Psychosexual Development Theory Reviewer

I. Personality Components (Freud’s Structural Model of Personality)

Freud believed that personality is made up of three parts:

1.​ Id – The primitive, instinct-driven part of the mind. Operates on the pleasure
principle (seeks immediate gratification).
○​ Example: A hungry baby crying until fed.
2.​ Ego – The rational part that balances the Id and Superego. Operates on the
reality principle (considers consequences).
○​ Example: Waiting to eat until food is served instead of grabbing it.
3.​ Superego – The moral component that follows society’s rules. Represents
conscience and ideal self.
○​ Example: Feeling guilty for lying to a friend.

II. Freud’s 5 Stages of Psychosexual Development

1.​ Oral Stage (0 -2 year) – Focus on the mouth (sucking, biting).

○​ Fixation may lead to: Nail-biting, overeating, smoking.
2.​ Anal Stage (2- 4 years) – Focus on bowel/bladder control.
○​ Fixation may lead to:
■​ Anal-retentive (perfectionist, overly organized).
■​ Anal-expulsive (messy, disorganized).
3.​ Phallic Stage (4- 6 years) – Focus on genitals; child experiences the Oedipus
(boys) or Electra (girls) complex.
○​ Fixation may lead to: Problems with authority, relationship issues.
4.​ Latency Stage (6-12 years) – Sexual energy is repressed; child focuses on
school, friends, and hobbies.
○​ No fixations; a time of social growth.
5.​ Genital Stage (12+ years) – Mature sexual interests develop.
○​ Healthy relationships form if earlier stages are resolved.

III. Ego Defense Mechanisms

Defense mechanisms are unconscious strategies used to cope with stress and anxiety.

1.​ Dissociation – Mentally detaching from reality to escape stress.

○​ Example: A person forgets traumatic childhood abuse.
2.​ Intellectualization – Focusing only on facts to avoid emotions.
○​ Example: A doctor explaining a terminal illness in medical terms without
showing emotion.
3.​ Projection – Attributing one’s own feelings to someone else.
○​ Example: A cheating spouse accuses their partner of infidelity.
4.​ Compensation – Overachieving in one area to make up for a weakness.
○​ Example: A student weak in academics excels in sports.
5.​ Conversion – Emotional stress turns into physical symptoms.
○​ Example: A person loses their voice before an important speech.
6.​ Fantasy – Using imagination to escape reality.
○​ Example: A bullied child imagines being a superhero.
7.​ Fixation – Getting stuck in a developmental stage due to unresolved issues.
○​ Example: A 40-year-old still sucking their thumb.
8.​ Rationalization – Making excuses to justify behavior.
○​ Example: "I failed the test because the teacher hates me."
9.​ Reaction Formation – Acting opposite to one’s true feelings.
○​ Example: A person who dislikes someone acts overly friendly toward
them.
10.​Denial – Refusing to accept reality.
-​ Example: A smoker saying, "I won’t get lung cancer."
11.​Displacement – Taking out frustration on someone else.
-​ Example: A person yells at their spouse after a bad day at work.
12.​Introjection – Adopting others’ beliefs as one’s own.
-​ Example: A child takes on their parents’ political views.
13.​Identification – Imitating someone to feel stronger or safer.
-​ Example: A bullied child starts acting like their bully.
14.​Regression – Reverting to childish behaviors.
-​ Example: A stressed adult starts sucking their thumb.
15.​Repression – Blocking painful memories from consciousness.
-​ Example: Forgetting a traumatic accident.
16.​Suppression – Consciously choosing to forget something unpleasant.
-​ Example: Avoiding thoughts about a breakup to focus on work.
17.​Substitution – Replacing an unacceptable goal with an achievable one.
-​ Example: A rejected athlete becomes a coach instead.
18.​Sublimation – Channeling negative impulses into positive activities.
-​ Example: A person with aggressive tendencies becomes a boxer.
19.​Symbolization – Using objects or behaviors to express unconscious desires.
 -​ Example: Dreaming about a locked door symbolizing repressed fears.
20.​Undoing – Trying to "reverse" a wrongdoing.
-​ Example: A guilty husband buys flowers for his wife after an argument.

