of screw gauge is = 0.01 mm
Least count of vernier calliper is = 0.01 cm
5. Define Error.
The uncertainty in a measurement is called an error.
6. What is absolute error ?
The magnitude of difference between the true value and the measured value of a
quantity is called absolute error.
Absolute error = True value - measured value.
7. Define relative error ?
The ratio of mean absolute error and true value of the quantity is called relative
error.
mean absolute error
Relative error =
true value
8. Define error estimation.
The process of using various statistical method to determine the error in experiment
is called error estimation.

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9. Give the expression and derive the dimensional formula and SI units for Velocity and
acceleration.
displacement 𝐦
SI Unit : Velocity = = = m s -1
time 𝐬
L
Dimensional Formula = = L T-1
T

velocity 𝐦 𝐬− 𝟏
SI Unit : acceleration = = = m s -2
time 𝐬
𝐋 𝐓− 𝟏
Dimensional Formula = = L T-2
T

10. Give the expression and derive the dimensional formula and SI units for Momentum
and Force.
SI Unit : momentum = mass x velocity = kg m s - 1
Dimensional Formula = M L T-1

SI Unit : Force = mass x acceleration = kg m s - 2 or Newton ( N )

Dimensional Formula = M L T-2

11. Give the expression and derive the dimensional formula and SI units for Work and
Power.
SI Unit : Work = Force x displacement = Joule ( J ) or kg m2 s - 2
Dimensional Formula = M L T-2 x L = M L 2 T-2

work done 𝐉
SI Unit : Power = = = Watt
time 𝐒
M L 2 T −2
Dimensional Formula = = M L 2 T-3
T

12. Give the expression and derive the dimensional formula and SI units for Energy and
Impulse.
SI Unit : Energy = Force x displacement = N m
Dimensional Formula = M L T - 2 x L = M L2 T - 2
SI Unit : Impulse = Force x time = Ns
Dimensional Formula = M L T-2 x T = M L T-1
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13. Define Unit

An accepted standard value is used to compare the value of physical quantity is
known as unit.
14. Name the measuring instruments used in daily life.
1) Scale 2) Clock 3) Thermometer 4) Speedometer 5) Measuring jar
15. Give the types of measurement.
There are two types of measurement. 1. Direct Method 2. Indirect Method.
16. What is systematic error ?
Every measurement will differ from the true measurement in the same direction. The
difference is called systematic error.
17. What are the causes or occurs in systematic error ?
It occurs i) Imperfect instrument calibration ii) Environment interference.
18. What is random error ?
The error will occur irregularly and hence random. It also called as chance error.
19. How random error arises in an experiment ?
It may arise due to random and unpredictable conditions like pressure , temperature,
voltage supply , ect.
20. One horse power is equal to how many watts ?
1 horse power = 746 watt
21. One calorie is equal to how many joules ?
1 calorie = 4.2 joule

UNIT - 2
STATICS

1. Define scalar quantities. Give example.

Physical quantities having only magnitude are called scalar quantities.
Example : mass, volume, density.
2. Define vector quantities. Give example.
Physical quantities having both magnitude and direction are called scalar quantities.
Example : velocity, acceleration, force.
3. Define concurrent forces.
Two or more forces acting at a point are called concurrent forces.
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4. Define coplanar forces.

Two or more forces acting on same plane are called coplanar forces.
5. Define resultant.
Resultant is a single force acting at the same point along with the other forces and it
gives the combined effect of all other forces.
6. Define equilibrant.
Equilibrant is a single force acting at a point along with the other forces, to keep the
point in equilibrium.
7. What is the relation between resultant and equilibrant ?
The resultant and equilibrant are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
8. State triangle law of forces.
If two forces at a point to be represented in magnitude and direction by the two
sides of a triangle , then the resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by
the third side of the triangle taken in opposite order.

9. State parallelogram law of forces.

If two forces at a point to be represented in magnitude and direction by the two
adjacent sides of a parallelogram , then the resultant is represented in magnitude
and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing through the point.

[Link] Lami’s theorem.

If three forces acting at a point in equilibrium , then each force is directly
proportional to the sine of the angle between the other two forces.

[Link] is couple ?
Two equal and opposite forces acting on a body form a couple.

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[Link] moment of force.

