Introduction
The apparatus utilized in these experiments are collectively referred to as converters. Thr
ee kinds of converters exist: Buck (Step-Down), Boost (Step-Up), and Buck-Boost (Inver
ting) converters. Their role is to accept DC input and transform it into either a stepped-
up or stepped-down output by utilizing basic DC circuit arrangements as depicted in Figu
re 1. The primary element in these circuits is the switch (typically a MOSFET), which ca
n be conveniently utilized to adjust the switching frequency. This regulation of switching
frequency is referred to as PWM (Pulse Width Modulation).
Buck converters transform high voltage input into low voltage output with exceptional eff
iciency. In the “on” phase, the inductor accumulates energy, which it then dispenses whe
n the switch is turned off.
This ongoing toggling leads to a reduced average output voltage. Capacitors function to e
liminate the ripple from the switching process, providing a consistent DC output voltage.
The excellent efficiency of this converter results in reduced heat production, making it po
pular in applications like mobile phones and vehicles because of simple thermal
management.
Boost converters increase low voltage inputs to high
voltage outputs with exceptional efficiency. In the “on” phase, the inductor accumulates e
nergy, and when the switch is turned off, it discharges all the stored energy along with the
input voltage, leading to an increased average output voltage. Boost converters are utilize
d in various applications, including battery storage, LED drivers, and renewable energy s
ystems.
Buck-Boost (also known as) Inverting converters can step-up, or step-down based on the
application and can operate as a buck or boost according to the controller's duty cycle. It
generates an output with a voltage
polarity that is opposite to that of the source. If the duty cycle is below 50%, the
circuit functions as a buck converter, while if the duty cycle exceeds
Figure 1: Converter types
Buck converter
Results and Discussion
Figure 2: Gate and Load voltages Figure 3:Gate and Diode voltages
Figure 4:Gate and Switch voltages Figure 5:Gate and Inductor voltages
Figure 6: Gate voltage and Load current
Figure 7:Gate voltage and Diode current
Figure 8:Gate voltage and Switch current
Figure 9:Gate voltage and Inductor current
Results
Readings from the oscilloscope
V s =15 V
rms
I S =82.29 mA
rms
Vs avg(mean )
=15 V IS avg (mean )
=53.59 mA
f =1940 Hz D Duty cycle=40 %
V L =53.2 V
rms
VL avg (mean )
=53.6 V
I L =111.03 mA
rms
IL avg( mean)
=110.01 mA
V D =91.0 V
rms
VD avg (mean )
=−53.3 V
I D =88.29 mA
rms
ID avg( mean)
=65.17 mA
V SW =1.24 V
rms
V SW avg( mean)
=98.9V
I SW =82.29 mA I SW
rms avg (mean )
=53.59 mA
V L =75.0 V
rms
VL avg (mean )
=0.0143 V
I L =120.72mA
rms
IL avg( mean)
=114.38 mA
V Crms=V VC avg (mean )
=V
I C =37.49 mA
rms
IC avg( mean)
=2.7 mA
Calculations
We need to find RF, FF, Power(rms) and Power(avg).
√
V L = (V L
ac rms
) −( V L ) =√ ( 53.2 ) −( 53.6 ) =6.5V
2
dc ( avg )
2 2 2
VL 53.2
FF= rms
= =0.99
VL dc
53.6
VL 6.5
RF=√ ( FF )2−1= ac
= =0.121
VL dc
53.6
Prms =V L ∗I L =53.2∗¿
rms rms
Pavg =V L
( dc ) avg (mean )
∗I L avg (mean)
=53.6∗¿
Discussion
Oscilloscope readings demonstrate the Buck converter's effectiveness. The buck
converter efficiently lowers output voltage by using a diode, capacitor, and inductor. The
average voltage that reaches the output is reduced by the impedance of the inductor.
When the switch is closed, the voltage source influences the circuit; when the switch is
on, it is excluded, leaving only the inductor. This is how circuits differ when the switch is
on and off. It is evident that when the switch is closed, a voltage at the gate occurs, and
vice versa. This is so because a switch is closed when a positive voltage is applied across
a gate and opened when a negative or zero voltage is applied. In a similar manner, a
diode functions as an open circuit when negative polarity is applied across it and as a
wire with extremely little resistance when a positive voltage is applied. The waveforms of
gate voltage vs diode voltage and current show this. The diode does not conduct
electricity when the switch is closed, therefore a voltage is put across it. Nevertheless, the
switch's polarity is positive when it is opened, allowing the current to flow through it
with little resistance and bringing the voltage drop across it extremely near to zero. Due
to the lack of a voltage supply, the inductor's voltage and current waveforms indicate that
it is charging when the switch is closed and begins discharging when the switch is
opened. But there is a negative voltage at the inductor. This must happen in order to
provide an output with reduced voltage.
