SPRINGS

A mechanical spring is an elastic machine member whose primary function is to deflect

under the action load and returns to its original shape when the load is removed.
The important functions and applications of the spring are
 to cushion or reduce the effect of shock or impact loading ex: Suspension springs or
shock absorbers
 to apply forces and control motion ex: in cam & follower mechanism, in engine valve
mechanism
 to store energy ex: clocks, toys
 To measure the forces ex: weighing balance
 to change or alter vibration characteristics of the member

Classifications of spring

Helical Cylindrical Spring

The helical spring is made from a wire, usually of circular cross-section wound over a cylinder in
the form of a helix. There are two basic types of helical springs-compression spring and extension
spring, as shown in Fig.

Compression springs have certain gap between the coils in the unloaded condition and external
force tends to shorten the spring. In other words, the spring is compressed. It is used as valve
springs in Engines.
Extension springs have their coils close to each other and their ends are formed into hooks to carry
tensile load. The external force tends to lengthen the spring. In other words, the spring is elongated.
These springs are used in spring balance and door closers.
In both the cases, the external force acts along the axis of the spring and induces torsional shear
stress in the spring wire. It should be noted that the spring is under compression, the wire of helical
compression spring is not subjected to compressive stress. Also, the wire of helical extension
spring is not subjected to tensile stress although the spring is under tension. In both cases, torsional
shear stresses are induced in the spring wire. The words Compression and extension are related to
total spring and not the stresses in spring wire. In helical extension spring, the coils are wound
tightly together, so that an initial force required before extension begins.

Fig. Helical Spring

Helical torsion Spring:

A helical torsion spring is shown in fig. The construction of this spring is similar that of
compression or extension spring, except that the ends are formed in such a way, that the spring is
loaded by a torque, about the axis of the coils. Helical torsion spring is used to transmit torque to
a particular component in the machine or mechanism. For example, the spring shown in fig
transmits a torque of (P x r). Helical torsion spring is used in door-hinges, brush-holders,
automobile starters and door locks.
It should be noted that although the spring is subjected to torsional moment, the wire of helical
torsion spring is not subjected to torsional shear stress. It is subjected to bending stresses.
 Fig. Helical Torsion Spring

Spiral Spring
It consists of a thin strip of rectangular cross section which is wound in the form of a spiral.
It is used in watches, cameras and toys.

Fig. Spiral Spring

Beleville Spring / Disc Spring

It consists of a coned disk as shown in Fig. The individual disks can be stacked in series as shown.
These springs are used in applications where high spring rates and compact spring units are
required. It is used as clutch spring for engaging or disengaging the clutch.
 Fig. Beliville Spring

Multileaf spring
(Refer the later section for construction)

Fig. Leaf Spring

TERMINOLOGY OF HELICAL SPRING

 Spring index: The ratio between Mean diameter of coil to the diameter of the wire.
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝐷)
C=
𝑊𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝑑)

 Spring index indicates the relative sharpness of the curvature of the coil
 A low spring index means high sharpness of curvature
 When C < 3, the actual stresses in the wire are excessive due to curvature effect.
 When C > 15, it results in large variation in coil diameter. Such a spring is prone to
buckling and tangles easily during handling
  Such a spring is prone to buckling and also tangles easily during handling. Spring index
from 4 to 12 is considered better from manufacturing considerations. Therefore, in practical
applications, the spring index usually varies from 4 to 12

 Solid length: Solid length is defined as the axial length of the spring which is so compressed
that the adjacent coils touch each other. In this case, the spring is completely compressed and no
further compression is possible.
Solid length = i * d
Where i = total number of coils and d = diameter of wire

 Compressed length: It is defined as the axial length of the spring that is subjected to maximum
compressive force. When the spring is subjected to maximum force, there should be some gap or
clearance between the adjacent coils.

The gap is essential to prevent clashing of the coils. The clashing allowance or the total axial gap
is usually taken as 15% of the maximum deflection. Sometimes, an arbitrary decision is taken and
it is assumed that there is a gap of 1 or 2 mm between adjacent coils under maximum load
condition. In this case, the total axial gap is given by

Total gap = (i -1) x Gap between adjacent coils

 Free length: It is defined as the axial length of an unloaded helical compression spring.

Free length = Compressed length + maximum deflection

Or
Free length = solid length + max. Compression + total clearance between adjacent coils

 Pitch: The pitch of the coil is defined as the axial distance between adjacent coils in
uncompressed state of spring. It is denoted by p. It is given by,

 Spring Rate (or) Stiffness (or) spring constant (k): It is defined as force required to
produce per unit of deflection.

