MODULE 3, INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONIC DEVICES

MODULE 3
Introduction to Electronic devices

 Passive and active components in electronics

 Working of PN junction diode, V-I characteristics of PN Junction diode,
Zener diode and avalanche breakdown. Basics of Zener voltage regulator
 Block diagram of DC power supply, circuit and working of half wave, full
wave and bridge rectifiers, ripple factor (with and without capacitor filters)
 Construction, working and V-I Characteristics of BJT, Input output
characteristics of CE configuration, Comparison of CE, CB and CC
configurations
 Concept of biasing and load line
 Transistor as a switch, Transistor as an amplifier (Circuit Diagram and
working)
 RC coupled amplifier - Circuit diagram and frequency response
 Introduction to FET, Construction and working of N-channel and P-Channel
MOSFETs

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MODULE 3, INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONIC DEVICES

PASSIVE AND ACTIVE COMPONENTS IN ELECTRONICS

Active Components

An active component is an electronic component which supplies energy to a

circuit.

Common examples of active components include:

 Voltage sources
 Current sources
 Generators (such as alternators and DC generators)
 All different types of transistors (such as bipolar junction transistors,
MOSFETS, FETs, and JFET)
 Diodes (such as Zener diodes, photodiodes, Schottky diodes, and LEDs)

 Voltage Sources

A voltage source is an example of an active component in a circuit. When current

leaves from the positive terminal of the voltage source, energy is being supplied to
the circuit. As per the definition of an active element, a battery can also be
considered as an active element, as it continuously delivers energy to the circuit
during discharging.

 Current Sources

A current source is also considered an active component. The current supplied to

the circuit by an ideal current source is independent of circuit voltage. As a current
source is controlling the flow of charge in a circuit, it is classified as an active
element.

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 Transistors

Although not as obvious as a current or voltage source – transistors are also an

active circuit component. This is because transistors are able to amplify the power
of a signal (see our article on transisors as an amplifier if you want to know exactly
how).

Passive Components

A passive component is an electronic component which can only receive energy,

which it can either dissipate, absorb or store it in an electric field or a magnetic
field. Passive elements do not need any form of electrical power to operate.

As the name ‘passive’ suggests – passive devices do not provide gain or

amplification. Passive components cannot amplify, oscillate, or generate an
electrical signal.

Common examples of passive components include:

 Resistors
 Inductors
 Capacitors
 Transformers

 Resistors

A resistor is taken as a passive element since it can not deliver any energy to a
circuit. Instead resistors can only receive energy which they can dissipate as heat
as long as current flows through it.

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MODULE 3, INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONIC DEVICES

 Inductors

An inductor is also considered as passive element of circuit, because it can store

energy in it as a magnetic field, and can deliver that energy to the circuit, but not in
continuous basis. The energy absorbing and delivering capacity of an inductor is
limited and transient in nature. That is why an inductor is taken as a passive
element of a circuit.

 Capacitors

A capacitor is considered as a passive element because it can store energy in it as

electricfield. The energy dealing capacity of a capacitor is limited and transient – it
is not actually supplying energy, it is storing it for later use.

As such it is not considered an active component since no energy is being supplied

or amplified.

 Transformers

A transformer is also a passive electronic component. Although this can seem

surprising since transformers are often used to raise voltage levels – remember that
power is kept constant.

When transformers step up (or step down) voltage, power and energy remain the
same on the primary and secondary side. As energy is not actually being amplified
– a transformer is classified as a passive element.

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PN JUNCTION DIODE

 A PN junction diode, as the name itself suggests, is an interface that acts as a

boundary between two types, P and N, especially inside a semiconductor.
 This diode is created by a method called doping. This process is possible
because the P diode has an excess number of holes, and the N diode has an
excess number of electrons.
 Moreover, the region formed between the two diodes is also known as the
depletion region, where both positive and negative charges are located on
either side of the junctions.
 A semiconductor is a material with its conductivity lying between
conductors and insulators.
 Semiconductors fall under the category of intrinsic and extrinsic
semiconductors, where the latter are sub-segmented as N-type and P-type
semiconductors.
 Where a junction is created between these two semiconductors, it is referred
to as P-N Junction.
 A diode in this regard is a device that regulates the electric flow inside a
circuit.

P-N Junction Diode Diagram

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From the above P-N junction diode diagram, as you can see, the blue region
represents the neutral n-region or the N diode in the semiconductor. While the
orange color represents the neutral p-region or the n diode. And you can also
observe that the n-diode is filled with positive electrons, and the p-diode is full of
negative electrons. And the region in between where the positive and negative
regions come in contact is the depleted region.

Formation of P-N Junction

The P-N junction is created through the doping method where the p-side has an
excess of holes, and the n-side features an excess of electrons.

When we employ multiple semiconductor materials to create a P-N junction, a

grain boundary is created that restricts electrons’ movement in two ways. This
happens due to the scattering of electrons and holes, which is called doping. What
follows the formation of the PN junction are – diffusion and drift. These confirm
the difference in the concentration of holes and electrons on both sides of the
junction. The holes from the p-side diffuse towards the n-side, whereas electrons
on the n-side diffuse to the p-side. This results in the diffusion current across the
junction.

PN Junction Diode Working

Firstly, to understand how a PN junction diode works, we need to learn more about
the two operating systems, and the general bias conditions.

1. Zero Bias

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There is no external voltage applied in this semiconductor, which means there is no

change in the state of electrons or diodes.

2. Forward Bias

Typically, in the forward bias of a semiconductor circuit, the p-type diode is

connected directly to the positive terminal, and the n-type diode is connected to the
negative terminal. This type of semi-conductor circuit is known as forwarding bias.
Moreover, once the electricity is turned on, the different electric fields are acting in
opposite directions. However, in the case of forward bias, the resultant magnitude
of the electric field is lesser, which means the depleted field observed in the circuit
will be thinner.

So as the applied voltage is increased, the depleted region in the semi-conductor

will attain a negligible state. At a point when the resistance of the depletion area
becomes negligible, it facilitates the free flow of current.

