LECTURE NOTES 1 in MECHANICAL TECHNOLOGY 1 – ELEMENTARY MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE

(Basic Conversion of Units of Measurement)

Conversion Tables located in the last part of this notes.

Basic Measuring Instruments

Measuring tools are used in machine construction, tool and die making, and machine tool operation in
order to secure the required sizes and degree of accuracy of the parts. There are many different types
and design s of measuring tools some of which are very sophisticated. In this section will deal with the
measuring tools normally used by machinists and toolmakers in the everyday performance of their
trade.

All precision measuring tools must be handled with care in order to avoid slightest damage to
them. Often measurements accurate to one-thousandth (.001) inch, or even to one ten-thousandth
(.0001) inch, must be made. Careless handling precision measuring tools will destroy their accuracy, and
their usefulness, in making exact measurements. For example, a square that is not true square will result
in spoiled work. Precision measuring tools, therefore, must frequently be checked in order to verify their
accuracy. With many of these tools the workman must depend upon the sense of feel in order to make
accurate measurements, this requires that they be correctly grasped by the hands in order to utilize the
sensitive nerves that are located in the tips of the fingers. The proper manipulation of precision tools is
shown in many of the illustrations in this chapter.

The Precision Steel Rule/ Steel Rule

The rule is a basic length measuring tool. It may be used directly in measuring a length; or, it
may be used indirectly as when the diameter of a cylindrical objects is measured with outside calipers
and this measurement is then transferred from calipers to rule. Only precision-made, hardened steel
rules are acceptable for use in the machine shop or in the tool and die shop. The lines or graduations on
these rules are machine divided on specially designed, and very precise, graduating machines. Precision
steel rules may be obtained as spring temper, semi-spring temper, semi-flexible, or full flexible. They
range in size from one-quarter inch in length for measuring in grooves, recesses, and keyseats to twelve
feet in length for large work. The most frequently used lengths are the six-inch and twelve-inch rules.

Measuring and Marking Out Stock

Measuring and marking out stock are the first steps in making any project. It is important to learn to use
the common layout tools correctly.

Rules and Scales

1. The 6- or 12- inch steel rule is the most common rule for taking and laying out measurements
(Fig. 8-1). Most steel rules are marked on all four edges. The first edge is divided into eights of
an inch, with each small divisions representing 1/8 inch. Every small divisions show 1/2 inch. The
second edge is divided into sixteenths of an inch, the third into thirty-seconds of an inch, and
the fourth edge into sixty-fourths of an inch. Each 1/64 inch represents a little less than 16
thousandths (actually 0.015625) of an inch. In measuring, the experienced machinist can judge
half or one-fourth this amount. He can therefore read the rule as close to the exact size as 0.003
to 0.005 (3 to 5 thousandths) of an inch. When measuring or marking out distances, the rule
must be held on edge to be accurate. If it end is worn, start reading with the inch mark.
Fractions of an inch have their decimal equivalents, which are shown in Table 8-1. Be sure that
you can read a rule. It is surprising how few people can find certain measurements such as 7/16
or 13/32. More errors are made through incorrect layout

than in any other step in metal working. Study the chart shown in Fig. 8-2 if you have trouble
reading the rule.
2. The hook rule, which has a hook on the end for keeping the rule the place, measures inside and
outside diameters and through holes (Fig. 8-3). The hook serves as the starting point of the
measurement.
 3. A 36-inch steel circumference rule is very useful for sheet-metal layout (Fig. 8-4). As it implies, it
is used to measure circumferences. Along one edge there is a regular rule divided into
sixteenths for measuring diameters, while along the edge there is a scale which shows the
circumferences for those diameters. For example, if you want to play out a piece of sheet metal
that is to be rolled into a 4-inch-diameter cylinder, find the length required by locating the 4-
inch mark on the rule; then look across to the mark on the scale, which indicates 12 9/16
inches.

4. The steel tape can be bent around circular objects. Measurements can be made on the inside or
outside of openings. The tape has a little hook on the end which holds it in place for taking long
measurements (Fig. 8-5).

Squares and Protractors

1. A toolmaker’s try square is very accurate. It has both a steel beam and blade. It is used to check
whether two adjoining surfaces are at right angles to each other (make a square) and to
square off a line when measuring stock to length (Fig. 8-6).
2. A large steel square is very useful in sheet-metal work (Fig 8-7).

3. The combination set is one of the most used measuring tools (Fig. 8-8). It has four parts;
 a. A steel rule, made in lengths from 9 to 18 inches with a slot or groove running lengthwise
along one side. Any one of the three heads (described below) can be slipped on the rule and
tightened with a knurled nut.
b. The combination square head, which makes a 90-degree angle on one angle side and a 45-
degree angle on the other side. There is a spirit level in the head for leveling up a machine or
workpiece. This head can be used for laying out lines at 45- or 90-degree angles, for
checking the squareness of stock, for measuring depths, and for other operations shown in
Fig. 8-9.
c. The center head, sometimes called the center square, used for locating the center of the end
of a cylinder.
d. The protractor head, used to lay out and check any angle from 0 to 180 degrees.