Boost Converter
Figure 11:Gate and Diode Voltages
Figure 12:Gate and Load Voltages
Figure 13:Gate and Switch Voltages Figure 14:Gate and Inductor Voltages
Figure 15:V gate and I load Figure 16: V gate and I diode
Figure 17:Vgate and I switch Figure 18:Vgate and I inductor
Figure 19:V gate and I capacitor
Results
Readings from oscilloscope
V s =15 V
rms
I S =782.9 mA
rms
Vs avg(mean )
=15 V IS avg (mean )
=771.9 mA
f =2120 Hz D Duty cycle=40 %
V L =2.20 V
rms
VL avg (mean )
=2.22 V
I L =454.64 mA
rms
IL avg( mean)
=457.71 mA
V D =1.25 V
rms
VD avg (mean )
=−741.82V
I D =583.15 mA
rms
ID avg( mean)
=448.48 mA
V SW =1.84 V
rms
V SW avg( mean)
=1.46 V
I SW =502.11mA I SW
rms avg (mean )
=312.32 mA
V L =1.07 V
rms
VL avg (mean )
=5.4 V
I L =782.9 mA
rms
IL avg( mean)
=771.9 mA
V Crms=V VC avg (mean )
=V
I C =387.3 mA
rms
IC avg( mean)
=−10.6 mA
We need to find RF, FF, Power(rms) and Power(avg).
√
V L = (V L
ac rms
) −( V L ) =√ ( 2.20 ) −( 2.22 ) =0.29 V
2
dc ( avg )
2 2 2
VL 2.20
FF= rms
= =0.99
VL dc
2.22
VL 0.29
RF=√ ( FF )2−1= ac
= =0.13
VL dc
2.22
Prms =V L ∗I L =2.2∗¿ rms rms
Pavg =V L ( dc ) avg (mean )
∗I L avg (mean)
=2.22∗¿
Discussion
Oscilloscope readings demonstrate the Boost converter's usefulness. The boost converter
differs from the buck in that it employs an inductor, capacitor, and diode to efficiently
raise the voltage at the output. To boost the output, the inductor charges and releases
energy in tandem with the voltage source. When the switch is open, the inductor and the
voltage provide energy to the load, which explains why the output voltage is higher.
When the switch is closed, the voltage source just charges the inductor. It is evident that
when the switch is closed, a voltage at the gate occurs, and vice versa. This is so because
a switch is closed when a positive voltage is applied across a gate and opened when a
negative or zero voltage is applied. In a similar manner, a diode functions as an open
circuit when negative polarity is applied across it and as a wire with extremely little
resistance when a positive voltage is applied. The waveforms of gate voltage vs diode
voltage and current show this. The diode does not conduct electricity when the switch is
closed, therefore a voltage is put across it. Nevertheless, the switch's polarity is positive
when it is opened, allowing the current to flow through it with little resistance and
bringing the voltage drop across it extremely near to zero. The inductor's voltage and
current indicate that it is charging when the switch is closed, and when it is closed, the
inductor is discharging, however, voltage does reach negative.
