Republic of the Philippines
SURIGAO DEL NORTE STATE UNIVERSITY
Narciso Street, Surigao City 8400, Philippines
“For Nation’s
Jennie Babe D. Navarra Course & Year: Bsce-3b
Maxene Sigrid T. Borja Date: February 8, 2025
Topic: III. Water Balance
Pretest.
Instruction: Test your knowledge about the course to know your readiness and
preparation. Answer what is required in the test stem.
1. What are the different forms of water balance in the hydrologic cycle.
1. Precipitation: Input of water from the atmosphere (rain, snow, etc.).
2. Evaporation: Water changing from liquid to vapor and entering the atmosphere.
3. Transpiration: Water vapor released from plants into the atmosphere.
4. Infiltration: Water soaking into the soil and replenishing groundwater.
5. Runoff: Water flowing over land surfaces back to rivers, lakes, and oceans.
6. Groundwater Recharge: Surface water seeping into the ground to replenish aquifers.
7. Water Storage: Holding of water in various forms, including in rivers, lakes, snowpack,
and underground aquifers.
2. Estimate roughly the water balance of a river or water shed.
Estimating the water balance of a river or watershed involves accounting for all the inputs,
outputs, and changes in storage of water within the system over a specific period. The general
water balance equation is:
P = ET + Q + ΔS
Where:
P = Precipitation (input)
ET = Evapotranspiration (output)
Q = Streamflow or runoff (output)
ΔS = Change in storage (soil moisture, groundwater, surface water, etc.)
Assume a watershed with the following data over a year:
Republic of the Philippines
SURIGAO DEL NORTE STATE UNIVERSITY
Narciso Street, Surigao City 8400, Philippines
“For Nation’s
Precipitation (P): 1,200 mm/year
Evapotranspiration (ET): 800 mm/year
Streamflow (Q): 300 mm/year
Change in Storage (ΔS): 100 mm/year (increase in storage)
Using the water balance equation:
P = ET + Q + ΔS
1,200 = 800 + 300 + 100
1,200 = 1,200 (balanced)
IV. Self- Evaluation
Direction. Here is some situations and problems that you can do to challenge your
communication and analytical skills.
1. For the country in which you are currently residing, find out the main components of
water balance: average precipitation, average river flow, and average ET.
- The Philippines has a tropical climate with heavy rainfall, averaging about 2,400 mm per year,
though amounts vary by location due to monsoons and typhoons. River flow rates also change
based on seasonal rainfall and watershed conditions. For example, the Cagayan River has an
average discharge of 1,500 m³/s, but this differs across river systems. Evapotranspiration, the
process of water moving from land to the atmosphere through evaporation and plant
transpiration, is also high due to warm temperatures and dense vegetation, averaging 1,200 to
1,800 mm per year.
2. Find out the river basin in which you are living and the components mentioned in
Question 3.1 for that river basin. Compare these values for the continent in which you are
living, as given in Table 3.3.
- The Surigao River Basin, situated in Asia, aligns with the continent-wide trends shown in Table
3.3. Asia experiences an average precipitation of 740 mm, close to the global standard of 800
mm. Its evaporation rate reaches 416 mm, leading to notable water loss, while its runoff
measures 324 mm—higher than Africa’s 153 mm but lower than South America’s 685 mm.
According to Table 3.1, the majority of the world's freshwater is stored in glaciers and permanent
snow cover (69.7%), followed by groundwater (30.1%), while lakes (0.26%) and river flows
(0.006%) hold only minor portions. Given these global distributions, the Surigao River Basin
likely follows a similar pattern, depending on groundwater as a primary freshwater source while
contributing to regional water circulation through precipitation and runoff.
Republic of the Philippines
SURIGAO DEL NORTE STATE UNIVERSITY
Narciso Street, Surigao City 8400, Philippines
“For Nation’s
3. If in a catchment with area of 20,000 km , the dominant land use changes from forest to
agriculture over a period of 10 years, which water-balance component will change the
most, and why?
- Over a 10-year period, as a 20,000 km² catchment transitions from forest to agricultural land,
evapotranspiration (ET) will experience the most significant change. Forests generally have
higher ET due to their dense canopy and extensive leaf area, which facilitate greater water
release into the atmosphere. In contrast, agricultural land tends to have lower ET because of
reduced vegetation cover and differing water consumption patterns. Although surface runoff may
rise due to decreased soil infiltration, the primary impact of this land-use shift will be a decline in
evapotranspiration.
