Æ Æ
Æ
      

   Æ     

 §1

  1.1

     

(
E3
).
          −−
→
             
A B AB A

  
B AB
−
−→
   −−
→

  
AB |AB|( d(A, B)). A=B
−−
→
AB 0.
−−
→
       
−−→
    −
−→

   



AB CD AB
−−→
 −−
→ −−→
 CD

AB = CD.

Æ   !    −−

→ −−→

         !
AB CD
−−→ −−→ −
−→ −−→

 "   #  " $    

CD EF AB EF (
 1-1). a

 1-1
%  
1.1  V  .
& "# {a, b, c, d · · · } "   
 " "  
0

1
    −→ ! #$    A, % &−−→
   a  |a| = |AB| =
a∈V
 B,  a = −AB.
d(A, B).     $    
a = AB,   −a = BA.  −a  a   
−
−→ −−
→
&
% 1.2 a, b ∈ V  & −→ O,
%& −−→A  a = −OA.→ %&  B  b = −AB.
  OB   a  b   a + b.
 '()  ' O    * + ( 
        !)  O  , " (!
1-2). $ #$  !)   

 1-2
 !)
!*  !)
.! &  "
!% - )    
A, B, C,
” ”.

−
−→ −−→ −→
AB + BC = AC.

 ''+# !)  Æ $, - )  ”  / %
"#  OA  OB ,
1-3 ”
! −→
 −−→

0Æ$,- 
O, A, B a = OA b = OB,
−−→
AOBC, a + b = OC.

 1-3

2
 ( 1 (   - 2 .      )&  (!
) / % " ”  Æ $, - )  ” . ' & ( 0"  ( 1-3  
O ) (  3 ( & !)  O   ) .,4 
 1.1  !)*5# #
(1) + # a + b = b + a;

(2) , # (a + b) + c = a + (b + c);

(3) *Æ a ∈ V,  a + 0 = a;

(4) *Æ a ∈ V,  a + (−a) = 0.



 !)+  1-3  !)!%-)6

 1-4  1-5
 ,    1-4 6 #
−−→ −−→ −−→ −→ −→
(a + b) + c = OB + BC = OC = OA + AC = a + (b + c).
−
−→
a = AB. 7 −→ −−→
AA = BB = 0, 
−−
→ −−→ −− →
a + 0 = AB + BB = AB = a;
−−
→ −− → −→
a + (−a) = AB + BA = AA = 0. 

% 1.3 a, b ∈ V.   -)# a − b = a + (−b).

 1-5, −→ −−→
a = OA, b = OB, 
−−→ −→ − −→
a − b = a + (−b) = (−b) + a == BO + OA = BA.

3
!.-
     !  -.    * 
/01
V

8 1.2
 !        / 
%  *+ 
* 5 #,0  # 
1.4 R

  a ∈ V, λ ∈ R.

    2     &2
λa (1) |λ||a|; (2) λ>0

  +   3
λa a λ<0 λa a λ=0
a=01 λa = 0. λa λ a
2
4Æ'  5      Æ 
-3% & 5+ 
( )a b
4 a = λb
 !+   32.  6 
λ

 * 32   /0
V
 +  32*5# #
1.2
(1) 1a = a, (−1)a = −a;
(2) λ(μa) = (λμ)a;
(3) (λ + μ)a = λa + μa;
(4) λ(a + b) = λa + λb.

  (1)  (2)   1.4 6.5", 

  
/)  (3).  λ, μ  (λ + μ) ! 90   0,
  (3) 124 $! 65+3-74#
(i) λ  μ 72$   λa + μa  (λ + μ)a  
    (3) 4 (ii) λ  μ : 72 '8 λ  λ + μ 
7$  −μ  λ + μ 7 (i) ! 
−μa + (λ + μ)a = (−μ + λ + μ)a = λa.

6 (λ + μ)a = λa + μa,  (3) ; 24

# )#  (4).  λ, a  b    (4)
124 #8 65   a  b  Æ  % & 5
+ μ,  b = μa, $  <"  (2)  (3), 
λ(a+b) = λ((1+μ)a) = (λ(1+μ))a = (λ+λμ)a = λa+λ(μa) = λa+μb,

4
  4   a  b ' Æ 9 a = −OA
→
 b = −AB,
−→

 &6 OA  OB  =   C  D, 
(4)
−−→
OB = a + b.
 −−→ −→ −−→ −−→
OC = λOA = λa, OD = λOB = λ(a + b).
 1-6(a)  1-6(b) * < λ > 0  λ < 0 3 - 

 1-6(a)  1-6(b)
   > * < ,9:  5!% - 

OAB OCD
6 −−→ −
−→
CD = λAB = λb.
−−→ −−→ −−→
λ(a + b) = OD = OC + CD = λa + λb.

