Chapter 1 : Introduction

1. Introduction

One of the clearest truths is that the computer has become an essential part of our daily life.
One can very well use, configure, administer, and even program and repair a computer without
knowing its inner workings. But, for a computer scientist, it is essential to have a minimum of
computer culture such as the architecture of computers and the operation of their internal
components.

2. Computer

A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information, or data. It has the ability
to store, retrieve, and process data. A computer is a programmable electronic device that accepts
raw data as input and processes it with a set of instructions (a program) to produce the result as
output. It renders output just after performing mathematical and logical operations and can save the
output for future use. It can process numerical as well as non-numerical calculations. The term
"computer" is derived from the Latin word "computare" which means to calculate.

A computer is a machine capable of carrying out all kinds of operations and processing such
as calculations, handling of texts and images for example. A computer performs automated
processing on data: it is capable of transforming, storing and archiving it. This data is represented in
a digital form, that is, in the form of numbers. These are most often used logically as finite
sequences of 0s and 1s and electronically by measurable physical values: voltages (0 V. and 5 V or
other values), frequencies, magnetic polarities, etc. A computer is a machine with a processing unit
that allows it to run stored programs. It is a set of electronic circuits for manipulating data in binary
form, or bits. This machine makes it possible to process information according to sequences of
predefined instructions, also called programs.

The components of a computer such as machinery that includes wires, transistors, circuits,
hard disk are called hardware. Whereas, the programs and data are called software. Everything you
do on your computer will rely on both hardware and software.

 Hardware is any part of your computer that has a physical structure, such as the keyboard,
mouse, central unit, memory, input/output devices, etc. It also includes all of the computer's
internal parts.
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  Software corresponds to any set of instructions, called program, which are contained in the
various memories of the system and which define the actions carried out by the hardware. It
tells the hardware what to do and how to do it. Examples of software include web
browsers, games, and word processors.

3. Computer architecture

Computer architecture refers to the end-to-end structure of a computer system that

determines how its components interact with each other in helping to execute the machine’s purpose
(i.e., processing data).

Computer architecture is the arrangement of the components that comprise a computer

system and the engine at the core of the processes that drive its functioning. It specifies the machine
interface for which programming languages and associated processors are designed.

The architecture of a microprocessor system represents the organization of its various units
and their interconnections. The choice of an architecture is always the result of a compromise (Cost,
Efficiency, Performance, Reliability): between performance and cost, between efficiency and ease
of construction, between overall performance and ease of programming, ..etc .

This is the science that studies the inner workings of computers. In this course, we will
attempt to answer some of the following questions:

 How does a computer represent its data?

 How can an internal circuit of the processor perform an addition?
 How to learn to program in assembly language?
 How does a memory work?
 and How does a hard drive work?
 … etc.

3.1 The von Neumann architecture

The von Neumann architecture—also known as the von Neumann model or Princeton
architecture is a computer architecture based on a 1945 description by John von Neumann
(Hungarian-American mathematician and physicist), and by others, in the First Draft of a Report on
the EDVAC. von Neumann submitted the first description of a computer whose program is stored
in its memory. Von Neumann architecture is based on the stored-program computer concept, where

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instruction data and program data are stored in the same memory. This design is still used in most
computers produced today. It describes a design architecture for an electronic digital computer with
these components:

 Central processing unit (CPU)

 Central memory unit
 Input and output unit

Central memory Central Input and output

unit processing unit unit

BUS
Von Neumann Architecture

3.2. The Harvard architecture

The name of this structure comes from the name of Harvard University where such
architecture was first put into practice with the Mark I in 1944. Harvard architecture is a processor
design that physically separates data memory and program memory.

The Harvard architecture is a computer architecture with separate storage and signal
pathways for instructions and data. It is often contrasted with the von Neumann architecture, where
program instructions and data share the same memory and pathways. Access to each of the two
memories is via two separate buses. With two distinct buses, the so-called Harvard architecture
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makes it possible to simultaneously transfer the data and the instructions to be executed. Thus, the
processing unit will have simultaneous access to the instruction and the associated data. This
architecture can be faster with identical technology than the architecture of von Neumann. The gain
in performance is obtained; however, at the cost of increased structural complexity. The Harvard
architecture is often used in: digital signal processors (DSPs); microcontrollers.

3.3. Differences between Von Neumann and Harvard architecture

Two notable examples of computer architecture have paved the way for recent
advancements in computing. These are ‘Von Neumann architecture’ and ‘Harvard architecture.’
Most other architectural designs are proprietary and are therefore not revealed in the public domain
beyond a basic abstraction.

3.3.1. Basics of Von Neumann and Harvard Architecture

The Von Neumann architecture is a theoretical computer design based on the concept of
stored program in which programs and data are stored in the same memory. The concept was
devised by a mathematician John Von Neumann in 1945 and currently serves as the basis for almost
all modern computers. The Harvard architecture builds on the original Harvard Mark I ladder
computer model, which used separate buses for data and instructions.

3.3.2. Von Neumann and Harvard architecture memory system

The Von Neumann architecture has only one bus used for both instruction fetches and data
transfers. Operations must be scheduled as they cannot be performed at the same time. The Harvard
architecture, on the other hand, has a separate memory space for instructions and data, physically
separating signals and code and data storage, allowing each of the memory systems to be accessed
simultaneously.

3.3.3. Von Neumann and Harvard architecture instruction processing

In the Von Neumann architecture, the processing unit would need two clock cycles to
complete an instruction. The processor fetches the instruction from memory in the first cycle and
decodes it, then the data is fetched from memory in the second cycle. In the Harvard architecture,
the processing unit can execute an instruction in one cycle if proper pipeline processing strategies
are in place.

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3.3.4. Cost of Von Neumann and Harvard Architecture

Since instructions and data use the same bus system in the Von Neumann architecture, the
design and development of the control unit is simplified, keeping production costs to a minimum.
The development of the control unit in the Harvard architecture is more expensive than the old one
due to the complex architecture that uses two buses for instructions and data.

3.3.5. Use of Von Neumann and Harvard architecture

The Von Neumann architecture is used primarily on all the machines you see, from desktops
and laptops to high-performance computers and workstations. The Harvard architecture is a
relatively new concept used primarily in microcontrollers and digital signal processing (DSP).

3.3.6. Summary

VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE HARVARD ARCHITECTURE

It is ancient computer architecture based on It is modern computer architecture based on

stored program computer concept. Harvard Mark I relay based model.

Same physical memory address is used for Separate physical memory address is used for
instructions and data. instructions and data.

There is common bus for data and instruction Separate buses are used for transferring data
transfer. and instruction.

Two clock cycles are required to execute An instruction is executed in a single cycle.
single instruction.

It is cheaper in cost. It is costly than Von Neumann Architecture.

CPU cannot access instructions and CPU can access instructions and read/write at
read/write at the same time. the same time.

It is used in personal computers and small It is used in micro controllers and signal
computers. processing.