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Engineering Wallah Mechanical Engineering

Short Notes
Subject: Production Engineering
Chapter 01: Welding Arc is initiated by touching coated electrode with
workpiece. Then a gap is maintained between
Welding is a process in which localized coalescence electrode and workpiece with in the gap, between
(permanent joint) is produced by heating the material upto electrode and workpiece, frée electrons and holes will
suitable temperature with or without application of filler be formed in gas.
material. Points to remember:
If filler material is different from base material it is The temperature in the core of the arc ranges between
heterogenous welding 6000-7000°C
1. Advantage/Disadvantage of welding SMAW can be performed both on AC and DC source
 Advantage with drooping characteristics.
 Differrent material can also be welded.
 Welding can be done anywhere COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT ELECTRODE
 Disadvantage POLARITY
 In the heat affected zone properties of base material
is also affected DC, DC, AC
 To dismantle, we have to break the weld electrode electrode
 Initial investment is more positive negative
 Highly skilled operator is required.
1.
2. Welding Terms
Penetration
AP
Dilution = 2/3rd at 1/3rd at 50% on both
AP  AR 2. Heat
electrode, electrode,
generation
AP = Area of penetration 1/3rd at 2/3rd at
AR = Area of reinforcement workpiece workpiece
High Low Intermediate
3. Metal
5. Types of Welding
deposition
rate
Thin Thick sheets Intermediate
4.
sheets
Thickness
of work
Easier Easier Difficult
5. Stable
smaller arc
Severe Severe Insignificant
6. Arc
blow

 Arc Blow
While welding near the edges, since most of the
magnetic lines will be concentrated in the material,
arc will be deflected towards the workpiece. This
phenomenon is called arc blow which results in
spatter.
6. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (Manual Metal Arc 7. Tungsten Inert Gas Welding (TIG)/Gas Tungsten
Welding) Arc Welding (GTAW)
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 TIG Welding. will be given, we can use automatic welding