 Active Coils and Inactive coils: There are two terms related to the spring coils viz. active
coils and inactive coils. Active coils are the coils in the spring, which contribute to spring action,
support the external force and deflects under the action of force. A portion of the end coils, which
is in contact with the seat, does not contribute to spring action and are called inactive coils. These
coils do not support the load and do not deflect under the action of external force. The inactive
coils is given by,

Inactive coils = (i' – i)

Where
i' = Total Number of active coils
i= number of active coils

[Link] OF SPRING

There are mainly four forms of compression springs as shown in figure3.. They are as follows:
1) Plain end
2) Plain and ground end
 3) Squared end
4) Squared and ground end
Among the four types, the plain end type is less expensive to manufacture. It
tends to bow sideways when applying a compressive load.

Fig. Compression Helical Spring

STRESSES IN HELICAL SPRING WIRE

The free body diagram shows that there will be two components of stress on any cross section of
a coil: torsional shear stress from the torque T and a direct shear stress due to the force F. these
two shear stresses have the distributions across the section as shown below. The two stresses add
directly and the maximum shear stress occurs at the inner fiber of the wires cross section as shown
below
Consider a helical compression spring subjected to an axial load as shown in figure

D – Mean diameter of the coil

D – Diameter of wire

Do – Outside diameter of coil

Di – Inside diameter of coil

i – Number of coils

We know that the axial compressive force on the spring results in twisting of the wire about its
axis. The force F acting at the end of the bracket induces torsional shear stress in the bar. The
torsional moment T is given by,
𝐷
𝑇 = 𝐹 2 ---- (1)

16𝑇
Torsional shear stress in the bar is given by, 𝜏 =
𝜋𝑑3
8𝐹𝐷
Substitute T from (1), 𝜏 =
𝜋𝑑3

There are additional stresses

i. Direct shear stress due to F

ii. Stress due to curvature effect
When the wire ‘d’ is bent in the form of coil, the inner fiber will be having more stress when
compared to the outside fiber. This results in stress concentration at the inside fibler of the coil.
Taking into account the above two factors, the torsional shear stress can be written as,

8𝐹𝐷
𝜏= 𝐾
𝜋𝑑 3
Where K – Wahl’s stress factor

4𝐶−1 0.615
K= +
4𝐶−4 𝐶
 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 (𝐷)
Where C – spring index =
𝐷𝑎𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 (𝑑)

Deflection of a helical spring:

𝑇𝑙
The angle of twist is given as 𝜃 = --- (1)
𝐺𝐽

Let 𝜃 – torsional deflection in the spring wire due to torque ‘T’

The work-done on the spring is equal to the potential energy due to the twisting of the wire

1 1
𝐹𝑦 = 𝑇𝜃
2 2
𝐹𝐷
𝐹𝑦 = 𝜃
2
𝐷𝜃
y= --- (2)
2
𝜋
Substitute 𝜃 and J = 𝑑 4 in (2), we get
32

8𝐹𝐷3 𝑖
Axial deflection of the spring 𝑦 =
𝐺𝑑4

SPRINGS IN PARALLEL AND SERIES:

There are two types of spring connections-series and parallel. The objectives of series and parallel
combinations are as follows:
(i) to save the space;
(ii) to change the rate of the spring at a certain deflection; and
(iii) to provide a fail-safe system
Figure shows two springs, with spring rates k1 and k2 connected in series. For series connection,
(i) The force acting on each spring is same and equal to external force.
(ii) The total deflection of spring combination is equal to the sum of the deflections of individual
springs.
 Fig. SPRINGS IN SERIES
Therefore,
P = P1= P2 --- (1) and Y = Y1 + Y2 --- (2)
Where Y1 and Y2 are the deflection of two springs
𝑃
Y=
𝐾
or
𝑃 𝑃
Y1 = & Y2 =
𝐾1 𝐾2
Sub in eqn (2)
𝑃 𝑃 𝑃
= +
𝐾 𝐾1 𝐾2
Or
1 1 1
= + where K = combined stiffness of all springs in the connection
𝐾 𝐾1 𝐾2

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝑭𝟎 𝑭𝒐𝟏 𝑭𝒐𝟐

Figure shows two springs, with spring rates k1 and k2, connected in parallel.
For parallel connection,
i. The force acting on the spring combination is equal to the sum of forces acting on
individual springs.
ii. The deflection of individual springs is same and equal to the deflection of the combination
 SPRINGS IN PARALLEL
Therefore,
P = P1+P2 --- (3)
Or P1= K1 Y and P2 = K2 Y
Sub in Eqn (3)
K Y = K1 Y +K2 Y
Or K = K1 + K2