IV. Transference and Countertransference

1.​ Transference – When a patient projects feelings from past relationships onto
their therapist/nurse.
○​ Example: A patient treats their therapist like a strict parent.
2.​ Countertransference – When the therapist/nurse projects their own feelings
onto the patient.
○​ Example: A nurse overly protects a patient because they remind them of a
sibling.

Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Development Stages

Erik Erikson developed a theory of psychosocial development that spans eight stages,
each marked by a central conflict. Successfully resolving each conflict leads to
psychological growth and well-being.

I. The Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development

1. Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy: 0 - 18 months)

●​ Key Question: "Can I trust the world?"

●​ Positive Outcome: Infants develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide
consistent care and love.
●​ Negative Outcome: Mistrust develops when care is inconsistent or neglectful.

2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Early Childhood: 18 months -3 years)

●​ Key Question: "Can I do things myself, or must I rely on others?"

●​ Positive Outcome: A sense of independence and confidence develops when
children are encouraged to explore and make choices.
●​ Negative Outcome: Overly strict parenting or excessive criticism can lead to
shame and self-doubt.
3. Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool: 3-6 years)

●​ Key Question: "Is it okay for me to do things?"

●​ Positive Outcome: Children develop initiative and confidence in their actions
when given opportunities to plan and create.
●​ Negative Outcome: Excessive criticism or control can cause guilt and hesitation
in taking initiative.

4. Industry vs. Inferiority (School Age: 6-12 years)

●​ Key Question: "Can I keep up with my peers?"

●​ Positive Outcome: A sense of competence and pride develops when children
succeed academically and socially.
●​ Negative Outcome: Repeated failure or lack of encouragement can lead to
feelings of inferiority.

5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence: 12-18 years)

●​ Key Question: "Who am I?"

●​ Positive Outcome: Developing a clear sense of identity and personal values.
●​ Negative Outcome: Confusion about one's role in society, leading to an unstable
self-image.

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood: 18 - 24 years)

●​ Key Question: "Can I form close relationships?"

●​ Positive Outcome: The ability to build meaningful relationships and experience
love.
●​ Negative Outcome: Fear of commitment, loneliness, and isolation.

7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood: 24 - 54years)

●​ Key Question: "Can I contribute to society?"

●​ Positive Outcome: A sense of purpose through work, family, and community
involvement.
●​ Negative Outcome: Feeling unproductive or disconnected from society, leading
to stagnation.

8. Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood: 54 years til death)

●​ Key Question: "Did I live a meaningful life?"

●​ Positive Outcome: Acceptance of one's life and a sense of fulfillment.
●​ Negative Outcome: Regret, despair, and fear of death.
II. Importance of Erikson’s Theory

●​ Highlights lifelong development.

●​ Emphasizes social and emotional growth.
●​ Shows the impact of life challenges on personality.

Jean Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory

Jean Piaget proposed a theory of cognitive development that describes how children
construct knowledge as they grow. His theory consists of four stages, each
characterized by different abilities and ways of thinking.

I. The Four Stages of Cognitive Development

1. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth - 0- 2 years)

●​ Key Characteristic: Learning through sensory experiences and movement.

●​ Major Developments:
○​ Object permanence (understanding that objects exist even when not
seen).
○​ Development of motor skills and coordination.
○​ Beginning of goal-directed actions.

2. Preoperational Stage (2 - 6 years)

●​ Key Characteristic: Symbolic thinking and language development.

●​ Major Developments:
○​ Egocentrism (difficulty seeing perspectives of others).
○​ Pretend play and imagination flourish.
○​ Struggles with logical reasoning and conservation (understanding that
quantity remains the same despite changes in shape).

3. Concrete Operational Stage (6 - 12 years)

●​ Key Characteristic: Logical thinking about concrete objects and events.

●​ Major Developments:
○​ Understanding conservation and reversibility.
○​ Ability to classify objects and understand cause and effect.
○​ Improved problem-solving skills with tangible concepts.