The product of the force and the perpendicular distance from the fixed point and the
line of action of the force.
[Link] torque.
The moment of couple is called as torque.
[Link] is meant by clockwise moment ?
The moments which try to rotate the body in clockwise direction is called clockwise
moments.
15. What is meant by anti-clockwise moment ?
The moments which try to rotate the body in anti-clockwise direction is called anti-
clockwise moments
[Link] principle of moment.
If a body is in equilibrium under the action of forces , sum of clockwise moment is
equal to sum of anti clockwise moments.
sum of clockwise moment = sum of anti clockwise moment

UNIT - 3
DYNAMICS
1. State Newton’s first law of motion.
An object will not change its rest or motion unless an external force acts on it.
Examples :
i) A book resting on a table.
ii) A ball rolling down a hill will continue to roll unless friction or
another force stops it.
2. State Newton’s Second law of motion.
The force on an object is equal to its mass times its acceleration.
F=ma
Examples :
i) Pushing a car and a truck.
ii) Kick the ball.
3. State Newton’s Third law of motion.
For every action, there is always an equal and opposite reaction.
Examples :
i) A horse pulls a cart. ii) Hammer pushes a nail.
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4. Write the fundamental (kinematic) equations of motion for a body in horizontal

motion.
i) v = u + a t
ii) v 2 = u 2 + 2 a s
𝟏
iii) s = u t + a t 2
𝟐

5. Write the fundamental (kinematic) equations of motion for a freely falling body.
i) v = g t
ii) v 2 = 2 g s
𝟏
iii) s = gt2
𝟐
6. Write the fundamental (kinematic) equations of motion for a body is thrown
vertically upwards.
i) u = g t
ii) u2 = 2 g s
𝟏
iii) s = gt2
𝟐
7. What is a projectile ?
A body is thrown into space with some initial velocity in a particular direction is
called projectile motion.
8. Define angle of projection.
Angle between the point of projection and direction of projection.
9. Define trajectory.
The path of the projectile is called trajectory.
[Link] maximum height of a projectile.
The maximum vertical displacement of the projectile is called maximum height of a
projectile.
[Link] time of flight of a projectile.
The time taken from beginning of projection to the end of projection.
[Link] range of a projectile.
The distance between the point of projection and the end of projection.
[Link] is the condition for maximum range ?
The condition for maximum range is 450 .
[Link] is circular motion ?
When a body is moving along a circular path is called circular motion.

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[Link] angular velocity.

The angle turned by the radius in one second is called angular velocity.
𝛉
ω =
𝐭
[Link] period of revolution.
The time taken for one complete revolution is called period of revolution.
𝟐𝛑
T =
𝛚
[Link] frequency of revolution.
Number of revolutions in one second is called frequency of revolution.
𝟏
n =
𝐓

[Link] the relation between linear velocity and angular velocity.

Linear velocity = radius of the circle x angular velocity.
v=rω
[Link] centripetal force.
The force acts towards the axis of rotation or centre of the circle in the circular
motion is called centripetal force.
F = m r ω2
[Link] centrifugal force.
The force acts outwards from the axis of rotation or outwards from the centre of
circular motion is called centrifugal force.
F = - m r ω2
[Link] simple harmonic motion.
It is a periodic motion and its acceleration is always directed towards a fixed point.
Example :
i) The vibrations of tuning fork.
ii) The vibrations of a stretched string.
[Link] Amplitude of simple harmonic motion (SHM).
The maximum displacement from the mean position is called amplitude of SHM.
[Link] period of simple harmonic motion (SHM)
The time taken for one complete oscillation is called period of SHM.
[Link] frequency of SHM.
The number of oscillations in one second is called frequency of SHM.

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UNIT - 4
ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

1. What is elasticity ?
The property of the body to regain its original shape after the removal of deforming
force.
2. What is plasticity ?
The property of the body does not to regain its original shape after the removal of
deforming force.
3. What are elastic bodies ? Give example.
The body which regain its original size or shape after the removal of deforming force
is called elastic bodies.
Example : Rubber , Quartz.
4. What are plastic bodies ? Give example.
The body which cannot regain its original size or shape after the removal of
deforming force is called plastic bodies.
Example : Plastic toys , Plastic vessels , Clay , Wax.
5. Define Stress.
Force acting per unit area.
𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞
Stress = N m-2
𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚
6. Define Strain.
The ratio of change in dimension to the original dimension is called strain.
7. State Hook’s law.
Within the elastic limit stress is directly proportional to strain.
Stress α Strain
8. Define Linear strain.
The ratio of change in length to the original length is called linear strain.
9. Define bulk strain
The ratio of change in volume to the original volume is called bulk strain.

[Link] elastic limit

The maximum value of the stress applied to the body up to which the body will
regain its original shape or size when the stress is removed.

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[Link] plastic limit.

The maximum value of the stress withstand by the body in the plastic region just
before the breaking point.
[Link] are the three types of modulus of elasticity ?
There are three types of modulus.
i) Young’s modulus ii) Bulk modulus iii) Rigidity modulus
[Link] young’s modulus.
It is defined as the ratio of linear stress to the linear strain.
linear stress
Young’s modulus (E) =
linear strain
[Link] bulk modulus.
It is defined as the ratio of bulk stress to the bulk strain.
bulk stress
Bulk modulus (K) =
bulk strain
[Link] Rigidity modulus.
It is defined as the ratio of shearing stress to the shearing strain.
shearing stress
Rigidity modulus (n) =
shearing strain

[Link] is the relation between three types of modulus.