4. Compare Tables 2.1 and 3.2 and note the differences. See that when we try to obtain
estimates of a quantity from different sources, there are differences. Can you obtain better
estimates of these quantities?
- Tables 2.1 and 3.2 show different estimates of global freshwater distribution, reflecting
variations in data collection methods and assumptions. Table 3.2 estimates a total freshwater
volume of 37,500 × 10³ km³, while Table 2.1 reports 35,029 × 10³ km³. The most significant
difference is in glaciers and ice caps, with Table 3.2 estimating 29,000 × 10³ km³ (77.33% of
freshwater) compared to 24,064 × 10³ km³ (69.7%) in Table 2.1. Groundwater values also differ,
as Table 2.1 lists 23,400 × 10³ km³ (30.1%), whereas Table 3.2 records only 8,300 × 10³ km³
(22.14%). Additionally, estimates for lakes and rivers are lower in Table 3.2. These discrepancies
result from differences in definitions, measurement techniques, and data sources. More precise
estimates can be achieved using advanced satellite observations, refined groundwater
assessments, and a combination of multiple data sets.
5. For a small, rural watershed in a semiarid climate, tabulate the relative significance of
rainfall, surface runoff, interflow, baseflow, groundwater flow, infiltration, and ET at
hourly, daily, monthly, and yearly time scales. Do the same for a similarsize watershed in a
humid climate.
Semiarid Climate
Process Hourly Daily Monthly Yearly
Rainfall High Moderate Low Low
Surface Runoff High Moderate Low Low
Interflow Low Low Low Low
Baseflow Low Low Low Low
Groundwater Flow Very Low Very Low Very Low Very Low
Infiltration Moderate Moderate Low Low
Et Low Moderate High High
Republic of the Philippines
SURIGAO DEL NORTE STATE UNIVERSITY
Narciso Street, Surigao City 8400, Philippines
“For Nation’s
Humid Climate
Process Hourly Daily Monthly Yearly
Rainfall High High High High
Surface Runoff High High Moderate Moderate
Interflow Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate
Baseflow Moderate High High High
Groundwater Flow Low Moderate High High
Infiltration High High High High
Et Low Moderate High High
VI. POST TEST
1. For large watershed in a semiarid climate, tabulate the relative significance of rainfall,
surface runoff, interflow, baseflow, groundwater flow, infiltration, and ET at hourly, daily,
monthly, and yearly time scales.
Process Hourly Daily Monthly Yearly
Rainfall High Moderate Low Low
Surface Runoff Moderate High Moderate Low
Interflow Low Moderate Moderate Low
Baseflow Low Moderate Moderate Moderate
Groundwater Flow Very Low Low Moderate Moderate
Infiltration Moderate Moderate Low Low
Et Low Moderate High High
2. Consider a small urban watershed and repeat the same exercise as in Question 1.
Process Hourly Daily Monthly Yearly
Rainfall High High Moderate Low
Surface Runoff High High Moderate Moderate
Interflow Low Low Low Low
Baseflow Low Low Low Low
Groundwater Flow Low Low Low Low
Infiltration Low Low Low Low
Et Moderate Moderate High High
3. Consider a large urban watershed and repeat the same exercise as in Question 1.
Process Hourly Daily Monthly Yearly
Republic of the Philippines
SURIGAO DEL NORTE STATE UNIVERSITY
Narciso Street, Surigao City 8400, Philippines
“For Nation’s
Rainfall High High Moderate Low
Surface Runoff High High High Moderate
Interflow Low Low Low Low
Baseflow Low Low Low Low
Groundwater Flow Low Low Low Low
Infiltration Low Low Low Low
Et Moderate Moderate High High
4. When doing the water balance of a watershed, what key assumptions one makes with
regard to space-time variability of different hydrologic-cycle components?
- Water balance calculations for watersheds rely on simplifying assumptions about how water
moves and is stored. These include assuming even rainfall distribution, uniform soil and land
cover characteristics, and constant rates of processes like infiltration and evapotranspiration,
which are all rarely true in reality. While these simplifications make the calculations manageable,
they introduce uncertainty. More accurate results require detailed spatial data, dynamic
hydrological models, and on-the-ground measurements to capture the inherent variability of the
water cycle.