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In forward bias, the key components that you learn about are battery-induced
electric field, built-in electric field, conventional current, and electron current

3. Reverse Bias

In the reverse bias of the PN Junction, the p-type diode is directly connected to the
negative terminal, whereas the n-type diode is linked to the positive terminal.
Unlike the forwards bias system, in the case of reverse bias, both the built-in
electric field, as well as the electric current is in the same direction, which in turn
creates more resistance inside the semi-conductor. That will result in the increase
of the depleted region in P-N Junction. And along with the increase, the size of the
depleted region will also increase.

In case of reverse bias, please make note of the following aspects for improved
learning – battery-induced electric field and built-in electric field

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PN Junction Diode Characteristics

P-N Junction Diode characteristics based on bias:

1. Zero Bias

No external voltage to the P-N junction diode at zero bias, which means the
obstruction at the junction stops current from passing.

2. Forward bias

As explained, in The P-N junction diode when in forwarding bias, the p-type is
linked to the positive terminal of the external voltage, and the n-type to the
negative. The potential barrier is thinned down due to this position of the diode. At
a voltage of 0.7 V for silicon diodes and 0.3 V for germanium diodes, these
barriers fall to let the current pass.

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In forward bias, the current grows gradually, and the curve formed will be non-
linear due to the voltage supplied to the diode overpowering the barrier. After
crossing the barrier, the diode functions normally, and the curve goes up faster
when the external voltage rises, making way for a linear curve.

3. Reverse Bias

In the reverse bias of the PN junction diode, the p-type is linked to the negative
terminal of the external voltage, whereas the n-type is connected to the positive
terminal. Due to this, the potential barrier increases in significance. Also owing to
minority carriers’ presence, a reverse saturation current occurs initially.

With the rising of the applied voltage, the kinetic energy of the minority charges
rises, thus affecting the charges. At this point, the diode fails and can even result in
self-destruction.

Application of PN Junction Diode

 In general, the PN junction diode is used as a rectifier to convert AC current

into DC current
 In electrical circuit, the diode is deployed as a switch that turns on and off
small circuits inside a more complex circuit
 It can be used as solar cells
 LED applications
 Equipment like oscillators and electric circuits

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ZENER DIODE

Zener Diode is one of the most important semiconductor diodes used in our daily
life. It is a specific diode that works in reverse bias conditions. It allows current to
flow from anode to cathode and it also works in the reverse direction.

A heavily doped p-n junction diode that works in reverse bias conditions is called a
Zener Diode. They are special semiconductor devices that allow the current to flow
in both forward and backward directions. For the Zener diode, the voltage drop
across the diode is always constant irrespective of the applied voltage. Thus, Zener
diodes are used as a voltage regulator.

Zener Diode Explanation

Zener diode that is also known as a breakdown diode is a heavily doped

semiconductor device that has been specially designed to operate in the reverse
direction. When the potential reaches the Zener voltage which is also known as
Knee voltage and the voltage across the terminal of the Zener diode is reversed, at
that point time, the junction breaks down and the current starts flowing in the
reverse direction. This effect is known as the Zener effect.

Zener Diode Circuit Diagram

The figure given below is the circuit diagram of the Zener diode. The Zener diode
has applications in various electronic devices and it works in reverse biasing
conditions. In reverse biasing, the P-type material of the diode is connected with
the negative terminal of the power supply, and the n-type material is connected

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with the positive terminal of the power supply. The diode consists of a very thin
depletion region as it is made up of heavily doped semiconductor material.

A Zener diode can be packed in many ways. Some Zener diodes are used where
high levels of power dissipation are required. The Zener diode which is the most
commonly used is contained within a small glass encapsulation having a band
around one end marking the cathode side of the diode.

There are two tags at the end of the bar in the circuit symbol of the Zener diode,
one in the upward direction and the other in the lower direction, as shown in the
figure given below. In this way, we can easily distinguish between the Zener diode
and other diodes.

Zener Diode Working

High-level impurities are added to a Zener diode to make it more conductive and
thus the Zener diodes can easily conduct electricity compared to other p-n junction
diodes. These impurities reduce the depletion layer of the Zener diode and make it
very thin. Thus, this diode also works even if the voltage applied is very small.

In no biassing condition of the Zener diode, all the electrons accumulate in the
valence band of the p-type semiconductor material and thus no current flow occurs
through the diode.

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In reverse bias conditions, if the Zener voltage is equal to the supplied voltage, the
diode conducts electricity in the direction of reverse bias. When the Zener voltage
equals the supplied voltage the depletion layer vanishes completely.

Zener Diode Working in Reverse Biased

In forward-biased conditions, the Zener Diode works like any normal diode but in
the reverse-bias condition, a small leak current flows through the diode. As we
keep increasing the reverse voltage it reaches a point where the reverse voltage
equals the breakdown voltage. The breakdown voltage is represented as V z and in
this condition the current start flowing in the diode. After the breakdown voltage
the current increase drastically until it reaches a stable value.

In reverse bias condition, two kinds of breakdowns occur for Zener Diode which
are,

 Avalanche Breakdown

 Zener Breakdown

Avalanche Breakdown

The phenomenon of Avalanche breakdown occurs both in the ordinary diode and
Zener Diode at high reverse voltage. For a high value of reverse voltage, the free
electron in the PN junction diode gains energy and acquires high velocity and these
high-velocity electrons collide with other atoms and knock electrons from that
atoms. This collision continues and new electrons are available for conducting
current thus the current increase rapidly in the diode.

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MODULE 3, INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONIC DEVICES

This phenomenon of a sudden increase in the current is called the Avalanche

breakdown. This phenomenon damages the diode permanently whereas the Zener
diode is a specific diode that is made to operate in this reverse voltage area.

If the reverse voltage is greater than 6V the avalanche breakdown happens in the
Zener diode.