4. Formal Operational Stage (12 years and beyond)

 ●​ Key Characteristic: Abstract and hypothetical thinking.
●​ Major Developments:
○​ Ability to think about abstract concepts and reason logically.
○​ Hypothetical-deductive reasoning (systematically testing hypotheses).
○​ Advanced problem-solving and moral reasoning skills.

II. Importance of Piaget’s Theory

●​ Highlights the process of learning through active discovery.

●​ Emphasizes that cognitive development occurs in stages.
●​ Shows how thinking evolves from simple to complex forms.

Aaron T. Beck’s Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

I. Introduction to CBT

●​ Developed by Aaron T. Beck in the 1960s.

●​ Based on the idea that thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are interconnected.
●​ Focuses on identifying and changing negative thought patterns to improve
emotional well-being.

II. Core Principles of CBT

1.​ Cognitive Triad – Depressed individuals have negative views of:

○​ The self (e.g., “I am worthless”)
○​ The world (e.g., “Life is unfair”)
○​ The future (e.g., “Things will never get better”)
2.​ Automatic Negative Thoughts (ANTs)
○​ Involuntary, irrational thoughts that contribute to emotional distress.
○​ Example: “Nobody likes me” after one social interaction.
3.​ Cognitive Distortions (Thinking Errors)
○​ All-or-Nothing Thinking: Seeing things in extremes (e.g., “If I fail one
test, I am a total failure”).
○​ Overgeneralization: Applying one bad experience to all situations (e.g., “I
always mess things up”).
○​ Catastrophizing: Expecting the worst outcome (e.g., “If I make a mistake,
I’ll be humiliated”).
○​ Mind Reading: Assuming others think negatively of you (e.g., “They must
think I’m stupid”).
 ○​ Personalization: Taking responsibility for things outside one’s control
(e.g., “My friend is upset; it must be my fault”).

III. CBT Techniques

1.​ Cognitive Restructuring

○​ Identifying and challenging negative thoughts.
○​ Replacing irrational beliefs with more balanced thoughts.
2.​ Behavioral Activation
○​ Encouraging positive activities to improve mood and motivation.
○​ Example: Scheduling enjoyable or meaningful activities.
3.​ Exposure Therapy
○​ Gradual exposure to feared situations to reduce anxiety.
○​ Example: Someone with social anxiety practicing conversations.
4.​ Journaling and Thought Records
○​ Writing down negative thoughts and evaluating their accuracy.
○​ Helps track progress and recognize thinking patterns.
5.​ Relaxation Techniques
○​ Deep breathing, mindfulness, and progressive muscle relaxation.
○​ Used to manage anxiety and stress.
6.​ Problem-Solving Therapy
○​ Teaching structured approaches to address real-life problems.

IV. Effectiveness of CBT

●​ Evidence-based approach used for depression, anxiety disorders, PTSD, OCD,

and more.
●​ Helps individuals gain control over thoughts and behaviors.
●​ Focuses on short-term, goal-oriented therapy.

Albert Ellis’ Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT)

I. Introduction to REBT

●​ Developed by Albert Ellis in the 1950s.

●​ Focuses on how irrational beliefs lead to emotional distress.
●​ Encourages changing irrational thoughts to develop healthier emotions and
behaviors.

II. Core Principles of REBT

 1.​ ABC Model – Framework for understanding emotional responses:
○​ A (Activating Event): A situation or event.
○​ B (Beliefs): The thoughts or interpretations about the event.
○​ C (Consequences): Emotional and behavioral outcomes based on
beliefs.
○​ Example:
■​ A: You fail an exam.
■​ B: “I am a complete failure.”
■​ C: Feeling depressed and avoiding future exams.
2.​ Irrational vs. Rational Beliefs
○​ Irrational Beliefs: Unrealistic and self-defeating thoughts (e.g., “I must be
perfect at everything”).
○​ Rational Beliefs: Logical and constructive thoughts (e.g., “It’s okay to
make mistakes; I can learn from them”).