Or
𝑭𝟎 = 𝑭𝟎𝟏 + 𝑭𝟎𝟐

It is observed that deflections are additive in a series combination, while forces are additive in a
Parallel combination.
Spring Materials:
The selection of material for the spring wire depends upon
 The load acting on the spring
 The range of stress through which the spring operates
 The limitations on mass and volume of spring
 The expected fatigue life
 The environmental conditions in which the spring will operate such as temperature and
corrosive atmosphere
  The severity of deformation encountered while making the spring

Four basic varieties of steel wire that are used in springs in the majority of applications
i. Patented and cold drawn steel wires (unalloyed)
ii. Oil hardened and tempered spring steel wires and valve spring wires
iii. Oil hardened and tempered steel wires (alloyed)
iv. Stainless steel spring wires

The most extensively used spring material is high carbon hard-drawn spring steel. It is often called
patented and cold-drawn steel wire. There are two important terms related to patented and cold-
drawn steel wires, namely, patenting and cold drawing. Patenting is defined as heating the steel to
above the critical range followed by rapid cooling to transform at an elevated temperature from
4550 to 4650C. This operation produces a tough uniform structure that is suitable for severe cold
drawing. After this operation, the spring wire is produced from hot rolled rods by cold drawing
through carbide dies to obtain the required diameter. The patented and cold-drawn steel wires are
made of high carbon steel and contain 0.85 -0.95% carbon.

The patented and cold-drawn steel wires are mainly used in springs subjected to static forces and
moderate fluctuating forces. There are four grades of this wire. Grade-l is used in springs subjected
to static or low-load cycles. Grade-2 is used in springs subjected to moderate-load cycles. Grade-
3 is used in highly stressed static springs or springs subjected to moderate dynamic loads. Grade-
4 is suitable for springs subjected to severe stresses.
The second group of spring wires is unalloyed oil-hardened and tempered spring steel wires and
valve spring wires. Oil hardened and tempered spring steel wire contains 0.55-0.75% carbon. The
wire is cold drawn and then hardened and tempered. Valve spring wire contains 0.60-0.75%
carbon. It is the highest quality of oil hardened and steel wire. It has excellent surface finish and
considered to be most reliable for applications involving fluctuating forces. It is used for
applications where the stresses are severe.
CONCENTRIC SPRINGS
Concentric springs are closed coil helical springs forced one inside the other. They are used to obtain
greater load carrying capacity or to obtain certain load deflection characteristics. Figure shows two
springs placed one inside the other. When springs are nested, the mechanism continues even if one of
the springs break.

Advantages of concentric springs

1. Since there are two spring, the load carrying capacity is increased and heavy load can be
transmitted in a restricted area
2. In concentric spring, the operation of the mechanism continues even if one of the spring
breaks. This results in fail-safe system
3. In concentric spring, the spring vibrations called surge are eliminated

The design analysis of concentric spring with same free length, is based on the following
assumptions
• The springs are made of the same materials
• The maximum torsional shear stresses induced in outer and inner springs are equal
• They have the same free length
• Both the springs are deflected by the same amount and therefore, have same solid length

Applications
• Heavy duty diesel engines
 • Aircraft engines
• Rail road suspensions

SPRING SURGE (CRITICAL FREQUENCY OF HELICAL SPRINGS)

When the natural frequency of the spring coincides with the frequency of external periodic force,
resonance occurs. In this state the spring is subjected to a wave of successive compression of the
coils that travels from one end to the other and back. This type of vibratory motion is called Surge
of spring.
E.g. Valve springs subjected to periodic force

Methods to avoid surge in spring

• The spring is designed in such a way that the natural frequency of the spring is 15 to 20
times the frequency of excitation of the external force. This prevents resonance condition
to occur
• The spring is provided with friction dampers on central coils. This prevents propagation of
surge
• spring made of stranded wire reduces the surge

LEAF SPRING:

The term flat spring is commonly applied to a wide variety of shapes made out of flat strip. The
advantages of flat spring varies over the helical spring is that the end of the spring may be guided
along a definite path as it deflects. Thus the spring may act as structural member as well as an
emery absorbing device.

Semi Elliptical leaf springs.

A multi leaf spring used in automobile is shown in the figure. It consists of a series of flat plates,
usually of semi-elliptical shape as shown in Fig. The flat plates called leaves have varying lengths.