Zener Breakdown

Zener breakdown happens in heavily doped PN junction diodes. In these diodes, if

the reverse bias voltages reach closer to Zener Voltage, the electric field gets
stronger and is sufficient enough to pull electrons from the valance band. These
electrons then gain energy from the electric field and break free from the atom.

Thus, for these diodes in the Zener breakdown region, a slight increase in the
voltage causes a sudden increase in the current.

Avalanche Breakdown vs Zener Breakdown

There is a clear difference between Avalanche Breakdown and Zener Breakdown

which can easily be understood by the table discussed below,

Avalanche Breakdown Zener Breakdown

Avalanche breakdown occurs when the Zener breakdown happens when electrons
high voltage increase the free electron in from the valance band gain energy and
the semiconductor and a sudden increase reaches the conduction band which then
in current is seen. conducts electricity.

Avalanche breakdown is seen in the Zener breakdown is seen in the diodes

diodes having breakdown voltage greater having breakdown voltage in the range of

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MODULE 3, INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONIC DEVICES

Avalanche Breakdown Zener Breakdown

than 8 volts. 5 to 8 volts.

Avalanche breakdown is observed in Zener breakdown is observed in diodes

diodes that are lightly doped. that are highly doped.

In the Avalanche breakdown, the VI

characteristics curve is not as sharp as the Zener Breakdown has a sharp VI
VI characteristics curve in the Zener characteristics curve.
breakdown.

For Avalanche breakdown increase in For Zener breakdown increase in

temperature increases the breakdown temperature decreases the breakdown
voltage. voltage.

VI Characteristics of Zener Diode

The graph given underneath shows the V-I characteristics of the Zener diode.

V-I characteristics of a Zener Diode can be studied under the following two
headings,

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Forward Characteristics of Zener Diode

Forward characteristics of the Zener Diode are similar to the forward

characteristics of any normal diode. It is clearly evident from the above diagram in
the first quadrant that the VI forward characteristics are similar to other P-N
junction diodes.

Reverse Characteristics of Zener Diode

In reverse voltage conditions a small amount of current flows through the Zener
diode. This current is because of the electrons which are thermally generated in the
Zener diode. As we keep increasing the reverse voltage at any particular value of
reverse voltage the reverse current increases suddenly at the breakdown point this
voltage is called Zener Voltage and is represented as Vz.

Applications of Zener Diode

Zener diode is a very useful diode. Due to its ability to allow current to flow in
reverse bias conditions, it is used widely for various purposes. Some of the
common uses of Zener Diode are discussed below,

1. Zener diode as Voltage Regulator

Zener diode is utilized as a Shunt voltage controller for managing voltage across
little loads. The breakdown voltage of Zener diodes will be steady for a wide scope
of current. The Zener diode is associated with corresponding to the heap to make it
switch predisposition and when the Zener diode surpasses knee voltage, the
voltage across the heap will become consistent.

2. Zener Diode in Over-Voltage Protection

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At the point when the info voltage is higher than the Zener breakage voltage, the
voltage across the resistor drops bringing about a short-out. This can be kept away
from by utilizing the Zener diode.

3. Zener Diode in Clipping Circuits

Zener diode is utilized for adjusting AC waveform cutting circuits by restricting

the pieces of it is possible that one or both the half patterns of an AC waveform.

ZENER DIODE AS A VOLTAGE REGULATOR

A voltage regulator is a device that regulates the voltage level. It essentially steps
down the input voltage to the desired level and keeps it at that same level during
the supply. This ensures that even when a load is applied the voltage doesn’t drop.
The voltage regulator is used for two main reasons, and they are:

 To vary or regulate the output voltage

 To keep the output voltage constant at the desired value in spite of variations
in the supply voltage.

Voltage regulators are used in computers, power generators, alternators to control

the output of the plant.

Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator

There is a series resistor connected to the circuit in order to limit the current into
the diode. It is connected to the positive terminal of the d.c. It works in such a way
the reverse-biased can also work in breakdown conditions. We do not use ordinary
junction diode because the low power rating diode can get damaged when we
apply reverse bias above its breakdown voltage. When the minimum input voltage

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and the maximum load current is applied, the Zener diode current should always be
minimum.

Since the input voltage and the required output voltage is known, it is easier to
choose a Zener diode with a voltage approximately equal to the load voltage, i.e.
V Z = V L.

The circuit diagram of a voltage regulator using a Zener diode is shown:

The value of the series resistor is written as RS = (VL − VZ)IL.

Current through the diode increases when the voltage across the diode tends to
increase which results in the voltage drop across the resistor. Similarly, the current
through the diode decreases when the voltage across the diode tends to decrease.
Here, the voltage drop across the resistor is very less, and the output voltage results
normally.

DC POWER SUPPLY

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A regulated power supply can convert unregulated an AC (alternating current or

voltage) to a constant DC (direct current or voltage). A regulated power supply is
used to ensure that the output remains constant even if the input changes. A
regulated DC power supply is also called as a linear power supply, it is an
embedded circuit and consists of various blocks.

The regulated power supply will accept an AC input and give a constant DC
output.

Power Supply block Diagram

Many electronic circuits need a direct current (DC) voltage source, but what we
commonly find are voltage sources of alternating current (AC). In order to achieve
a direct current voltage source, the alternating current input must follow a
conversion process like the one shown in the power supply block diagram below.
The image shows the main components of a basic power supply diagram and the
waveforms at the beginning (AC input), at the end (DC output) and between
blocks.

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Input signal which goes to the transformer primary winding is a sine wave and its
amplitude depends on the country’s electric distribution system (110/220 VAC or
other). See the basic units of measurement in electronics.

Power Supply block diagram parts

Electrical Transformer

The electrical transformer receives on the primary winding an AC voltage and

delivers on the secondary winding a different AC voltage (a lower one). This AC
output voltage must be according to the DC voltage we want to obtain at the end.

For example: If we want a 12 VDC output, the secondary winding of

the transformer must have an AC voltage no less of 9 volts.