In this technique nonconsumable tungsten electron machines to control the feeding of consumable
will be used to generate the arc. To Increase the electrode and power supply
thermal resistance of tungsten alloying elements like  More no. of consumable electrodes are also used to
Thorium and Beryllium are added. increase the deposition rate.
This will be used for less thickness material without  High rate of current with DCRP will be used.
using filler material.  It is used for welding of thick plates upto 450 mm
 Molten weld pool is protected by inert gas thickness in single pass.
atmosphere (Hellium Ne, Ar, N2 and CO2 etc). N2 is
preferred for welding copper. 12. Gas Welding
 The power supply will be AC or DC depending on TYPES OF FLAME
workpiece material for all other material except, AI,  Neutral Flame
Mg alloys, Direct Current Straight Polarity (DCSP) For this flame, we use both the gases in the ratio of 1:
will be used so that heat concentration will be more 1 by volume. This flame is used for welding of cast
on workpiece side and depth of penetration is more. iron, mild steel, low carbon steel, aluminium.
(C₂H₂ = O2)
8. Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG) / Gas Metal Inert  Carburizing Flame
Gas Welding (GMAW) For this flame, excess fuel gas (C₂H₂) is used. It is
 MIG used for welding medium carbon steel, nickel etc.
In this technique consumable electrode in the form of (C2H2 > O2)
spool wire will be supplied.  Oxidizing Flame
 DCRP will be used for welding of all materials For this type of flame excess oxygen (O2) is used.
increase the weld deposition rate. This type o flame is used for welding oxygen free
 By increasing the current supply (100 to 300 amps) copper (Cu) alloys, bras, bronze and zinc base
we can increases the depth of penetration and we can materials. (C2H2 <O2).
weld high thickness material also.
 Constant voltage type of power source is used since 13. Thermit Welding
the control of movement of electrode and feeding of  Thermit is a mixture of aluminium powder and metal
the electrode is done automatically. oxide.
 Mixture is placed in a crucible and ignited by means
9. Submerged Arc Welding of a fire cracker.
It is semiautomatic version of shielded metal arc  The aluminium act as reducing agent.
welding. It is used for long weld run.  Aluminium combines with oxygen and intense heat
 In this technique arc will be submerged inside the will be released
molten weld pool any length of welding with high  Temperature generated near about 3000°C.
thickness of materials can be done by using this  It is used for repair of railway track.
technique in a single run. High welding current will 8AI + 3Fe3O4  4AI2O3 + 9Fe + Heat
be used to increase the melting rate of electrode and
workpiece (200-2000 amps) 14. Spot Welding
 Best suited for high deposition rate, high welding  Copper electrodes are used.
speeds and high depth of penetration.  Identation is produced by applying pressure
 The flux material contains CaO and CaF2  Step down transformer are used.
 Application  High current is used.
 Maximum resistance will be at the interface between
11. Electro Slag Welding/ Electro Gas Welding the two sheets due to presence of air gap.
 Electro Slag Welding  Because ofheat, metal liquified and nugget will be
Welding is started by generating the electric arc and formed.
completed by resistance heating effect of slag Current  10,000 amp
material. Time  0.01 sec
After getting sufficient amount of molten metal Here, S = Squeeze time
power supply will be stopped and heat will be W = Welding time
maintained due to resistance effect of slag material. H = Hold time
After sometime if the heat is reduced power supply O = Off time
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(Current is passed during time period ‘W’)  In laser welding a concentrated coherent light beam
impinges at the desired spot to melt and weld the
15. Seam Welding metal.
 Continuous spot welding is seam welding.  The most useful laser for welding is the laser in which
 Pressure is applied by rollers. the lasing medium is mixture of CO2, nitrogen, and
 Leak proof joints are obtained. helium in the ratio of 1:1:10 at a pressure of 20 to 50
 Used for welding thin materials. mm of mercury.
 Application
16. Projection Welding  Welding Cu and Al alloys in electronic industries.
The welding of two sheets without any indentation  Heat generated in this is less than electron welding.
can be done by using this technique.  Limitations
 On one of the sheets some projection will be provided  High reflective materials cannot be welded.
by using embossing operations.
 By applying the pressure through large area of 24. Difference between Soldering and Brazing.
electrodes, nuggets will from at the cross-section of
projection. Soldering Brazing
 Projections are provided in the thicker sheet or the
The melting point 1 The melting point
sheet which has higher thermal conductivity 1
temperature of filler temperature of filler
 Good bond between the two pieces.
material is less than material is more than
 Less distribution around the weld zinc.
melting pt. 430C but less than
temperature of base the melting pt,
19. Explosive Welding
material. temperature of base
 Low intensity explosive are used.
material.
 Plastic deformation is used for joining.
 Two plates which are to be welded are maintain at a Filler material is an 2 Filler material is an
2
distance (stand off) then movable plate hit the target alloy of lead and tin alloy of copper and
and plastic deformation take place. it is known as zinc, cu and
solder. aluminium This is
knows as spelter.
22. Electron Beam Welding The flux used in 3 The flux used is
 In this technique high velocity electron beam is to 3
soldering is zinc borax and boric acids
curved on the workpiece at a single point. chloride (ZnCI2)
 The kinetic energy of the electron beam which is and HCI.
hitting the surface of the workpiece will be converted The strength of joint 4 Strength is more
into heat energy. 4
is less when
 Due to high velocity electron beam high depth of compared to
welds can be performed by using this technique. brazing.
 Precise control of weld profile with minimum weld Used in electronic 5 Used in pipe fitting
bead and high depth of penetration. Dissimilar metals 5
industry. where leak proof
and reactive metals can be welded. joints are required for
intricate light weight
 Application : components.
Welding of titanium, nickel and stainless steel and its
alloys used in fabrication of gas turbine parts space In both the cases the filler material will enter into the
industries, aircraft industries defence sector (missile gap between workpiece by means of capillary action.
etc.)
 Limitation : 26. Welding Detects
 High initial investment.  Weld porosity
 Maintenance is costly cause we need to maintain This is due to entrapment of atmospheric gasses
vacuum to avoid scattering of electron beam. inside the molten weld pool due to this the strength
of the weld is reduced. Remedies: This can be
23. Laser Beam Welding reduced by proper selection of filler metals, by