III. REBT Techniques

1.​ Disputing Irrational Beliefs (DIBs)

○​ Challenging irrational thoughts with logical questioning.
○​ Example: “Where is the evidence that I must be perfect?”
2.​ Cognitive Restructuring
○​ Replacing irrational beliefs with rational alternatives.
○​ Example: “Failing one test does not mean I am a failure.”
3.​ Emotional Regulation
○​ Learning to tolerate frustration and discomfort.
○​ Accepting that negative emotions are part of life but can be managed.
4.​ Behavioral Assignments
○​ Engaging in activities that reinforce rational beliefs.
○​ Example: Public speaking practice to challenge fear of embarrassment.
5.​ Unconditional Self-Acceptance
○​ Recognizing self-worth is not based on success or failure.
○​ Example: “I am valuable even if I make mistakes.”

IV. Effectiveness of REBT

●​ Evidence-based therapy for anxiety, depression, anger management, and

self-esteem issues.
●​ Encourages long-term mindset changes rather than temporary symptom relief.
●​ Practical and action-oriented approach for overcoming irrational thinking
patterns.
Harry Stack Sullivan’s Interpersonal Theory

I. Overview

●​ Developed by Harry Stack Sullivan.

●​ Personality is shaped by relationships and social interactions.
●​ Mental health depends on how we relate to others.

II. Key Ideas

1.​ Personality and Social Interaction

○​ Our behavior is influenced by relationships.
2.​ Dynamisms
○​ Repeated patterns of behavior shaped by experiences.
3.​ Personifications
○​ Mental images of ourselves based on experiences.
○​ Good-Me: Positive self-image from approval.
○​ Bad-Me: Negative self-image from criticism.
○​ Not-Me: Hidden traits linked to fear.
4.​ Modes of Experience
○​ Prototaxic (Infants): Random feelings.
○​ Parataxic (Children): Illogical thinking.
○​ Syntaxic (Adults): Logical, shared understanding.

III. Stages of Development

1.​ Infancy (birth to onset language): Bonding with caregivers.

2.​ Childhood (language to 5 years): Learning rules through play.
3.​ Juvenile (5 - 8 yrs): Making friends.
4.​ Preadolescence (8-12 yrs): Developing close friendships.
5.​ Early Adolescence ( puberty to adulthood): Exploring relationships.
6.​ Late Adolescence : Building identity and mature relationships.

IV. Interpersonal Therapy (IPT)

●​ Based on Sullivan’s ideas.

●​ Helps improve relationships to support mental health.
●​ Used for depression, anxiety, and social issues.

Hildegard Peplau’s Interpersonal Theory

I. Overview

●​ Developed by Hildegard Peplau, known as the "Mother of Psychiatric Nursing."

●​ Focuses on the nurse-patient relationship as essential to healing.
●​ Emphasizes communication, empathy, and collaboration.

II. Phases of the Nurse-Patient Relationship

1.​ Orientation Phase

○​ The patient seeks help, and the nurse establishes trust.
○​ The nurse assesses the patient’s needs and explains their role.
2.​ Identification Phase
○​ The patient begins to feel understood and supported.
○​ The nurse and patient work together to set goals.
3.​ Exploitation Phase
○​ The patient actively uses available services and resources.
○​ The nurse provides guidance and emotional support.
4.​ Resolution Phase
○​ The patient’s needs are met, and the relationship ends.
○​ The patient gains independence and moves forward.

III. Roles of the Nurse

1.​ Stranger Role: Building initial trust and rapport.

2.​ Resource Role: Providing health-related information and support.
3.​ Teaching Role: Educating the patient about their condition and care.
4.​ Counseling Role: Offering emotional support and guidance.
5.​ Surrogate Role: Acting as an advocate or caregiver in the patient’s journey.
6.​ Active Leadership: Helping the patient take control of their health and achieve
goals.

IV. Four Levels of Anxiety (Peplau)

1.​ Mild Anxiety:

○​ Heightened awareness and focus.
○​ Can be beneficial for learning and problem-solving.
2.​ Moderate Anxiety:
○​ Narrowed focus and difficulty concentrating.
○​ May need guidance to focus on important details.
3.​ Severe Anxiety:
○​ Greatly reduced perception and problem-solving ability.
 ○​ Physical symptoms such as trembling, dizziness, and rapid heartbeat.
4.​ Panic Anxiety:
○​ Complete loss of focus and inability to function.
○​ May experience disorientation, terror, and irrational behavior.