Electric transformer

The peak value at the transformer secondary winding is Vp = 1.41 x 9 = 12.69

volts. Even thought this value is very close to the one we wanted to get, it is not
recommended because we need to take into account the voltage drops at different
stages (blocks) of the power supply.

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In this case, we can choose a transformer with a 12 volts AC secondary winding.

With this AC voltage, we can get a peak voltage of: Vp = 12 x 1.41 = 16.92 volts.

Note: Vpeak = Vrms x 1.41

Rectifier bridge (rectifier diodes)

The rectifier bridge transforms the secondary winding AC voltage into a pulsating
DC voltage. (look at the diagram). In our case, we use a ½ wave rectifier, then we
eliminate the negative part of the wave.

Rectifier diode

Filter (capacitors)

Filter are one or more electrolytic capacitors in parallel that flattens or smooths the
previous wave eliminating the alternating current (AC) component delivered by the
rectifier.

These capacitors are charged to the maximum voltage value that the rectifier can
deliver, and they are discharged when the pulsating signal disappears. Look at the
picture above.

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Electrolytic Capacitor

Voltage regulator

The voltage regulator receives the signal from the filter and delivers a constant
voltage (let’s say 12 DC volts) regardless of the variations on the load or the
voltage supply.

A voltage regulator can be implemented in several ways. It can be a transistorized

voltage regulator or a monolithic voltage regulator.

The image below shows the LM7805 voltage regulator (5VDC output). You can
also find the LM7812 voltage regulator (12VDC output).

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HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

Half-wave rectifiers transform AC voltage to DC voltage. A halfwave rectifier

circuit uses only one diode for the transformation. A halfwave rectifier is defined
as a type of rectifier that allows only one-half cycle of an AC voltage waveform to
pass while blocking the other half cycle. In this session, let us know in detail about
the half-wave rectifier.

Half Wave Rectifier Circuit

A half-wave rectifier is the simplest form of the rectifier and requires only one
diode for the construction of a halfwave rectifier circuit.

A halfwave rectifier circuit consists of three main components as follows:

 A diode
 A transformer
 A resistive load
Given below is the half-wave rectifier diagram:

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Working of Half Wave Rectifier

In this section, let us understand how a half-wave rectifier transforms AC into DC.

1. A high AC voltage is applied to the primary side of the step-down

transformer. The obtained secondary low voltage is applied to the diode.
2. The diode is forward biased during the positive half cycle of the AC voltage
and reverse biased during the negative half cycle.
3. The final output voltage waveform is as shown in the figure below:

For better understanding, let us simplify the half-wave circuit by replacing the
secondary transformer coils with a voltage source as shown below:

For the positive half cycle of the AC source voltage, the circuit effectively
becomes as shown below in the diagram:

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When the diode is forward biased, it acts as a closed switch. But, during the
negative half cycle of the AC source voltage, the equivalent circuit becomes as
shown in the figure below

When a diode is reverse biased, it acts as an open switch. Since no current can flow
to the load, the output voltage is equal to zero.

Half Wave Rectifier Waveform

The halfwave rectifier waveform before and after rectification is shown below in
the figure.

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Half Wave Rectifier Capacitor Filter

The output waveform of a halfwave rectifier is a pulsating DC waveform. Filters in

halfwave rectifiers are used to transform the pulsating waveform into constant DC
waveforms. A capacitor or an inductor can be used as a filter.

The circuit diagram below shows how a capacitive filter is used with halfwave
rectifier to smoothen out a pulsating DC waveform into a constant DC waveform.

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Half Wave Rectifier Formula

Ripple Factor of Half Wave Rectifier

Ripple factor determines how well a halfwave rectifier can convert AC voltage to
DC voltage.

Ripple factor can be quantified using the following formula:

The ripple factor of a halfwave rectifier is 1.21.

Efficiency of Halfwave Rectifier

The efficiency of a halfwave rectifier is the ratio of output DC power to the input
AC power.

The efficiency formula for halfwave rectifier is given as follows;

RMS value of Half Wave Rectifier

The RMS value of the load current for a half-wave rectifier is given by the
formula:

Form factor of a Halfwave Rectifier

The form factor is the ratio between RMS value and average value and is given by
the formula:

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Applications of Half Wave Rectifier

 They are used for signal demodulation purpose

 They are used for rectification applications
 They are used for signal peak applications

Disadvantages of Half Wave Rectifier

 Power loss
 Low output voltage
 The output contains a lot of ripples

FULL WAVE RECTIFIERS

A full wave rectifier is defined as a rectifier that converts the complete cycle of
alternating current into pulsating DC.
Unlike halfwave rectifiers that utilize only the halfwave of the input AC cycle, full
wave rectifiers utilize the full cycle. The lower efficiency of the half wave rectifier
can be overcome by the full wave rectifier.

Full Wave Rectifier Circuit

The circuit of the full wave rectifier can be constructed in two ways. The first
method uses a centre tapped transformer and two diodes. This arrangement is
known as a centre tapped full wave rectifier. The second method uses a standard
transformer with four diodes arranged as a bridge. This is known as a bridge

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rectifier. In the next section, we will restrict the discussion to the centre tapped full
wave rectifier only. You can read our article on bridge rectifier to learn the
construction and working of bridge rectifier in detail.

The circuit of the full wave rectifier consists of a step-down transformer and two
diodes that are connected and centre tapped. The output voltage is obtained across
the connected load resistor.

Working of Full Wave Rectifier

The input AC supplied to the full wave rectifier is very high. The step-down
transformer in the rectifier circuit converts the high voltage AC into low voltage
AC. The anode of the centre tapped diodes is connected to the transformer’s
secondary winding and connected to the load resistor. During the positive half
cycle of the alternating current, the top half of the secondary winding becomes
positive while the second half of the secondary winding becomes negative.