 ) (4) 
: 32  *<;Æ5! 
% - ,9: 1
(4))

? 1.3
%  >  & ;  <
$  6= &  , 6   
1.5 a1 , a2 ,· · · , ar O

    
%  >  & ;  <
$  6= &  @ ;  Æ
1.6 a1 , a2 ,· · · , ar O

 
'();;
 ;;;"6;  ,"; O

 5  9   ;    
   0 ; $ ;    
a L(a) a

, 6  
O
.

L(a) = {λa | λ ∈ R}.

5
12*Æ b, c ∈ L(a)  λ ∈ R,  b + c ∈ L(a)  λb ∈ L(a).
 L(a) 5  a 4   V   (1 7) A 
  a  b * 5 b = λa, - a = 0   ba = λ, 
+  89 1.2  ' *Æ b, c ∈ L(a)  λ ∈ R, 
b+c b c λb b
= + , =λ .
a a a a a

λ

 μ, 
1.3   a  ;<3,0%&'*+
b

λa + μb = 0.
 90 ;5'8
  a   ;
b a = b = 0, 1a + 1b = 0.

%&+ 
a b
$ 4 3 
a = 0. b a

)& %&'*+  
λ, b = λa. λa + (−1)b = 0
4 λa + μb = 0
 6  ;  <  ) 
λ μ,
'8 μ = 0. b=−
λ
μ
a, b a 

   ';-
1.1   λa + μb = 0, λ = μ = 0.
 '; 9    ;;
a b

   ;  $ ;; 

a b L(a, b) a b

 @ ; 9 %&
O
$
−→ −−→

  ';   6  + +  
σ. a = OA, b = OB. c ∈ L(a, b), C∈σ
 −−
→
 C 0  Æ+  +  !
c = OC.
OA
a
OB
b
OA
OA
D,
OB
OB E(
O.

 1-7).

 1-7
 −−→ −→ −−→
;
−−→
 ;  6% & + * (λ, μ), 
 !)=Æ$,-)
OD OA OE OB
 −−→ −→ −−→ −−→
OD = λOA = λa, OE = μOB = μb.

6
> 
−−→ −−→ −−→
c = OC = OD + OE = λa + μb.

&  *Æ+ * (λ, μ), 9 λa + μb = −OC.

−→
 !)=
$, - )  >.+ C  = &  6 OA  OB : ;
Æ6 λa + μb ∈ L(a, b).    

L(a, b) = {λa + μb | λ, μ ∈ R}.

 '() *Æ c, d ∈ L(a, b)  λ ∈ R,  c + d ∈ L(a, b) 

 L(a, b) ';  a  b 4   V
  (2 7) A 
λc ∈ L(a, b).

 1.4 a, b, c ;;- a  b ';%& + *

(λ, μ),  c = λa + μb.
 +B)#  %&+ * (λ, μ)  (λ , μ ),   


c = λa + μb = λ a + μ b,
 7  ';.5 
$/+ * %&-
(λ − λ )a + (μ − μ )b = 0. a b 1.1

λ − λ = 0 μ − μ = 0. (λ, μ) 
 

1.5 a, b, c ;;<3,0%&'*+ λ, μ, ν,

λa + μb + νc = 0.

 ) 3  ;;
!%&/'*+ 
  ;   89
$ 
a, b, c a b 1.3

&+   3 4   ';89 !%

λa + μb + 0c = 0,
6
λ

 3 
μ,
a
λa + μb = 0.
b 1.4

4;)<  %&'*+
λ μ, c = λa + μb. λa + μb + (−1)c = 0

'8 $ν = 0.
λ, μ, ν, λa + μb + νc = 0.

λ μ
c = − a − b.
ν ν

 a  b ;'8 a = ρb,  c = −( λν ρ + μν )b. $ a, b, c

;   ;;  a  b ';   c ∈ L(a, b), $  a, b, c  ;
;<  )  
7
   ';;-
1.2
μ = ν = 0.
 
a, b, c λa + μb + νc = 0, λ=

% 1.7  >      "

{a1 , a2 ,· · · , ar } b
b = k1 a1 + k2 a2 + · · · kr ar ,
< +      )  >
   > 
{k1 , k2 , · · · , kr } b {a1 ,
a2 ,· · · , ar }
  ';;     Æ  
   > 
1.6 {a, b, c}
6  ) {a, b, c}
 &  0 ;   
@; ;    .  0
O a
−→
 Æ +;  !
b Σ. d = OA A c
Σ B( 1-8).