1 1 3
+ =
3𝐾 𝑛 𝐸
[Link] Poisson’s ratio.
It is defined as the ratio of lateral strain to linear strain.
lateral strain
Poisson ratio (σ) =
linear strain

[Link] any two applications of elasticity.

i) It is mostly used in the field of architect of buildings, bridge.
ii) During the designing process.
[Link] is uniform bending ?
When a beam is bent in the form of an arc by applying load, the type of bending is
called uniform bending.
[Link] is non-uniform bending ?
When a beam is bent in the form of an curve by applying load, the type of bending is
called uniform bending.

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UNIT - 5
HEAT

1. What is heat ?
Heat is the total kinetic energy of all molecules of a body.
SI unit is Joules ( J ).
2. Define Temperature.
Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body.
SI unit is Kelvin ( K ).
3. What are the three scales used to measure the temperature ?
i) Centigrade (or) Celsius scale.
ii) Fahrenheit scale.
iii) Kelvin scale.

4. What are the two fixed points of thermometer on the Celsius and Fahrenheit scale.
Fixed Points
Celsius Fahrenheit Kelvin
(for water)
Boiling Point 100 0C 212 0F 373 K
Freezing Point 0 0C 32 0F 273 K
Absolute Zero - 273 0C - 459 0F 0 K

5. Give the relation between Celsius, Fahrenheit and Kelvin scales.

𝐂 𝐅 − 𝟑𝟐 𝐊 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑
= =
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
6. Convert 100 0C into Kelvin scale.
K = 0C + 273
K = 100 + 273
K = 373
7. Convert 106 0F into Celsius scale.
0
C = 5/9 ( 0F - 32 )
0
C = 5/9 ( 106 - 32 )
0
C = 5/9 ( 74 )
0
C = 370 / 9
0
C = 41.11

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8. Convert 373 K into Celsius scale.

0
C = K - 273
0
C = 373 - 273
0
C = 100
9. What are the three types of heat transfer.
i) Conduction ii) Convection iii) Radiation
10. What is Conduction ?
Heat transfer from one place to another place without movement of particles is
called as conduction.
Example : Heating of steel rod.
11. What is meant by Convection ?
Heat transfer from one place to another place with actual movement of particles is
called as convection.
Example : Heating of water.
12. What is meant by radiation ?
Heat transfer from one place to another place without medium is called as radiation.
Example : Solar radiation.
13. What are good conductors ? Give example.
Materials which having high thermal conductivity is called as good conductors.
Example :
Copper, Silver, Steel, Iron, Mercury.
14. What are Poor conductors ? Give example.
Materials which having low thermal conductivity is called as bad (poor) conductors.
Example :
Rubber, Wood, Glass, Brick, Air.
15. Write any two properties of thermal radiation.
i) They travel along straight line.
ii) They travel through vaccum.
16. Define specific heat capacity of a gas at constant pressure.
The quantity of heat required to increase the temperature of 1 mole of the gas
through 1 Kelvin at constant pressure.

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17. Define specific heat capacity of a gas at constant volume.

The quantity of heat required to increase the temperature of 1 mole of the gas
through 1 Kelvin at constant volume.
18. State first law of thermodynamics.
The amount of heat energy supplied to a system is equal to the sum of change in
internal energy of the system and work done by the system.
ΔQ = ΔW + ΔU
[Link] Kelvin statement of second law of thermodynamics.
It is impossible to obtain continuous supply of work from a body by cooling it cooler
than its surroundings.
[Link] Clausius statement of second law of thermodynamics.
It is impossible for a self acting machine without the help of any external agency, to
transfer heat from a low temperature body to a high temperature body.

[Link] Isothermal change.

Any change occurring in the pressure and volume of a gas at constant temperature is
known as isothermal change.
Example : Refrigerator, Heat Engine.
P1 V1 = P2 V2
[Link] Adiabatic change.
Any change occurring in the pressure and volume of a gas under thermally isolated
condition is known as adiabatic change.
Example : Compressors, Turbines.
P1 V1γ = P2 V2γ
[Link] Boyle’s law.
At constant temperature, the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to pressure.
𝟏
V α (or) PV = Constant
𝐏

[Link] is an Ideal gas ?

A gas whose molecules occupy negligible space and no interact with each other.
It is called as perfect gas and obeys all the gas laws at all temperature and pressure.
Examples :
Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Etc.

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