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During the positive half cycle, diode D1 is forward biased as it is connected to the
top of the secondary winding while diode D 2 is reverse biased as it is connected to
the bottom of the secondary winding. Due to this, diode D 1 will conduct acting as a
short circuit and D2 will not conduct acting as an open circuit

During the negative half cycle, the diode D 1 is reverse biased and the diode D 2 is
forward biased because the top half of the secondary circuit becomes negative and
the bottom half of the circuit becomes positive. Thus in a full wave rectifiers, DC
voltage is obtained for both positive and negative half cycle.

Full Wave Rectifier Formula

Peak Inverse Voltage

Peak inverse voltage is the maximum voltage a diode can withstand in the reverse-
biased direction before breakdown. The peak inverse voltage of the full-wave
rectifier is double that of a half-wave rectifier. The PIV across D1 and D2 is 2Vmax.

DC Output Voltage

The following formula gives the average value of the DC output voltage:

RMS Value of Current

Form Factor

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Rectification Efficiency

The rectification efficiency of the full-wave rectifier can be obtained using the
following formula:

The efficiency of the full wave rectifiers is 81.2%.

Advantages of Full Wave Rectifier

 The rectification efficiency of full wave rectifiers is double that of half wave
rectifiers. The efficiency of half wave rectifiers is 40.6% while the
rectification efficiency of full wave rectifiers is 81.2%.
 The ripple factor in full wave rectifiers is low hence a simple filter is
required. The value of ripple factor in full wave rectifier is 0.482 while in
half wave rectifier it is about 1.21.
 The output voltage and the output power obtained in full wave rectifiers are
higher than that obtained using half wave rectifiers.
The only disadvantage of the full wave rectifier is that they need more circuit
elements than the half wave rectifier which makes, making it costlier.

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BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal device which consists of

two pn-junctions formed by sandwiching either p-type or n-type semiconductor
material between a pair of opposite type semiconductors.

The primary function of BJT is to increase the strength of a weak signal, i.e., it acts
as an amplifier. A BJT can also be used as a solid state switch in electronic
circuits.

Types of BJT

There are two types of BJTs −

 NPN Transistor
 PNP Transistor

NPN Transistor

An npn-transistor is composed of two n-type semiconductor materials which are

separated by a thin layer of p-type semiconductor. The two terminals viz. Emitter
and Collector are taken out from the two n-type semiconductor and the Base
terminal is from the p-type semiconductor.

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In BJT symbol, the arrow on the emitter terminal indicates the direction of
conventional current in the emitter with forward bias. For npn-transistor, the
conventional current flows out of the emitter as indicated by the outing arrow.

PNP Transistor

A pnp-transistor is composed of two p-type semiconductors which are separated by

a thin layer of n-type material. The two terminals viz. Emitter and Collector are
taken out from the two p-type semiconductor layers and the Base terminal is from
the n-type semiconductor. For the pnp-transistor, the conventional current flows
into the emitter as indicated by the inward arrow.

Working Principle of BJT

The emitter-base junction of BJT is forward-biased, whereas the collector-base

junction is reverse biased. The forward bias of the emitter-base junction causes the
emitter current to flow and this emitter current entirely flows in the collector

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circuit. Therefore, the collector current depends upon the emitter current and nearly
equal to the emitter current.

Working of NPN Transistor

With the forward-biased emitter-base junction and reverse-biased collector-base

junction, it can be seen that the forward bias causes the flow of electrons from the
n-type emitter into the p-type base. This constitutes the emitter current (). As these
electrons flow through the p-type base, they tend to combine with the holes.

Since the base is lightly doped and very thin, hence, only a small number electrons
(less than 5%) combine with the holes to constitute the base current (). The
remaining (more than 95%) electrons cross over the base region and reach to the
collector region to constitute the collector current (). In this manner, the entire
emitter current flows in the collector circuit.

The emitter current is the sum of base and collector currents.

IE=IB+IC

Working of PNP Transistor

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For the pnp-transistor, the forward bias of emitter-base junction causes the flow of
holes in the p-type emitter region towards the n-type base and constitutes the
emitter current (IE). As these holes cross into the n-type base region, they tend to
combine with the electrons. Since the base is lightly doped and very thin, hence
only a small number of holes (less than 5%) combine with the electrons. The
remaining (more than 95%) cross the base and reach into the collector region to
constitute the collector current (IC).

In this manner, the entire emitter current flows into the collector circuit. It may be
noted that the current conduction inside the pnp-transistor is due to the movement
of holes. However, in the external connecting wires, the current is still due to the
flow of electrons.

Again, the emitter current is the sum of collector current and base current.

IE=IB+IC

BJT Biasing

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A BJT has two pn-junctions viz. emitter-base junction and collector-base junction.
Application of proper DC voltage at the two junctions of the BJT is known as BJT
or Transistor Biasing.

When a transistor used as an amplifier, the emitter-base junction is forward biased

and collector-base junction is reverse biased. If the transistor is operated under this
bias condition then it is said to be operating in the active region.

When both the junctions are forward biased then the transistor is said to be
operating in the saturation region. The transistor operated in saturation region
acts like a closed switch and the collector current becomes maximum.

When both the junctions are reverse biased, the transistor is said to be operating in
the cut off region. The BJT operated in cut off region acts as an open switch and a
very small collector current (in µA) flows from emitter to collector. This current is
called reverse leakage current and is due to minority charge carriers (electrons in p-
region and holes in n-region).

Emitter-Base Junction Collector-Base Junction Operating Region

Forward Biased Reverse Biased Active Region

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Emitter-Base Junction Collector-Base Junction Operating Region

Forward Biased Forward Biased Saturation Region
Reverse Biased Reverse Biased Reverse Biased

V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF BJT

Operating regions of BJT are the saturated region, the cut-off region, and the active
region.

Saturation Region

The starting point of the turn is called the saturation region. The Saturation area is
in the middle of the origin and constant point where the collector current becomes
constant.

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Cut Off Region

Even base current is zero but a very low collector current is present in the
transistor. The low region, where the base current is zero, that region is known as
the Cut-off Region.