 1-8
 =&; ?-
9 ! % & +
1.4
−−→
OB

  Æ8 λ, μ
σ
ν,
−
−→
BA d

−−→ −
−→
OB = λa + μb, BA = νc.
: −→ −−→ − −→
d = OA = OB + AB = λa + μb + νc.
8 C  )d  d = λ a + μ b + ν  c,
(λ − λ )a + (μ − μ )b + (ν − ν  )c = 0.
7 ';; .5 .+
{a, b, c}  1.2 λ = λ , μ = μ ν = ν. 
%  >';;   
 >     > Æ
1.8 {e1 , e2 , e3 }

   "
V V {e1 , e2 , e3 }, a∈V

a = a1 e 1 + a2 e 2 + a3 e 3

8
 - " ! D > (a , a , a )   a & {e , e , e } # E
@
1 2 3 1 2 3

 R   + ! D > & R   
3 3

#!) 3 #
(a1 , a2 , a3 ) + (a1 , a2 , a3 ) = (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , a3 + b3 );

λ(a1 , a2 , a3 ) = (λa1 , λa2 , λa3 ).

 '()  #894
 1.7  a  b & > {e , e , e } # E @ 
(a , a , a )  (b , b , b ), λ  μ +  λa + μb  E @
1 2 3
1 2 3 1 2 3

(λa1 + μb1 , λa2 + μb2 , λa3 + μb3 ).

&  > <A  *< φ : V → R

##*Æ   
3
V {e1 , e2 , e3 } 1-1
a ∈ V, 9
a = a1 e 1 + a2 e 2 + a3 e 3

φ(a) = (a1 , a2 , a3 ).

89 !$/ 
1.7 1-1 * < φ F # #
φ(λa + μb) = λφ(a) + μφ(b),

   V  R      G. $/  

{e , e , e }  ,   "
3

1 2 3

1.4  

A  B   ' A, B, C !;  < 3 ,0
% & + t ∈ R  −→ −−→
AC = tAB.
>+ t  * <6 AB  C(! 1-9).

 1-9

9
 &  O. 7  −AC→ = −OC − OA, AB = OB − OA, 
−→ −→ − −→ −−→ −→

B −→ −
−→
AC = tAB ?  #  B#
−−→ −→ −−→
OC = (1 − t)OA + tOB.

 G. $ B  O  , "  

 1.8 ! A, B, C ;-3%&+ t 
−−→ −→ −−→
OC = (1 − t)OA + tOB.

B
%
 9
1.9 A, B, C ;  !'   C "  A,
−→
AC
(A, B; C) = −−→ .

4 1-9  ' '+ 9 (A, B; C)  H C=

CB

(−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, 0) ∪ (0, +∞).

 A  B @  C    9  /  C = & 
AB  > 9 (A, B, C) < 0;  C = &  AB  ? 9
(A, B; C) > 0.   C    AB   -3 (A, B; C) = 1.
 9 (A, B; C) = λ 4B −AC→ = λCB
−−→
 ' 
−−→ 1 −→ λ −−→
OC = OA + OB. (1.4.1)
1+λ 1+λ

# $+    Æ <" 
 {A , A , · · · , A }    n   &   
.  O, 
1.1 1 2 n

1 −−→ −−→ −−→

(OA1 + OA2 + · · · + OAn )
n
      % &     M , * 5
−−→ 1 −−→ −−→ −−→
OM = (OA1 + OA2 + · · · + OAn ). (1.4.2)
n
 '()   "   O A  O ,  (1.4.2) ; 2
4$/  M   O  , "   {A , A , · · · , A }


1 2 n

10
 /   M > {A , A , · · · , A }  !&
. (1.4.1) 9
O = M , 
1 2 n

−−−→ −−−→ −−−→

M A1 + M A2 + · · · + M An = 0. (1.4.3)

   {A , A , · · · , A }  I   * 5 B (1.4.3) 
 M.
1 2 n

   A  B  I M @   AB   
!% - ABC  I M  !D {A, B, C}  I A
JB −−→ 1 −→ −−→ −−→
OM = (OA + OB + OC)
3
$+ BC ,   D * 5 −OD = (OB + OC),  
−→ 1 −−→ −−→
2
−−→ 1 −→ 2 −−→
OM = OA + OD.
3 3
$# M =&!%- ABC  AD &" O = M ,
4B !  M  AD E9 2 : 1  /   M
=&!%-A>,? E9 2 : 1 
 !% -  I @!  +
 1.2 D, E  F !%- ABC , AB, BC  CA 
 (! 1-10).

 1-10
 " ) ) #  #
Ceva %" ! 6 AE, BF  CD +  < 3 ,0

(A, B; D)(B, C; E)(C, A; F ) = 1.

11
 /) 3  !, 6 AE, BF  CD +   M . 
(A, B; D) = λ, (B, C; E) = μ, (C, A; F ) = ν.

 A, B  D !;  - (A, B; D) = λ, ! K (1.4.1) ?