V. Importance in Nursing Practice

●​ Strengthens therapeutic communication skills.

●​ Helps develop a patient-centered approach.
●​ Improves mental health care by focusing on relationships and managing
anxiety.

I. Overview of Maslow’s Humanistic Theory

●​ Developed by Abraham Maslow, a psychologist known for humanistic

psychology.
●​ Focuses on human potential, self-growth, and motivation.
●​ Emphasizes that individuals strive for self-actualization and personal fulfillment.

II. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow proposed a five-tiered pyramid representing human motivation, progressing

from basic needs to self-actualization.

1. Physiological Needs (Basic Needs)

●​ Essential for survival.

●​ Includes food, water, air, sleep, shelter, and reproduction.
●​ Without these, higher-level needs cannot be pursued.

2. Safety Needs (Basic Needs)

●​ Protection from harm and uncertainty.

●​ Includes personal security, financial stability, health, and a safe
environment.

3. Love and Belonging (Psychological Needs)

●​ The need for relationships and social connections.

●​ Includes friendships, family bonds, intimacy, and community involvement.
 ●​ Lack of belonging can lead to loneliness and depression.

4. Esteem Needs (Psychological Needs)

●​ The need for self-respect and recognition from others.

●​ Includes achievement, confidence, status, and personal worth.
●​ Two components:
○​ Lower esteem: Need for recognition from others (fame, prestige).
○​ Higher esteem: Self-respect and personal growth.

5. Self-Actualization (Growth Needs)

●​ The highest level of personal fulfillment and potential.

●​ Involves creativity, problem-solving, morality, personal development, and
achieving dreams.
●​ Few people reach this level due to life challenges.

III. Characteristics of Self-Actualized People

Maslow identified traits of those who achieve self-actualization:​

✔ Strong self-awareness and acceptance.​
✔ Problem-solving and creativity.​
✔ Autonomy and independence.​
✔ Appreciation for life and experiences.​
✔ Deep, meaningful relationships.​
✔ Desire for growth and peak experiences.

IV. Expanded Maslow’s Hierarchy (Later Additions)

Maslow later proposed additional needs beyond self-actualization:

1.​ Cognitive Needs – Desire for knowledge, understanding, and exploration.

2.​ Aesthetic Needs – Appreciation of beauty, balance, and art.
3.​ Transcendence Needs – Helping others achieve their full potential and
contributing to humanity.
 V. Application of Maslow’s Theory in Nursing & Healthcare

✅
Maslow’s hierarchy is applied in nursing and mental health to prioritize patient care:​
Prioritization of Needs: Address physiological and safety needs first in critical

✅
situations.​

✅
Holistic Care: Consider emotional, social, and psychological well-being.​

✅
Patient-Centered Approach: Support self-esteem and autonomy in recovery.​
Encouraging Growth: Help patients achieve personal goals and improve quality
of life.

VI. Summary

●​ Maslow’s humanistic approach focuses on growth, fulfillment, and

motivation.
●​ Needs must be met in a hierarchical order, starting from basic survival needs
to self-actualization.
●​ His theory is widely used in education, healthcare, and psychology to
understand human motivation.

B.F. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Theory Reviewer

I. Overview of B.F. Skinner’s Theory

●​ Developed by B.F. Skinner, a psychologist known for behaviorism.

●​ Focuses on how behavior is learned through rewards and punishments.
●​ Introduced Operant Conditioning, which states that behavior is shaped by its
consequences.

II. Key Concepts of Operant Conditioning

1. Operant Behavior

●​ Behavior that is influenced by consequences (rewards or punishments).

●​ Example: A student studies hard to receive good grades.

2. Reinforcement (Increases Behavior)

Reinforcement strengthens a behavior, making it more likely to occur again.

✅ Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase behavior.

●​ Example: Giving a child candy for completing homework.

✅ Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior.

●​ Example: Taking painkillers to relieve a headache (removing pain reinforces
taking medicine).

