Communication System Engineering

Chapter 2:
Signals and Spectra
in Communication Systems

Lectured by Prof. Dr. Thuong Le-Tien

Slides with references from HUT Finland, La Hore uni.,

Mc. Graw Hill Co., A.B. Carlson’s “Communication
Systems”, and Leon [Link] “Digital and Analog
Communication Systems” books

September 2024
1
Signals and Spectra
◼ A generic sinusoidal signal
v(t ) = A cos(0t +  ); 0 = 2f 0
◼ Phasor representation

◼ Frequency domain

Amplitude
representation A

◼ Rotating phasors f0
A f0 f
◼ Frequency plots

◼ Amplitude
0t + 

Phase
◼ Phase
f0 f
2
◼ Two sided spectra can be seen from

◼ This represents two rotating phasors

◼ Amplitude and phase spectrum (two sided)

3
Periodic Signals
◼ A signal x p( t ) is periodic if there exists T
such that x p( t ) = x p( t + T)
◼ Smallest such T is called fundamental
period T0
◼ Any integer multiple of T0 is also a period

T0

4
Average signal and Power
◼ Average signal

◼ For periodic signals

◼ Average power

5
 Normalized Power
◼ In the concept of normalized power, R is
assumed to be 1Ω, although it may be another
value in the actual circuit.
◼ Another way of expressing this concept is to say
that the power is given on a per-ohm basis.
◼ It can also be realized that the square root of the
normalized power is the rms value.

Definition. The average normalized power is given by:

Where s(t) is the voltage or current waveform
T /2
1
P = s (t ) = lim 
2 2
s (t )dt
T → T
−T / 2
6
 Decibel
◼ A base 10 logarithmic measure of power ratios.
◼ The ratio of the power level at the output of a circuit
compared with that at the input is often specified by
the decibel gain instead of the actual ratio.
◼ Decibel measure can be defined in 3 ways
◼ Decibel Gain
◼ Decibel signal-to-noise ratio (SNR in dB)
◼ Mili-watt Decibel or dBm
◼ Definition: Decibel Gain
The decibel gain of a circuit is:

7
 Decibel Gain

➢ If resistive loads are involved,

Definition of dB may be reduced to,

or

8
Decibel signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)
➢ Definition. The decibel signal-to-noise ratio
(SNR) is:

Where, Signal Power (S) =

And, Noise Power (N) =

9
 Decibel with mili watt reference (dBm)
➢ Definition. The decibel power level with respect to 1 mW

= 30 + 10 log (Actual Power Level (watts)

◼ Here the “m” in the dBm denotes a milliwatt reference.

◼ When a 1-W reference level is used, the decibel level is
denoted dBW;
◼ when a 1-kW reference level is used, the decibel level
is denoted dBk.
E.g.: If an antenna receives a signal power of 0.3W, what is the
received power level in dBm?
dBm = 30 + 10xlog(0.3) = 30 + 10x(-0.523)3 = 24.77 dBm

10
Fourier Series Representation
◼ Projection of periodic signals onto basis
functions
◼ Periodic signal is a weighted sum of these basis
functions
◼ Exponentials are used as basis functions for
writing Fourier series
◼ Any periodic signal can be expressed as a
sum of infinite number of exponentials (or
sinusoids for real signals)

11
Fourier Series

DC component:
1
f0= T0 (fundamental frequency)

Line spectra at frequencies that are integer

multiple of fundamental frequency

12
Fourier series example:

13
Fourier Series: Example

14
Fourier Transform
◼ Back to the Fourier series:

15
Three major properties of V(f)

16
Rectangular pulse spectrum
V(ƒ) = A sinc ƒ

17
18
19
 Convolution
➢ The convolution of a waveform w1(t) with a waveform
w2(t) to produce a third waveform w3(t) which is

Evaluation of the integral involves 3 steps.

• Time reversal of w2 to obtain w2(-λ),
• Time shifting of w2 by t seconds to obtain w2(-(λ-t)),
and
• Multiplying this result by w1 to form the integrand
w1(λ)w2(-(λ-t)).

Note: we denote a signal s(t) as a waveform w(t)

20
Example for Convolution
 T 
 t − 
w1 (t ) =   2

 T 
 
t
-
T
w 2 (t)=e u (t )

For 0< t < T

For t > T

21
 Power Spectral Density (PSD)

◼ We define the truncated version of the waveform by:

• The average normalized power:

• Using Parseval’s theorem to calculate power from the

frequency domain

22
➢ Definition: The Power Spectral Density (PSD) for a
deterministic power waveform is

• where wT(t) WT(f) and Pw(f) has units of watts per hertz.
• The PSD is always a real nonnegative function of frequency.
• PSD is not sensitive to the phase spectrum of w(t)
• The normalized average power is

• This means the area under the PSD function is the normalized
average power.

23
 Autocorrelation Function
➢ Definition: The autocorrelation of a real (physical)
waveform is

• Wiener-Khintchine Theorem: PSD and the autocorrelation function are Fourier

transform pairs;

The PSD can be evaluated by either of the following two methods:

1. Direct method: by using the definition,
2. Indirect method: by first evaluating the autocorrelation function and
then taking the Fourier transform:

Pw(f)= ℑ [Rw(τ) ]
• The average power can be obtained by any of the four techniques.

24
 Normalized Power
Theorem: For a periodic waveform w(t), the
normalized power is given by:

where the {cn} are the complex Fourier coefficients for the waveform.

Proof: For periodic w(t), the Fourier series representation is valid over all time
and one may evaluate the normalized power:

25
Power Spectral Density for Periodic Waveforms
Theorem: For a periodic waveform, the power spectral
density (PSD) is given by

where T0 = 1/f0 is the period of the waveform and

{cn} are the corresponding Fourier coefficients for the waveform.

PSD is the FT of the

Autocorrelation
function

26
Power Spectral Density for a Square Wave
• The PSD for the periodic square wave will be found.
• Because the waveform is periodic, FS coefficients can be used to
evaluate the PSD. Consequently this problem becomes one of
evaluating the FS coefficients.

27
 Noise in communication systems
◼ Thermal noise is described by a zero-mean Gaussian random
process, n(t).
◼ Its PSD is flat, hence, it is called white noise.

[w/Hz]

Power spectral
density

Autocorrelation
function

Probability density function

28
Signal transmission through linear systems

Input Output
Linear system

◼ Deterministic signals:
◼ Random signals:

◼ Ideal distortion less transmission:

All the frequency components of the signal not

only arrive with an identical time delay, but also
are amplified or attenuated equally.

29
◼ Ideal filters:

Non-causal!
Low-pass

Band-pass High-pass

◼ Realizable filters:
◼ RC filters Butterworth filter

30
Bandwidth of signal
◼ Baseband versus bandpass:
Baseband Bandpass
signal signal
Local oscillator

◼ Bandwidth dilemma:
◼ Bandlimited signals are not realizable!
◼ Realizable signals have infinite bandwidth!
31
 Bandwidth of signal …
◼ Different definition of bandwidth:
a) Half-power bandwidth a) Fractional power containment bandwidth
b) Noise equivalent bandwidth b) Bounded power spectral density
c) Null-to-null bandwidth c) Absolute bandwidth

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)50dB
32
 Power Transfer Function
➢ Derive the relationship between the power spectral density
(PSD) at the input, Px(f), and that at the output, Py(f) , of a linear
time-invariant network.
Using the definition of PSD

PSD of the output is

Using transfer function

in a formal sense, we obtain

Thus, the power transfer

function of the network is

33