O = M,  −−→ −−→ −−→
1 λ
MD = MA + M B. (1.4.4)
1+λ 1+λ
7 !; =+
M, D, C x  −M−→D = − 1 +x λ M−−→C.
BB (1.4.4),   B
−−→ −−→ −−→
M A + λM B + xM C = 0. (1.4.5)

 /  C " (B, C; E) = μ  (C, A; F ) = ν,  = + y

 z,  −−→ −−→ −−→
y M A + M B + μM C = 0; (1.4.6)
−−→ −−→ −−→
ν M A + z M B + M C = 0. (1.4.7)
4 (1.4.5)  (1.4.6) L C −−→
M B, 4 (1.4.5) (1.4.7) LC −−→
M A,

−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
(1 − λy)M B + (x − λμ)M C = 0, (λν − z)M B + (xν − 1)M C = 0.

7 −−→ −−→
M A, M B  −M−→C  ÆD';  6 
1 − λy = x − λμ = λν − z = xν − 1 = 0.
:.+ 1 1 1
x= , y = , z = , λμν = 1.
ν λ μ
 3 )
&)#< D
 = 5+
/E+ M A J 7  λμν = 1,
 λ = b/a, μ = c/b  ν = a/c.  
    
a, b, c,
O.
−−→ −→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
M A = OA − OM , M B = OB − OM , M C = OC − OM ,
$ H BB (1.4.5), 
−→ −−→ −−→
−−→ a OA + b OB + c OC
OM = . (1.4.8)
a+b+c

12
BC
# 
CA
)#<  D, E F  !%- ABC
(A, B; D)(B, C; E)(C, A; F ) = 1.
, AB,
5
+ a, b  
c,
b c a
(A, B; D) = , (B, C; E) = , (C, A; F ) = .
a b c
F" (1.4.1), 
−−→ a −→ b −−→
OD = OA + OB.
a+b a+b

9 M   * 5 B (1.4.8)  

−−→ a + b −−→ c −−→
OM = OD + OC.
a+b+c a+b+c

$/!
= &6
M
6 DC
AE, BF
 /   M  = &6 AE  BF
 CD +   M . <  )  

# 1-1
1. FME a, b, c FFGHNIGGO
λ1 a + μ1 b + ν1 c = 0, λ2 a + μ2 b + ν2 c = 0,

ÆP {λ , μ , ν }
1 1 1 H HFQGIHIJJKKR LÆ
{λ2 , μ2 , ν2 }
λ1 μ1 ν1
= = .
λ2 μ2 ν2

2. F a, b, c, d HMSMELRLÆM T GIHIJJK λ, μ, ν, ω NN
λa + μb + νc + ωd = 0.

3. F O HJK P J U OLR LÆ A, B, C OOH N JP V PLQM T GIH

IJJK λ, μ H ν, NN
−→ −−→ −
−→
λOA + μOB + ν OC = 0, λ + μ + ν = 0.

4. F A, B, C HRM σ SGH N JOOL O QJK PU OLW JK PU O D

NTRM σ SJPVPLQMT JK λ, μ H ν, NN
−−→ −→ −−→ −
−→
OD = λOA + μOB + ν OC, λ + μ + ν = 1.

13
5. F O HJK P J U OLR LÆ A, B, C, D TOHMJP V PLQM T GI
HIJJK λ, μ, ν H ω, NN
−→ −−→ −
−→ −−→
λOA + μOB + ν OC + ω OD = 0, λ + μ + ν + ω = 0.

F P Q X O OQJORGHMJ ME a, b, c HSJRYOMULF M H
JZ[LVME −OM
6.
−→
P .
7. F A, B, C, D HJK P TOLF M , M , M H M TUQ N V AB, BC,
CD H DA J P OIWPWG \ XLR LÆ M M M M XY U RR Y TS ] I
1 2 3 4

ZGWJZ[^TS ] ABCD JZ[\XL

1 2 3 4

8. R LÆRMS U R _ n S ] J Z[ YHÆZQ ` J `[ L
9. a R T [ 1-10 P O bN AE, BF H CD S cU O M . ad (A, B; D) = λ,
(B, C; E) = μ, (C, A; F ) = ν H OM = k OA + k OB + k OC. VÆ k , k , k .
−−→ −→ −−→ −
−→

10. TJK P J UQ O S \ S TYF Q O S H S . F S, S H S J Z[ TU

1 2 3 1 2 3

Q M , M H M . RLÆM NTNV M M SIZG (M , M ; M ) = |S | : |S |,

1 2 1 2

ÆP |S | H |S | TUQ S H S POJRKL
1 2 1 2 1 2 2 1

11. FOU ] ABC [O A, B, C J\ e SS]TUH a, b, c. R LÆOU ]

1 2 1 2

ORURTNScU O M , ZG M J]fgX^ME^_`aÆ
−→ −
−→ −−→
−−→ aOA + bOB + cOB
OM = .
a+b+c

_[ 1-11 `aID, E, F TUQOU] ABC JORS AB, BC H CA S

JOLbhMEJ^bRL Menelaus cVÆ(A, B; D)(B, C; E)(C, A; F ) = −1.
12.