The leaves are held together by U-bolt and centre clip. The longest leaf called the master leaf is
bent at the ends to form spring eyes. The eyes are provided for attaching the spring to the chassis
of the vehicle. At the centre, the leaf spring is supported on the axle. The extra full length leaves
are provided to take up the transverse shear force. Rebound clips help to share the rebounding load
from the master leaf to the graduated leaf of the leaf spring. It keeps the leaves in alignment and
prevents the lateral shifting of the leaves during operation.

BENDING STRESS IN FULL LENGTH AND GRADUATED LEAVES AND

DEFLECTION
Full length leaves are nothing but leaves of uniform cross section. Whereas graduated leaves are
of uniform strength. Graduated length leaves are made from a triangular plate (beam of uniform
strength). The triangular plate is cut into ‘n’ strips (or i number of strips) of width b’ as shown in
figure
For the purpose of analysis the leaves are divided into two groups namely, master leaf along with
graduated-length leaves forming one group and extra full length leaves forming the other. The
following notations are used in the analysis.

If = number of extra full length leaves

Ig = number of graduated leaves including master leaf

n = total number of leaves

b’ = width of each leaf

L = length of cantilever or half the length of semi-elliptical spring

F = load applied at the end of the spring

Ff = portion of F taken by the extra full-length leaves

Fg = Portion of F taken by the graduated length leaves

The group of graduated length leaves along with the master leaf can be treated as a triangular
plate, as shown in Fig.

In this case, it is assumed that the individual leaves are separated and the master leaf placed at
the centre. Then the second leaf is cut longitudinally into two halves each of width (b’/2) and
placed on each side of the master leaf. Similar procedure is repeated for other leaves as shown
in figure (a) & (b). The resultant shape is approximately a triangular plate of thickness t and a
maximum width at the support as (igb). The bending stress in the plate at the support is given by,

Fig. (a) Graduated-length leaves as triangular plate

 Fig. (b) Extra full-length leaves as rectangular plate

  My / I

h bh3
Substitute y  and I  ; we get
2 12

6 Fg l
g 
bh2

6 Fg l
Or g   (1)
ig b ' h 2

Deflection,

Fg l 3
yg 
2 EI

Fg l 3
Or y g 
bh3
2E
12

6 Fg l 3 6 Fg l 3
yg  or yg     (2)
Ebh3 Eig b ' h3

6 Ff l
f     (3)
i f b ' h2
 Ff l 3
yf 
3EI

4 Ff l 3
yf     (4)
Ei f b ' h3

Graduated leaves and full length leaves are in parallel hence deflection is same.

y f  yg

Substitute equation (3) & (4), we get,

3Fg 2 Ff

ig if

ig 3 Fg
    (5)
if 2 Ff

And We know that, F  Ff  Fg    (6)

3 if
Substitute equation (5) Ff  Fg in (6)
2 ig

 3i  2ig   2ig F 
F  f  Fg or Fg       (7)
 2ig  2ig  3i f
   

3i  2ig F 
 Fg   f  
2  ig  2ig  3i f
 

 3i f F 
 Ff     (8)
 2ig  3i f
 

Substitute (8) in (3)

6l  3i f F 
f   
i f b ' h2  2ig  3i f 

 18Fl 
f  
 b ' h 2  2ig  3i f  
 
Substitute (7) in (4)

6l  3ig F 
g   
ig b ' h 2  2ig  3i f 
 12 Fl 
 g   
 b ' h 2  2ig  3i f  
 

 f  1.5 g

Bending stress in full length leaves is 50 % more than stress in graduated leaves

NIPPING

We know that the stress in the full length leaves is 50 % more than the stresses in the graduated
leaf. The stresses in the different leaves can be equalized by prestressing the spring.

Prestressing is done by providing a greater radius of curvature to the full length leaves than that in
the graduated leaves .The initial gap between the full length leaf and graduated leaf is known as
nip.
When the centre clip is drawn tight, the full length leaf will bend backwards resulting in an initial
stress opposite to that caused due to the external load as shown in Fig.

Bending stress due to external load

Initial bending stress (Centre clip)

Full length leaf

Graduated leaf

Fig. Nipping
 Problem

1. Design a helical compression spring to carry a load of 500 N with a deflection of 20

mm. The allowable shear stress in the spring material is 350 MPa and modulus of
rigidity is 82.7x103 MPa. The spring index is 6.

2. A helical compression spring is to be designed for an operating load range of 1kN to 1.3
kN. The initial compression of the spring is 60 mm for a load of 1 kN. Assume the
spring index as [Link] shear stress in the spring material is 500 MPa and modulus of
rigidity is 82.7 GPa.