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preheating the weld area, by proper cleaning the weld  Defect arising out of the moisture present in
zone, and by reducing the welding speeds. casting.
 Slug Inclusion.
Inclusions may be caused by compounds such as 4. Factor Governing Selection of Pattern Material
oxides, fluxes, and electrode coating materials, which  Shape and size of component to be produced
are trapped in the weld zone.  Surface finish of componentto be produced.
Remedies: Use inert gases to protect the molten weld  Number of component produced.
pool instead of flux coatings. Submerged arc inside  Moulding method we are going to use
the molten metal.  Cost of the pattern material.
 Incomplete Fusion
It is usually caused by insufficient heat and too fast 5. Type of Pattern Allowances
travel of torch or electrode.  Shrinkage Allowance
Remedies: This can be avoided by raising the
temperature of the base metal, cleaning the weld area,
providing enough shielding gas.
 Weld Spatter
This is due to high welding current and too low
welding speed and arc blow
 Cold Cracking
This is due to different in shrinkage rates and
hydrogen entrapment and variation of weld
composition.  1-2 liquid shrinkage
Remedies: Pre heating, constant weld pool  2-3 Solidification shrinkage
composition. (Phase transformation shrinkage)
 Hot Cracking  3-4 Solid shrinkage
This is due to hydrogen embrittlements and high Stage I and Stage II shrinkage are compansated by
temperature gradients and high heat effected zone. riser.
Remedies: By preheating. Stage III are compansated by giving shrinkage
 Under Cutting: allowance i.e., oversize pattern.
It is the melting or burning away the base metal at Point to remember:
the toe of the weld as sharp recess or notch. Undercut Liquid shrinkage > Solid shrinkage > Phase
can be as stress raiser and can reduce the fatigue transformation shrinkage
strength of the joint. In such cases it may lead to  Shrinkage Allowances for important material
premature failure. These undercuts are generally due
to excessive wearing of electrode 6. Type of Pattern
Chapter 02: Metal Casting/ Foundary  Single piece pattern: It is used for very simple
casting.
Casting means pouring molten metal into a refractory  Split pattern/Two piece pattern: It used when
mould with a cavity of the shape to be made, and complexity of part is more and the withdrawal
allowing it to solidity. The solidified object is called of pattern is difficult
casting. Application of casting are cylinder blocks,  Gated pattern: It is used when small compoents
piston, piston ring, wheels, housings. in mass production is required.
 Cope and drag pattern: It is used for produced
1. Advantage of Casting of big size castings.
 Molten metal can flow in any small section.  Match plate pattern: It is used for production
 Any intricate shape can be made. of small size precision casting in mass
 It is possible to cast almost any material. production e.g., Piston ring.
(Ferrous or non-ferrous)  Loose piece pattern: It used when parts with
 Casting is cooled uniformly, so there is no internal webs are produced.
directional properties.  Sweep pattern: It is used when 2-D pattern
2. Disadvantage of Casting used to produce symmetrical 3-D casting for
 Poor surface finish eg.. Cone, Bells of temples.
 Dimensional inaccuracy
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12. Solidification Time :  Very fine details and thin sections can be
 V 
2 produced by this process.
ts  K    Very close tolerances and better surface finish
 SA 
can be produced.
Here, Limitations:
V = Volume of casting  The process is normally limited by the size and
SA = Surface area of casting mass of the casting.
 Sec   This is a more expansive process because of
K = Solidification factor  2 
m  larger manual labour involved in the
Volume represents amount of heat content. preparation of the pattern and the mould.
Die casting:
16. Classification of Casting Diecasting involves the préparation of components
 Expendable moulds (Temporary Moulds) by injecting molten metal at high pressure into a
 Sand casting metallic die.
 Shell moulding The diecasting machines are of two types:
 Investment casting  hot chamber diecasting
 Full moulding  cold chamber diecasting
 CO2 moulding The main difference between these two types is that
 Permanent Moulds (Metallic Moulds) in the hot chamber casting, the holding furnace for
 Centrifugal casting the liquid metal is integral with the diecasting
machine, whereas in the cold chamber machine, the
metal is melted in a separate furnace and then poured
into the diecasting machine with a ladle for each
 casting cycle which is also called shot.
 Slush casting Centrifugal Casting:
CONTINUOUS CASTING : This is a process where the mould is rotated rapidly
 Shell Moulding: about its central axis as the metal is poured into it.
It is a process in which the sand mixed with a Because of the centrifugal force, a continuous
thermosetting resin is allowed to come into contact pressure will be acting on the metal as it solidifies.
with a heated metallic pattern plate, so that a thin and The slag, oxides and other inclusions being lighter,
strong shell of mould is formed around the pattern. gets separated from the metal and segregates toward
Advantage : the centre. There are three main types of centrifugal
 Shell-mould castings are generally more casting processes. They are
dimensionally accurate than sand castings (i) True centrifugal casting
 A smoother surface can be obtained. This is normally used for the making of hollow pipes,
 Draft angles, which are lower than the sand tubes, hollow bushes, etc., which are axi-symmetric
castings, are required in shell moulds. with a concentric hole.
 Permeability of the shell is high and therefore Advantages:
no gas inclusions occur  The mechanical properties of centrifugally cast
 Very small amount of sand needs to be used. jobs are better compared to other processes,
 Mechanization is readily possible because of because the inclusions such as slag and oxides
the simple processing involved in shell segregates towards the centre and can beeasily
moulding removed by machining. Also, the pressure
 Investment Casting acting on the metal throughout the
In this mould is prepared around an expendable solidification, causes the porosity gets
pattern. It is used for making jewelry surgical eliminated giving rise to dense metal.
equipment, blade for gas, turbine bolt and triggers for  Up to a certain thickness of objects, proper
fire arm. directional solidification can be obtained.
Advantage:  No cores are required for making concentric
 Complex shapes which are difficult to produce holes in the case of true centrifugal casting.
by any other method are possible since the  There is no need for gates and runners, which
pattern is withdrawn by melting it. increases the casting yield, reaching almost
100%,
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 The axis of rotation can be either horizontal  Side Relief Angle