3. Punishment (Decreases Behavior)

Punishment discourages a behavior, making it less likely to occur again.

❌ Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease behavior.

●​ Example: Giving detention to a student for being late.

❌ Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior.

●​ Example: Taking away a teenager’s phone for bad behavior.

III. Schedules of Reinforcement

Skinner identified different reinforcement schedules that affect how behavior is learned:

1.​ Continuous Reinforcement: Rewarding behavior every time it happens.​

○​ Example: Giving a dog a treat every time it sits.

2.​ Intermittent (Partial) Reinforcement: Behavior is reinforced only sometimes.​

○​ Fixed-ratio: Reward after a set number of responses (e.g., getting a

bonus after selling 10 products).
○​ Variable-ratio: Reward after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g.,
gambling).
○​ Fixed-interval: Reward after a fixed time period (e.g., weekly paycheck).
○​ Variable-interval: Reward after a random time period (e.g., surprise
quizzes).
IV. Skinner’s Experiments

●​ Skinner Box: A controlled environment where animals learned behavior through

reinforcement.
●​ Example: A rat learned to press a lever for food (positive reinforcement).

V. Applications of Skinner’s Theory in Nursing & Healthcare

●​ Patient Behavior Modification: Encouraging positive behaviors through

reinforcement (e.g., rewarding a patient for adhering to treatment).
●​ Mental Health Treatment: Used in behavior therapy for anxiety, addiction, and
phobias.
●​ Rehabilitation Programs: Encouraging functional behavior in stroke or injury
patients.

VI. Summary

●​ B.F. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning focuses on how behavior is shaped by

rewards and punishments.
●​ Reinforcement increases behavior, while punishment decreases it.
●​ Used in education, psychology, and healthcare to modify behavior.

Ivan Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning (Simple Reviewer)

What is Classical Conditioning?

●​ A learning process where a person or animal associates two things.

●​ Discovered by Ivan Pavlov through his experiment with dogs.

Key Terms:

1.​ Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) – Something that naturally causes a reaction.​

○​ Example: Food makes a dog salivate.

 2.​ Unconditioned Response (UCR) – A natural reaction to the UCS.​

○​ Example: Salivating when seeing food.

3.​ Conditioned Stimulus (CS) – A neutral thing that gets associated with the UCS.​

○​ Example: A bell sound before food is given.

4.​ Conditioned Response (CR) – A learned reaction to the CS.​

○​ Example: The dog salivates when hearing the bell, even without food.

Pavlov’s Experiment (Dog Example):

1.​ Before learning:​

○​ Food (UCS) → Salivation (UCR)

○​ Bell (Neutral) → No Response
2.​ During learning:​

○​ Bell + Food → Salivation (Repeated several times)

3.​ After learning:​

○​ Bell (CS) → Salivation (CR)

→ The dog learned that the bell means food is coming!

Important Ideas in Classical Conditioning:

1.​ Acquisition – Learning the association (bell = food).

2.​ Extinction – If no food comes after the bell, the response fades.
3.​ Spontaneous Recovery – The response can suddenly return after extinction.
4.​ Generalization – Similar sounds may also cause salivation.
5.​ Discrimination – Learning to react only to a specific sound.

Real-Life Applications:

●​ Fear & Phobias: People can learn to fear things due to bad experiences.
●​ Addiction Treatment: Breaking triggers that cause cravings.
 ●​ Therapy & Behavior Training: Used in treating anxiety, PTSD, and habits.

Summary:

●​ Ivan Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning explains how people and animals learn
through associations.
●​ It’s used in psychology, therapy, and behavior training.

Let me know if you need it even simpler! 😊

Lawrence Kohlberg’s Moral Development Theory (Simple Reviewer)

What is Kohlberg’s Moral Development Theory?

●​ Explains how people develop moral reasoning (the ability to decide what is right
or wrong).
●​ Based on moral dilemmas (situations where people must make ethical choices).
●​ Has 3 Levels with 6 Stages of moral development.

I. The 3 Levels of Moral Development

1. Preconventional Level (Childhood)

●​ Morality is based on rewards, punishments, and self-interest.