[ 1-11

14
 $.%&' §2

$ 2.1
   5  
a b  < a, b > a b
W%
%   5   $ 
2.1 a b

a · b = |a||b| cos < a, b > .

 a  b    W%'c: $  1
?2 a · b = 0.
  * 5 a · b = 0   a  b d 6  a ⊥ b.
e  A    2-1 Æ  a ∈ V 6  
)
a = ae + a⊥
e , (2.1.1)
< a  (2.1.1)  a " e i+ ) a
  "  de j  a   a "  e d 6 e j 
e e, a⊥
e ⊥ e. e
⊥
a e e

 2-1
b=b e + b⊥
e  b "  e  i + )
a + b = (ae + be ) + (a⊥ ⊥
e + be ).

 (ae + be ) e, (a⊥ ⊥
e + be ) ⊥ e, 6
(a + b)e = ae + be , (a + b)⊥ ⊥ ⊥
e = ae + be . (2.1.2)

 dej dej2 

d 6 e j     d 6 e j :>4 1-12 
ae = (|a| cos < a, e >)e = (a · e)e. (2.1.3)

15
   2.1 ?2* 5 # #
(1) a · b = b · a;
(2) a · a = |a|2 ;
(3) (λa) · b = λ(a · b);
(4) (a + b) · c = a · c + b · c.

   ?2 ')k#
(1) (2)
/ )  '8  65 (3). λ, a b λ>0 
(λa) · b = λ|a||b| cos < λa, b >= λ|a||b| cos < a, b >= λ(a · b);

 λ < 0 
(λa)·b = |λ||a||b| cos < λa, b >= (−λ)|a||b| cos(π− < a, b >) = λ(a·b).

6  4
(3)
# )#?2  (4) 4 a, b  c  . 
+ A λ e,  c = λe. *F" (2.1.3) <"  (3),
F"
ae · e = a · e.
C "$ F" X (2.1.2)  (2.1.3)  
(a + b) · e = (a + b)e · e = (ae + be ) · e = [((a · e) + (b · e))e] · e = a · e + b · e.

,3  λ, A  (4). 

# $+ ?2 <"
 2.1−−→ !%-−→ABC !% A, B, C * < ,  a, b,
c. 9 a = CB, b = CA, c = AB. 7  c = a − b, ?-
−
−→

−−→ −→
a · b = |a||b| cos < CB, CA >= ab cos C,

C " ?2  
c2 = c · c = (a − b) · (a − b) = |a|2 + |b|2 − 2a · b = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos C.

$i!%-lf 
16
  2.2 !% - ABC ,e BD  CE +   O. 
−→ −−→ −−
→
OA = a, OB = b, OC = c.
 −
−→ −→
c · (b − a) = c · AB = 0, b · (c − a) = c · AC = 0.
 
−−→
a · BC = a · (c − b) = b · (c − a) − c · (b − a) = 0.

$/ )#$#.!%-!e+  
% d6A  
Ai+ 
2.2 {e1 , e2 , e3 }

    A i +  *Æ 
 
2.2 {e1 , e2 , e3 }
c
c = (c · e1 )e1 + (c · e2 )e2 + (c · e3 )e3 . (2.1.4)

 7 ';; Æ  6 )
e1 , e2 , e3 c
c = λe1 + μe2 + νe3 .
B,   m ?2?C " ?2   
e1 , e2 e3

λ = c · e1 , μ = c · e2 ν = c · e3 . .
    A i + 1 
&$> #E@  
2.3 {e1 , e2 , e3 } a, b
 (a1 , a2 , a3 ) (b1 , b2 , b3 ).
a · b = a1 b 1 + a2 b 2 + a3 b 3 . (2.1.5)

 7
e1 · e1 = e2 · e2 = e3 · e3 = 1, e1 · e2 = e1 · e3 = e2 · e3 = 0, (2.1.6)

C "  
a · b = (a1 e1 + a2 e2 + a3 e3 ) · (b1 e1 + b2 e2 + b3 e3 ) = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 .


% 2.2
    >   ;  O.
  #  3 -  -3   3 - 74#
{a, b, c} V
2-2

17
   n gh oo a   i oo b    k
2 oo c   2
(1)

(2)   p gh oo a   i oo b    k

2 oo c   

 2-2
3 - (1) 74  {a, b, c}  n g6 @Y 2
3 - (2) 74  {a, b, c} p g6 @Y 
G. >  ng6. pg6   jZk q
[l"'()  {a, b, c} ng6 {b, c, a}  {c, a, b}
. n g6 {b, a, c}, {a, c, b}  {c, b, a}   p g6
% 2.2 a, b    a  b Æ 1
a × b     a  b ' Æ    a × b * 5
#,0  #
(1) a × b  a,b 6d 6 2

(2) {a, b, a × b}   n g6@Y2

(3) |a × b| = |a||b| sin < a, b >.

  a × b  a  b >2
e A    &     O,  % &  @  O
?  e d 6 ;−→Σ. *Æ   e d 6   −→a, % & Σ 
  A,  a = OA.   O  I   OA nr 90 , 
   ρ (a)(! 2-3).
◦