vertical or any angle in between. It is the angle between the side flank and the line
passing through the tip perpendicular to the base and
17. Casting Defect : the angle is measured in a plane perpendicular to the
 GAS Defect tool axis. This angle varies in the range of 5-15°
 Blow holes and open blow This angle is provide to avoid side rubbing due to
 Pin hole porosity elastic recovery of work piece material.
 Moulding Material Defect  End Cutting Edge Angle (ECEA)
 Cuts and washes It is the angle between the end cutting edge and the
 Metal penetration line passing through the tip perpendicular to the tool
 Fusion axis and the angle is measured in a plane parallel to
 Runout base.
 Pouring Metal Defect Due to small end cutting edge angle, tool may chatter.
 Misruns and cold shuts Normal value of ECEA is 8-15°.
 Slag inclusion  End Relief Angle / Clearance Angle:
 Metallurgical Defect It is the angle between the end flank and the line
 Hot tear passing through the tip perpendicular to the base and
angle is measured in plane parallel to the tool axis. In
 Hot spot
ductile material elastic recovery is more, so large
clearance angle is provided.
Chapter 03: Metal Cutting and Machine Tools  Nose Radius:
It provide good surface finish and longer tool life
Machining is the process of removing unwanted
because a sharp point at the end of tool is highly
material from workpiece. The major drawback of this
stressed, short lived and leaves a groove in the
process is loss of material in the form of chips.
finished workpiece.
Large nose radius will result in more power
consumption, better heat dissipation, higher tool life.
4. Metal Cutting Process
 Orthogonal Cutting Process
(Two-dimensional cutting)
In this process, the cutting edge of tool is oriented at
90 deg to tool feed. In this, radial force is zero.
 Oblique Cutting Process
1. Terminology of Cutting Tool (Three-dimensional cutting)
In this, cutting edge of tool is oriented at an acute
angle to tool feed.