Active Region

The active area is placed in the middle of the curve. It is centered between the
saturated and cut-off regions. Turns in the active region are constant. In this area,
the emitter-base terminal is forward biased and the collector-base terminal is
reverse biased.

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COMMON EMITTER CONFIGURATION, INPUT AND OUTPUT

CHARACTERISTICS

Common Emitter configuration:

Two terminals are needed for input and two terminals for output. Transistors have
three terminals, so one terminal have to be taken as common terminal for both
input and output. In Common Emitter configuration, emitter terminal is taken as
common for both input and output. So input is given between base and the emitter
terminals and output is taken between collector and emitter terminals. This is the
most commonly used configuration.

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Circuit diagram of Common Emitter NPN and PNP Transistor:

Input voltage VBE is applied between base and emitter terminals and output
voltage VCE is applied across emitter and collector. The output current IC is taken
across the emitter and collector terminals. The input side is forward biased and the
output side is reverse biased.

Emitter base region acts like forward biased diode and so the depletion region is
very small. Emitter collector region acts like reverse biased diode and the
depletion region is large. The input current IB is measured in µA because the base
region is very lightly doped.

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The input and output impedance are moderate in common emitter configuration
and thus the current and voltage gain is moderate and the power gain is high. So
this configuration is widely used for amplification.

Input Characteristics of Common Emitter Configuration:

Input characteristics are the relationship between the input current and the input
voltage keeping output voltage constant. Here the input current is the base current
IB, input voltage is base emitter voltage VBE and the output voltage is collector
emitter voltage VCE.

First the output voltage VCE is kept at zero and the input voltage VBE is gradually
increased and the input current IB is noted. Then again the output voltage VCE is

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increased like 10V, 20V and kept constant and by increasing the input voltage
VBE, the input current IB is noted.

From the results it is observed that when the input voltage VBE is increased
initially there is no current produced, further when it is increased the input current
IB increases steeply. When the output voltage VCE is further increased the curve
shifts right side.

Output Characteristics of Common Emitter Configuration:

Output characteristics is the relationship between the output current and the output
voltage keeping input current constant. Here the values of output current IC and
the output voltage VCE is noted keeping input current IB constant.

In active region when the output voltage is increased there is very slight change in
the output voltage. The curve looks almost flat in the active region. Cut off region

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is the region where the input current is below zero. When both the junctions are
forward biased, it is in saturation region.

COMPARISON OF CE, CB AND CC CONFIGURATIONS

CONCEPT OF BIASING AND LOAD LINE

Till now we have discussed different regions of operation for a transistor. But
among all these regions, we have found that the transistor operates well in active
region and hence it is also called as linear region. The outputs of the transistor are
the collector current and collector voltages.

Output Characteristics

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When the output characteristics of a transistor are considered, the curve looks as
below for different input values.

In the above figure, the output characteristics are drawn between collector current
IC and collector voltage VCE for different values of base current IB. These are
considered here for different input values to obtain different output curves.

Operating point

When a value for the maximum possible collector current is considered, that point
will be present on the Y-axis, which is nothing but the saturation point. As well,
when a value for the maximum possible collector emitter voltage is considered,
that point will be present on the X-axis, which is the cutoff point.

When a line is drawn joining these two points, such a line can be called as Load
line. This is called so as it symbolizes the output at the load. This line, when drawn
over the output characteristic curve, makes contact at a point called as Operating
point.

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This operating point is also called as quiescent point or simply Q-point. There
can be many such intersecting points, but the Q-point is selected in such a way that
irrespective of AC signal swing, the transistor remains in active region. This can be
better understood through the figure below.

The load line has to be drawn in order to obtain the Q-point. A transistor acts as a
good amplifier when it is in active region and when it is made to operate at Q-
point, faithful amplification is achieved.

Faithful amplification is the process of obtaining complete portions of input

signal by increasing the signal strength. This is done when AC signal is applied at
its input.

DC Load line

When the transistor is given the bias and no signal is applied at its input, the load
line drawn at such condition, can be understood as DC condition. Here there will
be no amplification as the signal is absent. The circuit will be as shown below.

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The value of collector emitter voltage at any given time will be

VCE=VCC−ICRC

As VCC and RC are fixed values, the above one is a first degree equation and hence
will be a straight line on the output characteristics. This line is called as D.C. Load
line. The figure below shows the DC load line.

To obtain the load line, the two end points of the straight line are to be determined.
Let those two points be A and B.

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To obtain A

When collector emitter voltage VCE = 0, the collector current is maximum and is
equal to VCC/RC. This gives the maximum value of VCE. This is shown as

VCE=VCC−ICRC

0=VCC−ICRC

IC=VCCRC

This gives the point A (OA = V CC/RC) on collector current axis, shown in the above
figure.

To obtain B

When the collector current IC = 0, then collector emitter voltage is maximum and
will be equal to the VCC. This gives the maximum value of IC. This is shown as

VCE=VCC−ICRC

=VCC

(As IC = 0)

This gives the point B, which means (OB = V CC) on the collector emitter voltage
axis shown in the above figure.

Hence we got both the saturation and cutoff point determined and learnt that the
load line is a straight line. So, a DC load line can be drawn.

The importance of this operating point is further understood when an AC signal is

given at the input.

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TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH, TRANSISTOR AS AN AMPLIFIER

Transistors are generally used in multiple sections that help devise various
applications. Transistors can act as a device that will be used in the form of a
switch especially when it functions in the cut-off region, that is, the open switch
and the case of the saturation region, that is, the closed switch. As opined by
chamarchia et al. (2020), in another case, transistors are used in the form of an
amplifier that enhances the magnitude of the output signal as it continues to
operate in an active region. A transistor functions as a switch as it drives back and
forth between the cut-off regions and saturation regions.

The transistor enhances the amplitude of the input signal. The signals of smaller
amplitude are fed to the amplifier which in turn enhances it to derive the output
large signals.

Transistor as a switch

If the transistor is utilized as a switch, the 2 operating regions that are formed are
the cut-off region and the saturation region. At the cut-off region the transistors
remain totally OFF and at the saturation region the transistors remain ON fully.