 2-3

18
 12 ρ (a)  O  , " a  b = & e d 6 
; Σ   f\ Æ $, - )   a + b  = & ; Σ 
e

7 ρ sÆ$,-nr 90 , 4 2-3 

e
◦

ρe (a + b) = ρe (a) + ρe (b). (2.2.1)

 A    .    " 
d 6 e j 
2.3 e a a⊥
e a e

e × a = ρe (a⊥
e ), (2.2.2)
<    "  d 6 e j 
a⊥
   Æ 894  
e a e

' Æ   6d 6  
a e e × a = 0 = ρe (a⊥
e ), a
e e×a ρe (a⊥
e ) e a.

|e × a| = |a| sin < a, e >= |a⊥ ⊥

e | = |ρe (ae )|,

ng6 >6
?- {e, a, ρ (a ⊥
e )} e × a = ρe (a⊥
e ). 

  >2*5# #
e

2.4
(1) a × b = −b × a;
(2) (λa) × b = λ(a × b);
(3) (a + b) × c = a × c + b × c.

  a  b Æ  (1)  (2) 124  a  b '

 Æ  '() a × b  −b × a, (λa) × b  λ(a × b)  
  6  (1)  (2)  4
 ) #  (3). A  e + λ  c = λe. C "
(2.2.2), (2.1.2), (2.2.1)   (2) 

c × (a + b) = λe × (a + b) = λρe ((a + b)⊥ ⊥ ⊥

e ) = λρe ((ae + be )

= λ(ρe (a⊥ ⊥
e ) + ρe (be )) = λ(e × a + e × b) = c × a + c × b.

tC"   (1), (3). .

       n g6A i +
   &$> # E @ 
2.5 {e1 , e2 , e3 }

 &$> #E@
a b (a1 , a2 , a3 ) (b1 , b2 , b3 ).
a×b

(a2 b3 − a3 b2 , a3 b1 − a1 b3 , a1 b2 − a2 b1 ).

19
 7 {e1 , e2 , e3 }  n g6A i + 
e1 × e2 = e3 , e2 × e3 = e1 , e3 × e1 = e2 . (2.2.3)

C " 89 2.4 

a × b = (a1 e1 + a2 e2 + a3 e3 ) × (b1 e1 + b2 e2 + b3 e3 )

= (a2 b3 − a3 b2 )e1 + (a3 b1 − a1 b3 )e2 + (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )e3 . (2.2.4)



 2.6 a, b  c   !  

(a × b) × c = (a · c)b − (b · c)a.

 + λ A e ,  c = λe .   e d6
A  e , ?9 e = e × e .  {e , e , e }     n g
1 1 1

6A i + 9 a = a e + a e + a e  b = b e + b e + b e .
2 3 1 2 1 2 3

C " (2.2.4) 

1 1 2 2 3 3 1 1 2 2 3 3

(a × b) × e1 = (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )e2 − (a3 b1 − a1 b3 )e3 .

 6 ] 
(a · e1 )b − (b · e1 )a = (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )e2 − (a3 b1 − a1 b3 )e3 = (a × b) × e1 .

&",3 λ, Am$89 ) # 
'
2.3
% 2.3 a, b, c !   
[a, b, c] = (a × b) · c

2
    n g6A i +@Y
 &$> @Y# E @ 
2.7 {e1 , e2 , e3 }
 

a,b c (a1 , a2 , a3 ), (b1 , b2 , b3 )
(c1 , c2 , c3 ).

[a, b, c] = a1 b2 c3 + a2 b3 c1 + a3 b1 c2 − a1 b3 c2 − a2 b1 c3 − a3 b2 c1 . (2.3.1)

20
 89 2.5  
a × b = (a2 b3 − a3 b2 )e1 + (a3 b1 − a1 b3 )e2 + (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )e3 .

 c = c1 e 1 + c2 e 2 + c3 e 3
(2.3.1). 
C " (2.1.5) 6 ] F"


$A  

ÆZ"
 a1 b1 c1 

 a2 b2 c2  = a1 b2 c3 +a2 b3 c1 +a3 b1 c2 −a1 b3 c2 −a2 b1 c3 −a3 b2 c1 . (2.3.2)

 a3 b3 c3 

 '() Æ Z"* 5 #  #
(1)   Æ Z"  Z*Æ Z"3( g7#
       
b1 a1 c1  c1 b1 a1  a1 c1 b1  a1 b1 c1 
 
b2 a2 c2  = c2 b2 a2  = a2 c2 b2  = − a2
 b2 c2  . (2.3.3)

b3 a3 c3  c3 b3 a3   a3 c3 b3  a3 b3 c3 

(2)   Æ Z"  Z^ Æ _Æ Z"'h#

     
 a1 b1 c1  b1 c1 a1  c1 a1 b1 

 a2 b2 c2  = b2 c2 a2  = c2 a2 b2  . (2.3.4)

 a3 b3 c3   b 3 c3 a 3   c3 a3 b3 

(3) ÆZ"*>@

Z   i Z:   #
    
λa1 + μb1 c1 d1   a1 c1 d1  b1 c1 d1 
  
λa2 + μb2 c2 d2  = λ a2
 c2 d2  + μ b2
 c2 d2  . (2.3.5)