Buck-Boost Converter
Results and Calculations for 40% duty cycle
Figure 20: Waveform of Gate and Switch Voltages Figure 21: Waveform of Gate and Diode Voltages
Figure 22:Waveform of Gate and Load Voltages Figure 23: Waveform of Gate and Inductor Voltages
Figure 20:Waveform of Gate Voltage and Switch Current
Figure 25:Waveform of Gate Voltage and -Diode Current
Calculations
Source
V s =15 V
rms
Vs avg(mean )
=15 V
I S =139.1 mA
rms
IS avg (mean )
=78.45 mA
f (frequency )=212 Hz D Duty cycle=40 %
Load
V L =1.11V
rms
VL avg (mean )
=1.701V
I L =130.94 mA
rms
IL avg( mean)
=−132.15 mA
Diode
V D =1.36 V
rms
VD avg (mean )
=−824.18 V
I D =174.89 mA
rms
ID avg( mean)
=132.26 mA
Switch
V SW =1.89V
rms
V SW avg( mean)
=1.50 V
I SW =139.10 mA
rms
I SW avg (mean )
=78.45 mA
Inductor
V L =1.11 V
rms
VL avg (mean )
=17.01 mV
I L =225.16 mA
rms
IL avg( mean)
=217.43 mA
√
V L = (V L
ac rms
) −( V L ) =√ ( 1.11) − (1.701 ) =1.287 V
2
dc ( avg )
2 2 2
VL 1.11
FF= rms
= =0.652
VL dc
1.701
VL 1.287
RF=√ ( FF )2−1= ac
= =0.758
VL dc
1.701
P out VL ×IL 1.287 × ( 132.15× 10−3 )
η= ×100 %= dc(avg ) dc(avg )
= =14.45 %
P¿ V s ×Is dc dc
15 × ( 78.45× 10−3 )
Results and Calculations for 60% duty cycle
Figure 21:Waveform of Gate and Switch Voltages Figure 29:Waveform of Gate and -Diode Voltages
Figure 30:Waveform of Gate and Load Voltages Figure 31:Waveform of Gate and Inductor Voltages
Figure 22:Waveform of Gate Voltage and Switch Current Figure 33:Waveform of Gate Voltage and Diode Current
Calculations
Source
V s =15 V
rms
Vs avg(mean )
=15 V
I S =503.51 mA
rms
IS avg (mean )
=376.09 mA
f (frequency )=2.12 kHz D Duty cycle=60 %
Load
V L =1.45 V
rms
VLavg (mean )
=−1.45 V
I L =30.4 A
rms
IL avg( mean)
=30.5 A
Diode
V D =2.36 V
rms
VD avg (mean )
=−1.77 V
I D =438.49 mA
rms
ID avg( mean)
=285.78 mA
Switch
V SW =2.16 V
rms
V SW avg( mean)
=1.45 V
I SW =50.3 A
rms
I SW avg (mean )
=37.6 A
Inductor
V L =1.53 V
rms
VL avg (mean )
=50.90 mV
I L =69.1 mA
rms
IL avg( mean)
=67.8 mA
Other Calculations
√
V L = (V L
ac rms
) −( V L ) =√ ( 1.45 ) −(−1.45 ) =0 V
2
dc ( avg )
2 2 2
VL 1.45
FF= rms
= =0
VL dc
−1.45
VL 0
RF=√ ( FF )2−1= ac
= =0
VL dc
−1.45
Discussion
Oscilloscope readings display the practical results of a boost converter. This type of
converter utilizes an inductor, capacitor, and diode to efficiently increase the output
voltage, differing in configuration from a buck converter. In the boost converter, the
inductor stores energy when the switch is closed and releases it when the switch is open,
working alongside the voltage source to provide a higher output voltage.
When the switch is closed, the voltage source charges the inductor exclusively. Once the
switch opens, the stored energy in the inductor, combined with the input voltage, supplies
energy to the load, which explains the higher output voltage. The voltage applied at the
gate directly correlates with the switch's state—positive voltage closes the switch, while
zero or negative voltage opens it.
The diode operates with minimal resistance when a positive voltage is applied across it,
effectively acting as a conductor. Conversely, it behaves as an open circuit when a
negative voltage is applied. This behavior is evident in the waveforms of gate voltage
versus diode voltage and current. When the switch is closed, a voltage appears across the
diode since it is not conducting. When the switch opens, the diode allows current to flow,
resulting in a near-zero voltage drop due to its low resistance.
The waveforms for inductor voltage and current show that the inductor charges when the
switch is closed and discharges when the switch is open. However, the inductor's voltage
does not drop into the negative range. The load voltage is measured at 25 V, higher than
the input voltage of 15 V. The load waveform is a steady DC current and voltage, though
some ripple is present, explaining the slight difference between average and mean values.
The capacitor in the circuit helps to reduce these ripples.
An observed efficiency of 103% is unrealistic, likely due to errors in calibration and
measurement of output values. Similarly, a ripple factor of 0.17 is unrealistic but still
indicates low ripple. A form factor of 0.991 suggests that the RMS values are very close
to the average values, which is expected for DC waveforms.
Conclusion
Our experiments on converters highlight their exceptional functionality and efficiency, which
make them widely used in the industry. By examining the internal components of each
converter, we have gained a deeper understanding of their operation and how each component
performs at any given moment. This insight reveals how small modifications in the circuit can
have a considerable impact on the output.