Region of saturation

In the region of saturation, the transistor gets the maximum current when IB is
applied to it and this maximum amount of current is obtained at the IC collector.
As the current in this region is maximum, and the voltage that is present in the
collector is minimum. Thus, in this situation, the transistor is determined to be ON
fully.

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The cut-off region

In the cut-off region, the current does not flow through the transistor. Here the base
current that is IB remains zero and the current in the IC collector, also remains
zero. As in both cases, the current value is zero, and the voltage of the collector
that is VCE is maximum, which results in a large layer of depletion.

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Amplifier performance

In the case of Current Gain, the ratio of the current change in collector and change
of the base current is measured. In the Voltage gain, the ratio of input and output
voltage is measured. In Power Gain, the ratio of output signal and input signal of
powers are measured (Cheng et al. 2017). Input resistance, measures the ratio of a
slight change in emitter-base voltage and change in base current by keeping the
emitter-collector voltage constant. Output Resistance, is the measurement of the
ratio of change in emitter-base voltage and the change in collector current by
keeping the base current constant.

RC COUPLED AMPLIFIER

The resistance-capacitance coupling is, in short termed as RC coupling. This is the

mostly used coupling technique in amplifiers.

Construction of a Two-stage RC Coupled Amplifier

The constructional details of a two-stage RC coupled transistor amplifier circuit are

as follows. The two stage amplifier circuit has two transistors, connected in CE
configuration and a common power supply VCC is used. The potential divider
network R1 and R2 and the resistor Re form the biasing and stabilization network.
The emitter by-pass capacitor Ce offers a low reactance path to the signal.

The resistor RL is used as a load impedance. The input capacitor C in present at the
initial stage of the amplifier couples AC signal to the base of the transistor. The
capacitor CC is the coupling capacitor that connects two stages and prevents DC
interference between the stages and controls the shift of operating point. The figure
below shows the circuit diagram of RC coupled amplifier.

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Operation of RC Coupled Amplifier

When an AC input signal is applied to the base of first transistor, it gets amplified
and appears at the collector load R L which is then passed through the coupling
capacitor CC to the next stage. This becomes the input of the next stage, whose
amplified output again appears across its collector load. Thus the signal is
amplified in stage by stage action.

The important point that has to be noted here is that the total gain is less than the
product of the gains of individual stages. This is because when a second stage is
made to follow the first stage, the effective load resistance of the first stage is
reduced due to the shunting effect of the input resistance of the second stage.
Hence, in a multistage amplifier, only the gain of the last stage remains unchanged.

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As we consider a two stage amplifier here, the output phase is same as input.
Because the phase reversal is done two times by the two stage CE configured
amplifier circuit.

Frequency Response of RC Coupled Amplifier

Frequency response curve is a graph that indicates the relationship between voltage
gain and function of frequency. The frequency response of a RC coupled amplifier
is as shown in the following graph.

From the above graph, it is understood that the frequency rolls off or decreases for
the frequencies below 50Hz and for the frequencies above 20 KHz. whereas the
voltage gain for the range of frequencies between 50Hz and 20 KHz is constant.

We know that,

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It means that the capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency.

At Low frequencies (i.e. below 50 Hz)

The capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency. At low

frequencies, the reactance is quite high. The reactance of input capacitor C in and
the coupling capacitor CC are so high that only small part of the input signal is
allowed. The reactance of the emitter by pass capacitor C E is also very high during
low frequencies. Hence it cannot shunt the emitter resistance effectively. With all
these factors, the voltage gain rolls off at low frequencies.

At High frequencies (i.e. above 20 KHz)

Again considering the same point, we know that the capacitive reactance is low at
high frequencies. So, a capacitor behaves as a short circuit, at high frequencies. As
a result of this, the loading effect of the next stage increases, which reduces the
voltage gain. Along with this, as the capacitance of emitter diode decreases, it
increases the base current of the transistor due to which the current gain (β)
reduces. Hence the voltage gain rolls off at high frequencies.

At Mid-frequencies (i.e. 50 Hz to 20 KHz)

The voltage gain of the capacitors is maintained constant in this range of

frequencies, as shown in figure. If the frequency increases, the reactance of the
capacitor CC decreases which tends to increase the gain. But this lower capacitance
reactive increases the loading effect of the next stage by which there is a reduction
in gain.

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Due to these two factors, the gain is maintained constant.

Advantages of RC Coupled Amplifier

The following are the advantages of RC coupled amplifier.

 The frequency response of RC amplifier provides constant gain over a wide

frequency range, hence most suitable for audio applications.
 The circuit is simple and has lower cost because it employs resistors and
capacitors which are cheap.
 It becomes more compact with the upgrading technology.

Disadvantages of RC Coupled Amplifier

The following are the disadvantages of RC coupled amplifier.

 The voltage and power gain are low because of the effective load resistance.
 They become noisy with age.
 Due to poor impedance matching, power transfer will be low.

Applications of RC Coupled Amplifier

The following are the applications of RC coupled amplifier.

 They have excellent audio fidelity over a wide range of frequency.

 Widely used as Voltage amplifiers
 Due to poor impedance matching, RC coupling is rarely used in the final
stages.

FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR (FET)

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A Field Effect Transistor (FET) is a three-terminal semiconductor device. Its

operation is based on a controlled input voltage. By appearance JFET and
bipolar transistors are very similar. However, BJT is a current controlled device
and JFET is controlled by input voltage. Most commonly two types of FETs are
available.

 Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)

 Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET (IGFET)
 Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET (IGFET)

Metal Oxide Semiconductor

FETs have a few disadvantages like high drain resistance, moderate input
impedance and slower operation. To overcome these disadvantages, the
MOSFET which is an advanced FET is invented.

MOSFET stands for Metal Oxide Silicon Field Effect Transistor or Metal Oxide
Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor. This is also called as IGFET meaning
Insulated Gate Field Effect Transistor. The FET is operated in both depletion
and enhancement modes of operation. The following figure shows how a
practical MOSFET looks like.