✅ Stage 1: Obedience & Punishment – "Avoid punishment!"

●​ Right and wrong are based on avoiding punishment.
●​ Example: A child obeys their parents to avoid getting scolded.

✅ Stage 2: Self-Interest (Reward Orientation) – "What’s in it for me?"

●​ Right actions bring personal gain or benefit.
●​ Example: A child helps a friend in exchange for a toy.

2. Conventional Level (Adolescence)

 ●​ Morality is based on following rules and pleasing others.

✅ Stage 3: Good Boy/Good Girl (Approval-Seeking) – "I want to be liked!"

●​ Right actions please others and gain approval.
●​ Example: A teenager behaves well to be praised by parents or teachers.

✅ Stage 4: Law & Order (Authority and Social Rules) – "Follow the rules!"
●​ Right actions follow laws and maintain order.
●​ Example: A person doesn’t steal because it’s against the law.

3. Postconventional Level (Adulthood)

●​ Morality is based on personal values, justice, and human rights.

✅ Stage 5: Social Contract & Individual Rights – "Laws should benefit everyone!"
●​ Right actions promote justice and fairness.
●​ Example: A person protests an unfair law to protect human rights.

✅ Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles – "Do what’s right, no matter what!"

●​ Morality is based on personal conscience and ethics, even if it goes against
laws.
●​ Example: A person helps refugees even if it’s illegal in their country.

II. Summary of Kohlberg’s Stages

Level Stage Moral Thinking

Preconventional 1. Obedience & Avoid punishment

Punishment

2. Self-Interest Gain rewards

 Conventional 3. Good Boy/Good Girl Please others

4. Law & Order Follow rules & laws

Postconventional 5. Social Contract Justice & fairness

6. Universal Ethical Do what is right, no matter

Principles what

III. Real-Life Application

●​ Children obey rules to avoid punishment.

●​ Teenagers follow rules because they want approval.
●​ Adults develop personal morals and stand for justice.

Hans Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) – Simple Reviewer

What is General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)?

●​ A theory that explains how the body responds to stress in three stages.
●​ Developed by Hans Selye in 1936.
●​ The body goes through a predictable process when faced with stress.

I. The 3 Stages of GAS

1. Alarm Stage ("Fight or Flight")

●​ The body detects stress and prepares to respond.

●​ The sympathetic nervous system is activated.
●​ Hormones like adrenaline and cortisol are released.

✅ Symptoms:
 💓
😤
●​ Increased heart rate

👀
●​ Fast breathing

⚡
●​ Dilated pupils
●​ Increased energy

✅ Example:
●​ A person feels scared and their heart races when they hear sudden bad news.

2. Resistance Stage ("Coping with Stress")

●​ The body tries to adapt and maintain balance (homeostasis).

●​ Stress hormones remain high, but the body resists exhaustion.

✅ Symptoms:
●​ The body continues to be alert ⚠️
🤒
●​ Blood pressure and heart rate normalize but stay slightly high
●​ The immune system weakens over time

✅ Example:
●​ A student pulls all-nighters for a big exam. They feel tired but keep pushing
through.

3. Exhaustion Stage ("Burnout & Breakdown")

●​ If stress continues for too long, the body loses its ability to cope.
●​ This stage can lead to mental and physical health problems.

✅ Symptoms:
🛌
🤧
●​ Extreme fatigue

😔
●​ Weak immune system (more sickness)

💔
●​ Depression and anxiety
●​ High risk of diseases like heart problems

✅ Example:
 ●​ A nurse working long shifts with no rest starts feeling exhausted, gets sick, and
feels emotionally drained.

II. Summary of GAS Stages

Stage What Happens? Symptoms

Alarm Body detects stress Fast heart rate, sweating,

energy boost

Resistance Body tries to adapt Some energy left, but

stress remains

Exhaustion Body gives up Burnout, illness, mental

breakdown

III. Real-Life Application

●​ Short-term stress (exams, job interviews) → Alarm Stage

●​ Prolonged stress (work pressure, family problems) → Resistance Stage
●​ Chronic stress (constant overwork, trauma) → Exhaustion Stage (Burnout!)