5. What are the main sources of error when computing the water balance of a watershed?
- Errors in watershed water balance calculations stem from several sources: inaccurate
measurements of rainfall and streamflow, difficulties in estimating evapotranspiration and
subsurface flows (infiltration and interflow), and limitations of simplified hydrological models.
Model assumptions about uniform conditions (precipitation, soil, land cover) often don't reflect
reality, and data gaps or poor data quality further compound the problem. Improving data
collection, using more sophisticated models, and incorporating field measurements can help
reduce these errors, but uncertainties will always remain given the complexity of the
hydrological cycle.
6. Consider a small watershed with an area of 1,000 hectares. This watershed received
rainfall that occurred at an average rate of 2 cm/h for 2 hours. If all this water were
collected in a reservoir whose size is 100 m by 100 m, then what would be the depth of
water in this reservoir?
Given:
Watershed Area = 1,000 hectares = 10,000,000 m²
Rainfall Intensity = 2 cm/h = 0.02 m/h
Duration of Rainfall = 2 hours
Reservoir Dimensions = 100 m × 100 m
Republic of the Philippines
SURIGAO DEL NORTE STATE UNIVERSITY
Narciso Street, Surigao City 8400, Philippines
“For Nation’s
Total Rainfall Depth = Rainfall Intensity × Duration
0.02×2= 0.04m
Total Rainfall Volume= Watershed Area×Total Rainfall Depth
(10,000,000 m2)×(0.04 m) = 400,000 m^3
Reservoir Area=100×100=10,000 m2
Reservoir Depth= Total Rainfall Volume / Reservoir Area
400,000 / 10, 000= 40m
7. A large rainstorm producing rainfall of 200 mm/h for 10 hours occurs in an area, and
about 25% of this storm becomes runoff. What would be the size of the reservoir in ha-m
that would capture the entire runoff?
Rainfall Rate: 200 mm/h
Duration: 10 hours
200 mm/h=0.2 m/h
Total Rainfall Depth=0.2 m/h×10 h=2 m
Runoff Percentage: 25% of the total rainfall
Runoff Depth=2 m×0.25=0.5 m
Runoff Volume per Unit Area=0.5 m
Runoff Volume=0.5 ha-m
Reservoir Size=0.5 ha-m
8. Consider rainfall, interception, depression storage, infiltration, ET, and runoff. Which
components are most affected and which are not affected by high urbanization? Which
components are most affected and which are not affected by forestation?
- Urbanization disrupts the hydrological cycle by reducing infiltration and increasing surface
runoff. Impervious surfaces like roads and rooftops prevent water from seeping into the soil,
leading to rapid peak flows and heightened flood risks, as seen in city like Manila.
Evapotranspiration also declines due to vegetation loss, intensifying urban heat islands. While
rainfall patterns remain unchanged, water moves faster, worsening flood hazards and reducing
groundwater recharge.
In contrast, forestation slows the water cycle and enhances groundwater recharge. Dense
canopies intercept rainfall, while tree roots improve soil permeability, as seen in reforestation
Republic of the Philippines
SURIGAO DEL NORTE STATE UNIVERSITY
Narciso Street, Surigao City 8400, Philippines
“For Nation’s
projects in the Amazon and China’s Loess Plateau. Higher evapotranspiration further stabilizes
local climates. Ultimately, urbanization accelerates surface water movement, increasing flood
risks, while forestation promotes a balanced and sustainable hydrological cycle.
9. Which of the components listed in Question 3.13 is most important on an interstate
highway?
10. Consider a watershed changing from rural to part urban, and part rural to part urban,
and part forested to fully urban. Discuss the relative significance of the components of the
hydrologic cycle from one state of the watershed to the other.
- The transformation of a watershed from rural or forested land to an urban environment
profoundly reshapes its hydrological functioning. The high rates of infiltration and
evapotranspiration characteristic of natural landscapes are dramatically reduced as impervious
surfaces like roads and buildings replace permeable soils and vegetation. This leads to a
significant increase in surface runoff, accelerating the flow of water and increasing the volume
and frequency of peak flows, thereby raising the risk of flooding. Simultaneously, groundwater
recharge is diminished, resulting in lower baseflow and potentially decreased water availability
during drier periods. The altered timing and magnitude of streamflow further disrupt the natural
hydrological balance. To mitigate these negative consequences and ensure sustainable water
management in urban areas, the implementation of green infrastructure, improved stormwater
management systems, and other water-sensitive urban design strategies are crucial.