5. Difference Between Orthogonal and Oblique

Cutting

Orthogonal Cutting Obique Cutting

(i) Chip flow at an angle to
(i) Chip flow in a direction
cutting edge
perpendicular to cutting
edge.
 Side Rake Angle (ii) Chip flow angle is more
(ii) Chip flow angle is zero.
It is the angle between the rake face and the line than zero.
passing through the tip perpendicular to the tool axis (iii) Chips flow in a side
and the angle is measured in a plane perpendicular to (iii) Chips get coiled in a
way direction in a wider
the base. Normally this angle varies between 5 - 15 spiral fashion.
area thus less concentration
Large positive side rake angle result in less chip of heat.
formation, less cutting force, good surface finish, low
heat dissipation rate. (iv) Life is more.
(iv) Tool life is less.
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(v) There are two

(v) There are three c os     
component of force FC  FS
component of forces (no c os       
radial force). For minimum power consumption.
(vi) Surface finish is good.  First analysis :
(vi) Surface finish is poor.
(vii) It is used in turning 
(vii) It is used in slotting, 2     
milling, drilling, grinding 2
parting, grooving, pipe
 Second analysis :
cutting.
2      cot 1  k 
Here, k = machining constant
6. Type of Chip
Continuous Chip
14. Type of Tool Wear
 Ductile workpiece
 Flank Wear
 High speed
It is due to work hardening. The main reason is
 Low feed
abrasion and adhesion.
 Low depth of cut
 Crater Wear
 High back rake angle
It takes place on the face of tool at a short distance
Discontinuous Chip
from the cutting edge by the action of chip particles
 Brittle work flowing over the face at very high temperature. Its
 Low speed main reason is diffusion along with abrasion.
 High feed
 High depth of cut 15. Taylor’s Tool Life Equation
 Low back rake angle The tool life is mainly affected by cutting speed.
Chips with built-up edge Higher the cutting speed the smaller the tool life.
 Ductile Taylor gave the relation between cutting speed and
 Low speed tool life that is
 High feed VTn = C
 High depth of cut Here,
9. Velocity Triangle V = cutting speed
Let, T = tool life
Vs = Shear velocity C = machining constant
Vc = Chip velocity N = Tool life exponent (depends only on tool
V = Velocity of un - cut chip material)
V V VS For HSS n = 0.08  0.2
 C 
 
sin 90      
sin  sin 90    For carbides n = 0.2  0.6
For ceramics n = 0.5  0.8
Specific cutting power = C depends upon both tool and work piece.
FC
w.t1 16. Important Characteristics of Cutting Tool
Material
10. Merchant’s Circle Assumptions  Hot hardness
1. Cutting edge is straight and sharp  Wear resistance
2. Material is homogeneous  Toughness
3. Cutting is orthogonal  High thermal conductivity
 Low thermal expansion
11. Ernest and Merchant Theory  High young and elastic modulus
 Low coefficient of friction
 Ease of Fabrication
 Chemically stable

23. Grinding
It is used to get desired surface finish , correct size
and accurate shape of product.
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removed and initially this process was used in Gun