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Construction of a MOSFET

The construction of a MOSFET is a bit similar to the FET. An oxide layer is

deposited on the substrate to which the gate terminal is connected. This oxide
layer acts as an insulator (sio 2 insulates from the substrate), and hence the
MOSFET has another name as IGFET. In the construction of MOSFET, a
lightly doped substrate, is diffused with a heavily doped region. Depending
upon the substrate used, they are called as P-type and N-type MOSFETs.

The following figure shows the construction of a MOSFET.

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The voltage at gate controls the operation of the MOSFET. In this case, both
positive and negative voltages can be applied on the gate as it is insulated from
the channel. With negative gate bias voltage, it acts as depletion MOSFET
while with positive gate bias voltage it acts as an Enhancement MOSFET.

Classification of MOSFETs

Depending upon the type of materials used in the construction, and the type of
operation, the MOSFETs are classified as in the following figure.

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After the classification, let us go through the symbols of MOSFET.

The N-channel MOSFETs are simply called as NMOS. The symbols for N-
channel MOSFET are as given below.

The P-channel MOSFETs are simply called as PMOS. The symbols for P-
channel MOSFET are as given below.

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Now, let us go through the constructional details of an N-channel MOSFET.

Usually an NChannel MOSFET is considered for explanation as this one is
mostly used. Also, there is no need to mention that the study of one type
explains the other too.

Construction of N- Channel MOSFET

Let us consider an N-channel MOSFET to understand its working. A lightly

doped P-type substrate is taken into which two heavily doped N-type regions
are diffused, which act as source and drain. Between these two N+ regions,
there occurs diffusion to form an Nchannel, connecting drain and source.

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A thin layer of Silicon dioxide (SiO2) is grown over the entire surface and holes
are made to draw ohmic contacts for drain and source terminals. A conducting
layer of aluminum is laid over the entire channel, upon this SiO2 layer from
source to drain which constitutes the gate. The SiO2 substrate is connected to
the common or ground terminals.

Because of its construction, the MOSFET has a very less chip area than BJT,
which is 5% of the occupancy when compared to bipolar junction transistor.
This device can be operated in modes. They are depletion and enhancement
modes. Let us try to get into the details.

Working of N - Channel depletion mode MOSFET

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For now, we have an idea that there is no PN junction present between gate and
channel in this, unlike a FET. We can also observe that, the diffused channel N
between two N+regions, the insulating dielectric SiO2 and the aluminum metal
layer of the gate together form a parallel plate capacitor.

If the NMOS has to be worked in depletion mode, the gate terminal should be at
negative potential while drain is at positive potential, as shown in the following
figure.

When no voltage is applied between gate and source, some current flows due to
the voltage between drain and source. Let some negative voltage is applied at
VGG. Then the minority carriers i.e. holes, get attracted and settle near SiO2
layer. But the majority carriers, i.e., electrons get repelled.

With some amount of negative potential at VGG a certain amount of drain

current ID flows through source to drain. When this negative potential is further

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increased, the electrons get depleted and the current ID decreases. Hence the
more negative the applied VGG, the lesser the value of drain current ID will be.

The channel nearer to drain gets more depleted than at source like in FET

and the current flow decreases due to this effect. Hence it is called as depletion
mode MOSFET.

Working of N-Channel MOSFET Enhancement Mode

The same MOSFET can be worked in enhancement mode, if we can change the
polarities of the voltage VGG. So, let us consider the MOSFET with gate source
voltage VGG being positive as shown in the following figure.

When no voltage is applied between gate and source, some current flows due to
the voltage between drain and source. Let some positive voltage is applied at
VGG. Then the minority carriers i.e. holes, get repelled and the majority carriers
i.e. electrons gets attracted towards the SiO2 layer.

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With some amount of positive potential at VGG a certain amount of drain current
ID flows through source to drain. When this positive potential is further
increased, the current ID increases due to the flow of electrons from source and
these are pushed further due to the voltage applied at VGG. Hence the more
positive the applied VGG, the more the value of drain current ID will be. The
current flow gets enhanced due to the increase in electron flow better than in
depletion mode. Hence this mode is termed as Enhanced Mode MOSFET.

P - Channel MOSFET

The construction and working of a PMOS is same as NMOS. A lightly doped n-

substrate is taken into which two heavily doped P+ regions are diffused. These
two P+ regions act as source and drain. A thin layer of SiO2 is grown over the
surface. Holes are cut through this layer to make contacts with P+ regions, as
shown in the following figure.

Working of PMOS

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When the gate terminal is given a negative potential at VGG than the drain
source voltage VDD, then due to the P+ regions present, the hole current is
increased through the diffused P channel and the PMOS works in
Enhancement Mode.

When the gate terminal is given a positive potential at VGG than the drain source
voltage VDD, then due to the repulsion, the depletion occurs due to which the
flow of current reduces. Thus PMOS works in Depletion Mode. Though the
construction differs, the working is similar in both the type of MOSFETs.
Hence with the change in voltage polarity both of the types can be used in both
the modes.

This can be better understood by having an idea on the drain characteristics

curve.

Drain Characteristics

The drain characteristics of a MOSFET are drawn between the drain current ID
and the drain source voltage VDS. The characteristic curve is as shown below for
different values of inputs.

RAJESH T S, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, MG COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING VANDITHADAM

MODULE 3, INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONIC DEVICES

Actually when VDS is increased, the drain current ID should increase, but due to
the applied VGS, the drain current is controlled at certain level. Hence the gate
current controls the output drain current.

Transfer Characteristics

Transfer characteristics define the change in the value of VDS with the change in
ID and VGS in both depletion and enhancement modes. The below transfer
characteristic curve is drawn for drain current versus gate to source voltage.

RAJESH T S, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, MG COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING VANDITHADAM

MODULE 3, INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONIC DEVICES

RAJESH T S, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, MG COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING VANDITHADAM