4. A railway wagon weighing 40 kN and moving with a speed of 10 km/hr has to be

stopped by 4 springs in parallel in which the maximum compression allowed is 200 mm.
Find the number of turns in each spring of diameter 150 mm.
The diameter of the wire is 25 [Link] G=0.82x105 MPa.

5. At the bottom of an elevator shaft a group of 12 identical closed coil helical springs are
set in parallel to absorb the shock caused by the falling of the cage in case of failure.
The loaded cage weighs 20 kN while the counter weight has a weight of 5 kN. If the
loaded cage falls through a height of 3 m from rest, find the maximum stress induced
in each spring if it is made of 40 mm diameter steel rod. The spring index is [Link]
number of turns in each spring is [Link] modulus of rigidity is G=82.7 GPa.

6. Two helical springs nested one inside the other support a load of 500 [Link] the springs
are of same material and G=82.7
Determine 1. Defection of each spring
[Link] dimensions of each spring
2. Load shared by each spring
are as follows
3. Shear stress induced in each
Outer Inner
spring wire
D 40 28
d 5 4
i 10 8
lf 90 78

7. 𝑑 𝐶
Prove that 𝑑1 = 𝐶−2 if the diametral clearance is equal to the difference between the wire
2
diameters where C→spring index
9. A concentric spring is used for an aircraft engine valve to exert a maximum force of 4
kN under a defection of 30 mm. Both the springs have same free length, solid height
and are subjected to a shear stress of 600 MPa. The spring index for both the springs is
6. G=82.7 GPa. The diametral clearance is equal to the difference between their wire
[Link] (i) axial force (ii) wire & mean coil diameters of each spring
(iii) number of active coils

10. A loaded narrow gauge car weighing 15 kN and moving at a velocity of 1 m/s is brought
to rest by a bumper consisting of 2 helical steel springs of square cross section. The
mean diameter of coil is 6 times the side of the cross section .In bringing the car to rest
the springs are to be compressed 100 mm. The allowable shear stress in the spring
material is 350 MPa. Determine
a)load on each spring b)side of the square section c)mean coil diameter d)number of
active coils

11. A machine weighing 500 kN is mounted on 10 springs in order to protect the building
from vibrations. The section of the spring is rectangle with side ratio [Link] spring
has 4 active turns and spring index is [Link]
a)section of the spring so that longer side is parallel to the axis of the spring
b)deflection of the spring when the machine is stationary
c)shear stress induced if the shorter side is parallel to the spring axis. Allowable shear
stress is 300 MPa.
LEAF SPRINGS

1. Design a truck spring to carry a central load of 6000 N with a permissible stress of 280 MPa.
The spring supports are 1080 mm apart and central band is 80 mm wide. Assume the ratio of
total depth to the width of the spring to be 3. The spring has 12 number of leaves out of 2 are
extra full length leaves. Also find the defection of the spring.

2. A locomotive spring has an overall length of 1.2 m and sustains a load of 70 kN at its centre.
The spring has 3 full length leaves and 15 graduated leaves with a central band 200 mm wide.
All the leaves are to be stressed to 400 MPa, when fully loaded. The total spring depth to width
ratio is to be approximately 2. Determine

i) width and thickness of leaves

ii) initial space that must be provided between the full length and graduated leaves
before the load is applied
iii) the load exerted on the band after the spring is assembled

3. A semi-elliptic leaf spring made of 9 leaves is 1.1m long between the centres of eye.2 of the
leaves extend full length of the spring. The leaves are held together by a band 80 mm wide. If
the spring is to carry a load of 6.5 kN and permissible stress of the spring material is not to
exceed 350 MPa, find the width and thickness of the leaves when

i) leaves are not stresses initially

ii) leaves are stressed initially
The deflection of the spring is not to exceed 75 mm. Take E=207 GPa

4. The free end of a horizontal constant strength cantilever beam is in contact with a vertical coil
[Link] coil spring is situated directly below the free end of the beam. The width of the
beam at the fixed end is 400 mm. Its length is 800 mm and thickness is 15 mm. The coil spring
has 10 active coils of 15 mm diameter wire and has an outside diameter of 100 mm. Take
E=207 GPa

G=79.3 GPa.

i) What force F if gradually applied at the end of cantilever beam is required to cause a
deflection of 30 mm.

ii) What is the bending stress at the middle of the beam?

iii) How much energy is absorbed by the coil spring?