24. ISO Designation of Grinding whell Barrel manufacturing process.
 First and last number
Manufacturer has to give special information about 29. Counter Boring
the grinding wheel. Counter boring is making the hole little larger.
According to this system the various elements and Counter boring is done by end milling. It is seating
characteristics of grinding wheel are represented on place for bolt heads. The enlarged hole forms a
all the wheels in a definite sequence as follows. square shoulder with the original hole. This is
(i) Type of abrasive necessary in some cases to accommodate the heads
 C-carbide of bolts, studs and pins. The cutting edges have
 A - Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) straight or spiral teeth.
 D - Diamond
(ii) Grain size 30. Counter Sinking
 10-24 roughening It is the process of making the holes slightly tapered
 30-60 Medium in the beginning. It is a seating place for screws.
 70-180 Finishing
 220-600 Superfinishing operation Chapter 04: Metal Forming
 Per square inch opening in the mesh. These are
number of opening per square inch area. Forming is the process in which the desired size and
(iii) Hardness shape are obtained through the plastic deformation of
 A-H soft wheels a material. The stresses induced during the process
 I-P medium wheels are greater than the yield strength, but less than the
 Q-Z hard wheels fracture strength, of the material.
(iv) Structure 1. Classification of Metal Forming
 0 - dense Type of Metal forming Working Temperature
 16 - open Cold working < 0.4 Tm
(v) Type of bond Warm working (at recrystallization temp)
 V - Vitrified bond (glass material which 0.4 Tm  0.6Tm
produces strong wheel) Hot working > 0.6 Tm
 S - Silicate  Cold working
 B - Resinoid (Thermosetting materials which When the material is deformed below
are flexible than vitrified bond) recrystallization temperature. The recrystallization
temperature generally varies between one-third to
 R - Rubber (Most flexible bond material)
half the melting point of most of the metals.
 M-Metal bond
 Advantages
25. Drilling  Cold working increases the strength and
It is a process of creating a hole by oblique cutting. hardness of the material due to strain
Drills are made by forging and it is smaller in size so hardening. Further, there is no possibility of
that there is some margin for reaming. decarburization of the surface.
 Since the working is done in the cold state, no
26. Boring oxide would form on the surface and
It is the process of enlarging already existing hole to consequently, good surface finish is obtained.
bring it to the required size, and have a better finish.  Better dimensional accuracy is achieved.
Expected accuracy is 0.125 mm.  It is far easier to handle cold parts and also is
economical for smaller sizes.
27. Reaming  Disadvantage
It is the process of exacting the hole and finishing it.  Since the material has higher yield strength at
Expected accuracy of finish is ±0.005 mm. lower temperatures, the amount of deformation
that can be given to it is limited by the
28. Trepanning capability of the presses or hammers used.
Drill is in the form of a tube at the periphery of which  Since the material gets strain hardened, the
there are cutting edges. Complete material is not maximum amount of deformation that can be
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given is limited. Any further deformation can this defect are improper design of forging die or using
be given after annealing. faulty forging techniques.
 Some materials which are brittle cannot be  Cold Shut
cold worked. This appears as a small, crack at the corners of the
 Hot Working forging. This is caused mainly by the improper design
In hot working, process is carried above the of the die wherein the corner and fillet radii are small,
recrystallization temperature with or without actual as a result of which the metal dies not flow properly
heating. In hot working, the temperature at which the into the corner and ends up as a cold shut.
working is completed is important because any extra  Scale Pits
heat left after working will aid in grain growth, thus This is seen as irregular depression on the surface of
giving poor mechanical properties. the forging. This is primarily caused because of the
2. Forging improper cleaning of the stock used for forging.
Forging is the operation where the metal is heated and  Die Shift
then a force is applied to manipulate the metal in such This is caused by the misalignment of the two die
a way that the required final shape is obtained. halves, making the two halves of the forging to be of
Forging is generally a hot working operation though improver shape.
cold forging is also used some times.  Flakes
These are basically internal ruptures caused by the
3. Type of Operations in Forgoing improper cooling of the large forging. Rapid cooling
 Drawing causes the exteriors to cool quickly causing internal
This is the operation in which the metal gets fractures. This can be remedied by following proper
elongated with a reduction in the cross-sectional area. cooling practice.
For this purpose, the force is to applied in a direction,  Improper Grain Flow
perpendicular to the length axis. This is caused by the improper design of the die,
 Upsetting which makes the flow of metal not following the final
This is applied to increase the cross-sectional area of intended directions.
the stock at the expense of its length. To achieve the
upsetting, force is applied in a direction parallel to the 7. Tube Drawing :
length axis. It is similar to wire drawing except it requires a
4. Type of Forging mandrel of the requisite diameter to form the internal
 Smith Forging hole.
This is the traditional forging operation done openly 8. Swagging :
or in open dies by the village blacksmith or modern Swagging is a mechanical deformation technique of
shop floor by manual hammering or by power reducing or shaping the cross-section of rods or tubes
hammers. by means of repeated impacts or blows. The
 Drop Forging swagging process consists of dies which are given the
This is the operation done in closed impression dies requisite external shape. These dies intermittently
by means of drop hammers. Here, the force for hamme the stock to produce the deformation. This
shaping the component is applied in a series of blows. hammering action, beside producing the necessary
 Press Forging shape, ensures good surface qualities, bette grain
Similar to drop forging, press forging is also done in structure and higher tensile strength.
closed impression dies with the exception that the
force is a continuous squeezing type applied by the 9. Extrusion:
hydraulic presses. Extrusion is the process of confining the metal in a
 Machine Forging closed cavity an then allowing it to flow from only
Unlike the drop or press forging where the material is one opening so that the metal take the shape of the
drawn out, in machine forging, the material is only opening. The operation is identical to the squeezin of
upset to get the desired shape. toothpaste out of a toothpaste tube.