Sheet-metal Gages

Sheet-metal gages are round disks of metal with slots cut around the outside. They are used to
measure the thickness of sheet metal and wire. Each slot is numbered. The numbers represent a certain
thickness or diameter in thousandths of an inch (Table 6-1). The gage of the slot in which it fits.

There are two common gage systems used for metal. The United States Standard (USS) gage is
used for black and galvanized mid-steel sheets, steel plates, and steel wire. The Brown and Sharpe, or
American, gage is used for measuring nonferrous metals such as copper, brass, and aluminum. Both
gages look alike. For example, to measure a piece of galvanized sheet, select a gage that is stamped
United States Standard (USS). Then try the metal in the various slots until you find the one in which it
just slips (Fig. 8-10). If the metal is 16 gage, it will be 0.0625 inch thick. To measure brass, use the Brown
and Sharpe, or American, gage. If is 16 gage, it will be 0.0508 inch thick.

Scribers and Other Marking Tools

The scriber is a slender steel road about 8 to 12 inches long with a sharp point on one or both
ends. Sometime one end is bent at a right angle. The scriber is used to scribed, or scratch, lines on most
metal surfaces (Figs. 8-11, 8-12). For making on metal plate, a soapstone crayon is good because it
shows up well. For making bend lines on sheet metal, a pencil is used.
Measuring and Marking Out Heavy Stock

To measure the thickness of a piece of metal, hold the rule on edge with one edge of the metal
on the inch mark. The mark above the other edge will show the thickness. Measure width the same way.

There are no strict rules for measuring and marking out in all instances. Here are a few
suggestions:

1. Make sure the end of the workpiece from which the marking is done is square.
2. Hold the rule on edge in contact with the surface of the workpiece (Fig. 8-13). If the end of
the rule is worn, hold the 1-inch mark over the edge of the workpiece.

3. Make sure the rule is kept parallel to the workpiece, so that the exact length can be
obtained.
4. Mark the exact length shown on the rule with a scriber.
5. Hold a square firmly against the side of the workpiece. Mark a line across the workpiece
(Fig. 8-14). Turn the scriber at a slight angle, so that the point will draw along the water edge
of the rule.
Marking Stock to Be Cut from Sheet

1. Make sure that an edge and an end are at right angles to each other.
2. Hold a rule over the end of the workpiece, and mark out a point that shows the length of
the stock to be cut.
3. Move the rule over, and mark out another point for the length.
4. Join these two points with a scribed line.
5. Mark several points to indicate the width.
6. Lay a straightedge along these points, and scribed a line (Fig. 8-15)

Activity #1

1. Described the steel rule.

2. What is the circumference of a 5-inch circle? Read the answer in Fig. 8-4.
3. What are the common divisions of an inch on a steel rule?
4. Find the following measurements on a steel rule, and make a sketch pointing them out: 3/4 ,
5/8, 9/16, 21/32.
5. How is a circumference rule used?
6. In what way is a steel tape useful?
7. What are the three heads of a combination set used for?
8. How should the scriber be held when scribing lines on metal?
9. What tools are needed for measuring and marking out stock? Tell how you would proceed.
10. How is heavy stock measured and marked out?
11. Tell how to mark out a piece that is to be cut from a large sheet.
 Length Mass and Force Capacity Time
1 foot (ft) = 12 inches 1 kg = 1000 g = 2.205 1 (tbsp.) = 3 teaspoons 1 hr = 60 min
(in) lbs = 9.81 N= 0.0685 (tsp) 1 hr = 3600 sec
1 yard (yd) = 3 feet (ft) slugs 1 cup (c) = 16 tbsps 1 min = 60 sec
= 39 in 1 mile (mi) = 1 g = 1000 mg 1 cup = 8 fluid ounces
5,280 ft = 1,760 yards = 1 ton = 1000 kg (oz)
1.61 km 1N = 100,000 dynes = 1 pint (pt) = 2 cups
1 in = 2.54 cm 1 km = 0.225 lbs 1 quart (qt) = 2 pints
1000 m = 3280 ft = 1 kg = 9.8 N = 0.0685 1 gallon (gal) = 4 quarts
0.62137 mi slug = 3.7854 L 1 cm3 = 1 ml
1 m = 100 cm = 39.37 1 lb = 4.45 N = 454 g = 1 L = 1,000 cm3 = 1.057
in = 3.28 ft= 1.0936 yd 16 oz 1 ton = 2,000 lbs qt
1 A = 10-10-m 1 slug = 14.6 kg = 32 lb
1 amu = 1.66053873 x
10- 24 g

Pressure Temperature
0
Standard pressure @ sea level C = 5/9(0F-32)
0
1 atm (atmosphere) = 101325 Pa (Pascal) F = (9/50C)+32
= 101.325 kPa (kilopascal) Power
=14.7 psi or lb/in2 (pounds per square inch) 1 hp (horsepower) = 746 W (watts)
=1.033 kgf /cm2 = 0.746 kW (kiloWatts)
=760 mmHg 1 kW = 1000 W
=760 TORR Energy
1 bar =100 kPa 1 cal (calorie) = 4.1858 J (Joules)
= 1000 kcal (kilocalorie)
1 kJ (kiloJoules) = 1000 J (Joules)