How to Manage Stress?

✔️ Take breaks 🏖️​

✔️ Exercise 🏃‍♂️​
✔️ Sleep well 😴​
✔️ Talk to someone 🤝​
✔️ Relaxation techniques (deep breathing, meditation) 🧘‍♀️
IV. Key Takeaway:
 ●​ Stress is normal, but long-term stress is dangerous.
●​ Managing stress early can prevent exhaustion and health problems.

Lazarus and Folkman’s Transactional Model of Stress – Simple Reviewer

What is the Transactional Model of Stress?

●​ Developed by Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman (1984).

●​ Explains stress as a continuous interaction between a person and their
environment.
●​ Focuses on how people assess (appraise) stress and cope with it.

I. The Two Main Appraisals (How We Evaluate Stress)

1. Primary Appraisal ("Is this a threat?")

●​ The person assesses the situation to determine if it is stressful.

✅
●​ Three possible outcomes:​

✅
Irrelevant – No impact on well-being (e.g., hearing a random news story).​

✅
Benign-Positive – Helpful or neutral (e.g., receiving a bonus at work).​
Stressful – Seen as a threat, challenge, or harm/loss.

✅ Example:
●​ A nurse is given a new responsibility at work. If they feel confident, they may
see it as a challenge. If they feel unprepared, they may see it as a threat.

2. Secondary Appraisal ("Can I handle this?")

●​ The person evaluates their resources to cope with the stressor.

●​ Two types of coping options:

A. Internal Options (Personal Strengths & Skills)

✔️ Knowledge & Experience – "Do I have the skills to handle this?"​

✔️ Resilience & Confidence – "Have I overcome similar challenges before?"​
✔️ Emotional Control – "Can I stay calm and focused?"
B. External Options (Support from Others & Environment)
✔️ Social Support – "Can I ask for help from friends, family, or colleagues?"​
✔️ Resources & Time – "Do I have enough time, money, or tools to fix this?"​
✔️ Professional Help – "Should I seek expert advice?"
✅ Example:
●​ A student failing a subject can:
○​ Use internal resources (studying harder, staying motivated).
○​ Seek external help (getting tutoring, asking professors for guidance).

II. Coping Strategies (How We Handle Stress)

1.​ Problem-Focused Coping – Directly addressing the stressor by taking

action.
○​ Example: Studying for an exam to feel prepared.
2.​ Emotion-Focused Coping – Managing emotions rather than fixing the
problem.
○​ Example: Meditating, talking to a friend, or practicing deep breathing.

✔️ Effective Coping – Using the right strategy for the situation.​

❌ Maladaptive Coping – Avoiding the problem or using unhealthy methods (e.g.,
excessive drinking).

III. Summary of the Model

Step What Internal External Example

Happens? Options Options

Primary "Is this N/A N/A "An exam is

Appraisal stressful?" coming up!"

Secondary "Can I handle Knowledge, Support from "I can study

Appraisal it?" Confidence others and ask for
help."
Coping Problem or Self-discipline Professional "I’ll review my
Emotion-Focus guidance notes or get a
ed? tutor."

IV. Real-Life Application

1. A Nurse Handling a Medical Emergency

🚨
●​ Primary Appraisal: "This is a life-threatening situation!"
●​ Secondary Appraisal:
○​ Internal: "Do I have the training to handle this?"
○​ External: "Can I call the doctor or a senior nurse for help?"
●​ Coping: Uses problem-focused coping (performs emergency interventions).

2. A Student Dealing with Academic Failure

●​ Primary Appraisal: "This failure is stressful!"

●​ Secondary Appraisal:
○​ Internal: "Can I improve by studying more?"
○​ External: "Can I seek help from a tutor or professor?"

✔️
●​ Coping:​

❌
Problem-focused: Study harder, get tutoring.​
Emotion-focused (unhealthy): Ignore the problem, blame others.

V. Key Takeaways

✔️ Stress is not just about the event—it’s about how we perceive and respond to it.​
✔️ We have both internal and external resources to manage stress.​
✔️ Choosing the right coping strategy helps reduce stress effectively.