λa3 + μb3 c3 d3   a3 c3 d3  b3 c3 d3 

(4)  Æ Z"Zh Æ Æ Z"'h#

   
 a1 b1 c1  a1 a2 a3 

 a2 b2 c2  =  b1 b2 b3  . (2.3.6)

 a3 b3 c3   c1 c2 c3 

C"   !ÆZ"   (3) * Æ0 h

 /4
(4) (1), (2)

 ÆZ"  
(2.3.1)
 
 a1 b1 c1 

[a, b, c] = a2 b2 c2  . (2.3.7)
 a3 b3 c3 

21
C " (2.3.7)  Æ Z"      6   #89
 2.8  2*5# #
(1) & # [b, a, c] = [c, b, a] = [a, c, b] = −[a, b, c];

(2) _* # [a, b, c] = [b, c, a] = [c, a, b];

(3) *>h   : #[λa + μb, c, d] = λ[a, b, c] + μ[b, c, d].

 2.1 ! a, b, c ;;<3,0 [a, b, c] = 0.
 / ) 3  a, b, c ;; <       "A>
    > '8 c = λa + μb. 7  a × b  a  b 6d
6 
[a, b, c] = (a × b) · c = (a × b) · (λa + μb) = 0.

6 3 4:>*!';;  a, b, c  {a, b, a × b}
  > 6  c " c = λa + μb + νa × b
 - "<  ν = 0. $  
[a, b, c] = (a × b) · c = ν|a × b|2 = 0.

   ;;6<  4

[a, b, c] = 0, a, b, c 
# `j 2Æ. !';;
       Æ a; !
{a, b, c}
( 2-4).

 2-4
 >2 
a × b = |a||b| sin < a, b > ξ,

22
<  ξ   d 6 A  ?- (a, b, ξ)   n g
6 
a, b

(a × b) · c = |a||b| sin < a, b > (ξ · c).

   a  b 4 Æ $, - ;2
Æa;e6# {a, b, c} ng6@Yξ ·c > 0,
|a||b| sin < a, b >

$  Æ a;2 V k;23

h = |ξ ·c|
@
 p g6@Y ξ · c < 0 $  [a, b, c] = −V .
[a, b, c] (a, b, c)
e 2 {a, b, c}
 G. i   89 2.8    (2) 4  !  
 Æ a;!=k;23e> H 
 2.9 *.$ # Lagrange F"
(a × b) · (c × d) = (a · c)(b · d) − (a · d)(b · c).

#2_* X89 2.6, 

(a × b) · (c × d) = [a × b, c, d] = ((a × b) × c) · d

= ((a · c)b − (b · c)a) · d = (a · c)(b · d) − (a · d)(b · c).



u()Æ*+,
2.4

  n; *- v bÆ* w    

An; I& n; > 6* < " 
S2

I *  *c
O P . P 
O
P
S2

 5*c   / - x d
  = & $ - x d
P, Q S2 P Q
! : ;
5*c

+  - x d'n;= 6 > n;
S2
P Q

: n; ,= 6 >
 O,P ,Q

 2-5(a)  2-5(b)

23
  2-6

n;Æ,-xd +*c!l - xd
!%-n;!%- ΔABC  n;!%-$!
- x dA>!+ A  B  C   ΔABC *
n;!% - ΔA B C ! 2-6 
  

l - x d AB,  a, b  c.  "

  

 BC  CA 

 7 A "- x d AB  AC
  & ;  W%- 2 
B - x d BC  & ;  W%- 2  C - x d
  BA
CA  CB & ;  W%- 2 
 
%" 2.1 n; ΔABC ;2 Δ = A + B + C − π.
  A - x d+  *c A  A . 7  s A
n;;2 4π  $ +% A - x dl#=oe


p>l ;2 (A/π) · 4π = 4A.  G.  A %=oe

p> B %=oep> C %=oep> & @
fmnn;!% - ΔABC  ΔA B C !omnn;< l 
l o 
  

4A + 4B + 4C = 2Δ + 2Δ + 4π.

 ΔA B  C  ΔABC ;2  6 Δ = A + B + C − π. 

 2.2 n;!% - ?%-  π.
%"
, 
2.2 ΔABC n;!% - % A  B  C * < !,
a, b  c.  #

(1)if # sin
sin a
A
=
sin b
sin B
=
sin c
sin C
;

(2)lf # cos c = cos a cos b + sin a sin b cos C.