5. Forging Defect :
 Unfilled Sections
In this, some sections of the die cavity are not
completely filled by the flowing metal. The causes of
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15. Mechanism of Rolling:

Here,
 = Bite angle
L = Length of contact
h = h1  h2
 = coefficient of friction
 Bite angle
h
cos   1 
2R
10. Forward Hot extrusion/Backward Hot Extrusion  Condition for self entry
Process   tan 
Forward hot extrusion, signifying the flow of metal  Reduction (h)
in the forward direction, i.e., the same as that of the h = 2R
ram. In forward extrusion, the problem of friction is
prevalent because of the relative motion between the 16. Rolling Defect
heated metal billet and the cylinder walls.  Wavy Edges
 Backward Hot Exrtrusion : These are the result of roll bending. The strip is
In order to completely overcome the friction, the thinner along its edges than at its centre. Because the
backward hot extrusion, as shown in above figure edges elongate more than the centre they buckle
used. In this, the metal is confined fully by the because of restraining from expanding freely in the
cylinder. The ram which houses the die, also rolling direction.
compresses the metal against the container, forcing it  Spread
to flow backwards through the die in the hollow In the rolling of plates and sheet having high width to
plunger or ram, It is termed backward because of the thickness ratio the width of the material remains
opposite direction of the flow of metal to that of ram constant during rolling. With smaller ratios the width
movement. increases considerably in the roll gap. This increase
in width is called spreading.
11. Cold Extrusion Process and Cold Extrusion  Crocodile crack
Forging Due to weakness at the center sheet bifurcates into
 Forward cold extrusion two parts. This is called crocodile crack.
The forward cold extrusion is similar to that of
forward hot extrusion process except for the fact that
the extrusion ratios possible are lower and extrusion
pressures higher than that of hot extrusion. It is
normally used for simple shapes requiring better
surface finish and to improve mechanical properties.

12. Hydrostatic Extrusion

In Hydrostatic extrusion, the billet in the container is
extruded through the die by the action of a liquid
pressure medium rather than by direct application of
the load with a ram. The process of pure hydrostatic
extrusion differs from conventional extrusion in that
the billet is completely surrounded by a fluid, which
is sealed off and is pressurized sufficiently to extrude
the billet through the die.

14. Rolling:
When a metal passes through the rolls, grain structure
of metal at exit is changes. As a result of squeezing,
velocity of the material higher than at entry.