OVERVIEW OF THE INTERNSHIP

The following information’s are observed through this training.

MATHEMATICS IN PHARMACY

There are several applications of mathematics are used in our daily life.
Mathematics plays an important role in pharmacy are some of the application used
in pharmacy are balancing a checkbook, measuring out a recipe and counting
paper plates for a party are all examples of mathematics in daily life.

 Integrated
 Percentage and weight
 Statistics
 Calculus
 Profit and loss
 Fraction and decimal
 Weight and volume
 Ratio

ROLE OF CALCULUS IN MEDICINE

Pharmacokinetic models consider drugs in the body to be in a dynamic state.

Calculus is an important mathematic tool for analyzing drug movement
quantitatively. Differential equations are used to relate the concentrations of drugs
in various body organs over time.
RATIONAL DRUG THERAPY

Rational Drug Therapy means prescribing right drug, in adequate dose for the
sufficient duration and appropriate to the clinical needs of the patient at lowest
cost. Factors that have led sudden realization for rational drug use are,

 Drug explosion: Increase in the number of drugs available has

incredibly complicated the choice of appropriate drug.
 Efforts to prevent the development of resistance
 Growing awareness: Today, the information about drug development.
 Increased cost of the treatment
 Consumer protection Act (CPA): Extension of CPA in medical
profession may restrict the irrational use of drugs.
CAT SCANS AND X-RAYS

CAT (CT) scans and X-rays visualize the body using different shades of grey
based on the density of body tissue. This imaging relies on mathematical
functions. Imagine machine designers and software developers must understand
and implement the correct mathematical functions. Many computer scientists and
biotechnology professionals are responsible for modern medical imaging
technologies.

CAT scan machines translate raw X-ray data into reconstructed images by
solving multiple linear equations. If you want to understand what goes on inside
the computer, you’ll need a background in differential equations and basic physics.

CT Scanner X-Ray Scanner

PHARMACOKINETIC MODELING AND INDIVIDUALIZED THERAPY

Utilization of mathematical modeling of drug pharmacokinetics data in

patient care is the foundation for development of personalized dosage guidelines
and monitoring of therapy process. Population pharmacokinetic models involve
the integration of patient factors, such as age, weight, renal function, and genetic
variation, in order to administer the best possible dosage for each patient with a
view to avoid adverse drug effects.

Example: Population pharmacokinetics of vancomycin, an antibiotic used in

treating bacterial infections, allows clinicians to modify the dosage regimen on
account of the patient’s characteristics and ensure adequate drug concentrations
for the synergistic impact of the drug and minimal toxicity.
BIOSTATISTICAL ANALYSIS AND CLINICAL DECISION SUPPORT

Result of processing clinical data by bio statistical methods can be used for
Evidence-based decisions making in healthcare, treatment delivery, and medical
practices. Bio statistical analysis evaluate treatment effectiveness, detect risk
factors associated with complications, and measure prognostic biomarkers which
is a major determinant of patient survival and relapse.

Example: Survival data analysis for cancer patient using Kaplan-Meier curves
models and Cox hazard regression model allows physicians to estimate patients’
survival probabilities, to know what factors predict disease outcome, and to adjust
treatment accordingly to patient’s individual risk profiles.
BODY MASS INDEX

Body Mass Index (BMI) is a commonly used measure of body fat based on a
person’s height and weight. It is calculated by dividing the weight in kilograms by
the square of the height in meters.

BMI = weight / height2

BMI calculations help assess an individual’s weight status and risk for obesity-
related health conditions.
MEASUREMENTS AND CONVERSION IN MEDICINE

Nurses use math to administer the right amount of medication to each patient.
Picture a nurse working in a unit where a certain medication is available in 100
and 250 mg pills. If a doctor tells the nurse to give half a gram of that medication
every six hours, the nurse has to:

 Calculate how many milligrams are in a half gram (500)

 Determine how many pills to give (two 250 mg pills or five 100 mg
pills every six hours)

Already, the nurse has used division, multiplication, and metric conversions. If the
medication is intravenous (IV), the nurse also has to consider factors like flow
rate, bag volumes, and treatment times.
ROLE OF ALGEBRA IN MEDICINE

Calculating medication dosages may be the most common application of

mathematics in day-to-day medicine. Every time a doctor prescribes medicine for
a patient, they have to calculate how much of the drug the patient should get and
how often. A basic formula, solving for x, guides us in the setting up of an
equation:

D/H x Q = x,

Or

Desired dose (amount) = ordered dose amount/amount on hand× quantity.

DRUG CALCULATION

The following pharmacy calculations are used to determine the dose and dispense
drugs in the correct concentrations : Tablet Dosage. Desired Dose/Stock Strength
= Number of Tablets. Mixtures and Solutions. [Desired Dose/Stock Strength] x
Stock Volume = Amount of Solution to be given.

Drug Calculations Summary Table

Unit Gram equivalent Exponential form

Kilogram(kg) 1000.0 g 10 3 g

Gram (g) 1.0g 1g

Milligram (mg) 0.001g 10-3 g

Microgram(μg) 0.000,001 g 10-6 g

Nanogram (ng) 0.000,000,001 g 10-9 g

PROBABILITY IN PHARMACY

In drug development few molecules from a large pool of early candidates

become successful medicines after demonstrating a favorable benefit risk ratio.
Many decisions are made alone the way to continue to stop the development of a
molecule.

The probability of pharmacological success or PoPS is a tool for

informing early-stage decisions based on benefit and risk data available at
time.

In medicine, probability is essential for providing posttest probabilities of

diseases based on test results, pre-test probabilities, and test characteristics like
confidence intervals and reference ranges.
STATISTICS IN MEDICINE

Statistics are used to understand risk factors for communities, track and
monitor health events such as diseases, see the impact of policy changes, and
assess the quality and safety of health care. Health statistics are a form of
evidence or facts that can support a conclusion.

Statistics helps in multiple scenarios including determining the dose response

relationship and quantifying the drug’s action.

Biostatistics in clinical research involves the application of statistical methods

to analyze and interpret data from clinical trials.
OPERATIONS RESEARCH IN MEDICINE

Operations research (OR) is a discipline that uses mathematical models and

analytical methods to help decision makers optimize complex systems and
processes.

Operations research is a quantitative approach that solves problems, using a

number of mathematical techniques. In order to meet world regulations and cost-
effective policies, pharmaceuticals, too, need to make important decisions
regarding their process which is supported by operations research.

Operations Research for Health Care (ORHC) focuses on the development and
use of operations research and analytics in health and health care.
GENOMICS AND BIOINFORMATICS

Bioinformatics is a relatively new and evolving discipline that combines skills

and technologies from computer science and biology to help us better understand
and interpret biological data. One field where bioinformatics is especially useful is
genomics, which can generate vast quantities of information.

Let’s consider a few of the primary benefits of advancements in bioinformatics.

3 benefits include:

1) Advancement of medical discovery and development of treatments,

2) Disease monitoring and prevention, and

3) Improving the overall effectiveness and precision of clinical