24
 −→ −−→ −−→
OA = a, OB = b, OC = c.  a, b, c A  

 2-7
4 2-7   #W%F"
< a, b >= c, < b, c >= a, < c, a >= b; (2.4.1)

< a×b, a×c >= A, < b×a, b×c >= B, < c×a, c×b >= C. (2.4.2)

/ )i f  89 2.6, 
(a × b) × (a × c) = [a, b, c]a;

(b × a) × (b × c) = [b, a, c]b;
(c × a) × (c × b) = [c, a, b]c.
:.+
|(a × b) × (a × c)| = |(b × a) × (b × c)| = |(c × a) × (c × b)|. (2.4.3)

 (2.4.1), (2.4.2), (2.4.3)   >2  

sin c sin b sin A = sin c sin a sin B = sin b sin a sin C.

if )
# )#lf  Lagrange F"  
(c × b) · (c × a) = (c · c)(a · b) − (c · b)(c · a). (2.4.4)

W%F" (2.4.1), (2.4.2), (2.4.4) ?2  

sin a sin b cos A = cos c − cos a cos b.

25
 lf ) 
C " n;!% - ;2F" ) #  #
%" qgF" r; D  h 
;  
2.3 P v,

 ;>;,- ,*%,- E'

e f v − e + f = 2.

, - $ h; y ! D 'h 

hC " *%  ;>; E!% - 
v−e+f
i
&ph     '88 ;   ;  !% - 
?l  9    I An;C "
P
v −e+f

 I s  ; ";e j n; ;>!%

P O S2 O O

--; n;!% -  s n; q$ n;!%

n;!% mn$ ;  D ,h
S2
P S2
S2

  ;>; !?%
v e f
;
  ;2F" 
{Δ1 , Δ2 , · · · , Δf } Δi αi ,
βi γi . Δi = αi + βi + γi − π.
f
 f

4π = Δi = (αi + βi + γi ) − f π.
i=1 i=1

B$ n;!% 7 -?%!&  

>;!,h  ;< ,h
2πv, 4π = 2πv −
fπ

r>,h@t
:
;$/ @f>,h $o6
2v − f = 4.
3f
v − e + f = v − f /2 = 2. 
f 3f
3f = 2e.

# 1-2
bhMEbRLÆR YTS ] TSJR^Hsc \U N JR^HL
bhMEbRLÆOU] O PN ]tJR^Hs c OS]tR^HJ
1.
3/4.
MELRLÆ_jME GO
2.

W FuHIMHORGHMJ
3.
EL
a, b, c d d·a = d·b = d·c = 0,

JF\\kl \ v b Lb hM Eb R LÆTMUJm U \
d
FTMU
\kzvbIZGO\\k]tJR^H \ sL
4. ABCD

F HUR_ S]L
RLME^_
5. A1 A2 · · · An n
(i)
−−−→ −−−→ −−−→
A1 A2 + A2 A3 + · · · An A1 = 0.
nh oRLX^psu
(ii) (i)

2π 4π (2n − 2)π
1 + cos + cos + · · · + cos = 0;
n n n

26
 2π 4π (2n − 2)π
sin + sin + · · · + sin = 0.
n n n

6. RLÆ\MSME a, b, c, X^J Jacobi psuYqÆ

(a × b) × c + (b × c) × a + (c × a) × b = 0.

P|URLÆ
7.
RHIMEL
|[a, b, c]| ≤ |a||b||c|, GsuYqwGrw a, b, c l\vbIs{Æ
[Link]Æ
(a × b) × (c × d) = [a, b, d]c − [a, b, c]d = [a, c, d]b − [b, c, d]a.

9. RLÆ\MSME a, b, c, d, |
[b, c, d]a + [c, a, d]b + [a, b, d]c + [b, a, c]d = 0.

10. F a, b, c HORGHMJMELRLÆMtM E d uTvYH

[d, b, c] [a, d, c] [a, b, d]
d= a+ b+ c.
[a, b, c] [a, b, c] [a, b, c]

11. F a, b, c H a, b, c HMSJFQMELR LÆ
[a × a, b × b, c × c] = [a, b, b][a, c, c] − [a, c, c][a, b, b].

RLÆ_j HMIW a × b, b × c, c × a zHML

RLÆ_j (a, b, c) Q U RxwIW (a × b, b × c, c × a) Q U R } vwx
12. a, b, c

wL
13.

14. F a, b, c HORGHMJMELRLÆx cM E x J^_Q

x · a = λ, x · b = μ, x · c = ν,

|xUvIH λb × c + μc × a + νa × b
x= .
[a, b, c]

bhqUytJ^b R LÆTMUJTRyzMz{|}\ sK
16. R LÆTyMS~ ` {zÆ b | ~ α UINJ{}|MzH 4α. (}
15.

aÆ~~ a = 2πq J]IÆP q H|VK)

27