LECTURE NOTES

ON

ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS (20EC0409)

2022 – 2023
II B. Tech II Semester (R20)
Mr. [Link], [Link] .

ECE Dept.

SIDDARTHA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY::PUTTUR

(AUTONOMOUS)
Siddartha Nagar, Narayanavaranam Road, Puttur – 517583

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

Vision
To prepare engineers, proficient to meet the needs of current technological advancements in
the field of Electronics and commu nication engineering by imparting quality teaching wit h
due attention to progressive needs of the indu stry in academics and research.
Mission
M1: To provide a creative environment through stru ctured teaching -learning process in the
frontier area s of electronic communication technology and equipments.

M2: To strive towards efficient indu stry -institute interaction in the recent trends of
communica tion techniqu es and imaging modalities through edu cation and R&D activities.

M3: : To inculcate a mind of continuou s learning while providing ethical and value based
education by promoting activities for addressing the societal needs.
The follo wing are the pro gram outco mes of Engineering Graduates:

PO1: Engineering k nowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fu nda mentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.

PO2: Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze
complex engineering problems reaching su bstantiated conclu sions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.

PO3: Design/development of solu tions: Design solutions f or complex engineering problems

and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.

PO4: Conduct investigati ons of complex problems: Use research -based knowledge and
research methods inclu ding design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and
synthesis of the information to provide valid conclu sions.

PO5: Modern tool u sage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools inclu ding prediction and modeling to complex engineering
activities with an understanding of the limitations.

PO6: The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextu al k nowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issu es and the consequ ent responsibilities
releva nt to the professional engineering practice.

PO7: Environment and su stainability: Understand the impact of the professional

engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for su stainable development.

PO8: Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities
and norms of the engineering practice.
PO9: Individual and team work: Fu nction effectively as an individual, and as a member or
lea der in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.

PO10: Commu nication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with

the engineering communit y and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend
and write effective reports and design docu mentation, mak e effective presentations, and
give a nd receive clear instru ctions.

PO11: Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and und erstanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work , as a member
and lea der in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.

PO12: Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparati on and ability to
enga ge in independent and life -long learning in the broadest context of technological
change.

The following are the Program Specific Outcomes of Engineering Graduate:

PSO1: An ability to understand the concept and the applications in the field of Communication,
Embedded system and Semiconductor technology.

PSO2: Should be able to develop and Test technological advancements related to Signal processing,
Embedded and Communication systems.

PSO3: Should have the capability to analyze and design different modern tools to arrive at solutions for
societal and real world problem.

Course Outcomes:

CO1 Describe the basics of BJT High Frequency Model, amplifiers and
oscillators.
CO2 Classify amplifiers and oscillators and find suitable operating conditions.

CO3 Describe the functioning of amplifiers and oscillators.

CO4 Derive the parameters of BJT at high frequencies, amplifiers and oscillators.

CO5 Analyze BJT at high frequencies, amplifiers and oscillators for different
circuit conditions.
CO6 Design amplifiers and oscillators to meet required specifications.
 SYLLABUS

UNIT I BJT High Frequency Model Analysis:

BJT Hybrid- π Common Emitter transistor model and its parameters,CE short
circuit current gain,Current gain with resistive load.
Multistage Amplifiers:
Need for cascading,Methods of coupling,Cascade transistor amplifier and its
analysis Cascode amplifier,Darlington pair and its analysis, Effect of cascading on
Bandwidth.
UNIT II FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS:
Feedback concept, Classification of basic amplifiers - Voltage amplifier, Current
Amplifier, Transresistance Amplifier and Transconductance Amplifier, Feedback
amplifier topologies, Characteristics of negative feedback amplifiers, Analysis of
feedback amplifiers, Performance comparison of feedback amplifiers.
UNIT III OSCILLATORS:
Principle of operation of oscillator, Barkhausen Criterion, Types of oscillators,
Analysis of RC-phase shift and Wien bridge oscillators using BJT, Generalized
analysis of LC oscillator, Hartly and Colpitts oscillators using BJT Crystal
oscillators, Frequency stability of oscillators.
UNIT IV POWER AMPLIFIERS AND TUNED AMPLIFIERS:
Power Amplifiers: Types of power amplifiers, Class A large signal Amplifiers -
Series fed, Directly Coupled and Transformer Coupled class A power amplifier
and their Efficiency, Class B Amplifiers - Push Pull and Complementary
Symmetry class B power amplifier and their Efficiency, Crossover Distortion.
Tuned Amplifiers: Introduction, Single Tuned Amplifier, Double Tuned
Amplifiers, Effect of Cascading Single tuned amplifiers on Band width, Staggered
tuned amplifiers, Stability of tuned amplifiers.

UNIT V MULTIVIBRATORS :
Multivibrator ,Definition and Types,Astable Multivibrator , Monostable
Multivibrator , Bistable Multivibrator ,Triggering methods for bistable
Multivibrator.
 UNIT I
HIGH FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF A TRANSISTOR

Transistor at High frequencies:

The low frequency small signal model of bipolar junction transistor crudely holds
for frequencies below 1 MHz. For frequencies greater than 1 MHz the response of
the transistor will be limited by internal and parasitic capacitance’s of the bipolar
junction transistor. Hence at high frequencies the low frequency small signal model
of transistor has to be modified to include the effects of internal and parasitic
capacitance’s of bipolar junction transistor. These capacitance’s limit the usage of
BJT at higher frequencies. Thus in order to estimate the gain and switching on and
off times of BJT at higher frequencies the high frequency model of BJT has to be
used to get reasonably accurate estimates. The high frequency hybrid pi model is
also called as Giacoletto model named after [Link] who introduced it in
1969.
High frequency effects on BJT:
 The gain decreases at high frequencies due to internal feedback
capacitance’s. The highest frequency of operation of BJT will be limited by internal
capacitance’s of BJT.
 The on and off switching times of BJT will be high and speed will be
limited due to internal chargestorage effects.
High frequency model of BJT:
The high frequency parameters of BJT may vary with operating point but the
variation is negligible forsmall signal variations around the operating point. Following

is the high frequency model of a transistor.

Fig: High Frequency Model of BJT
Where
B’ = internal node in base
Rbb’ = Base spreading resistance
Rb’e = Internal base node to
emitter resistance Rce =
collector to emitter
resistance
Ce = Diffusion capacitance of emitter base junction
Rb’c = Feedback resistance from internal base
node to collector node gm = Transconductance
CC= transition or space charge capacitance of base collector junction.
Transistors at High Frequencies

At low frequencies it is assumed that transistor responds instantaneously to

changes in the input voltage or current i.e., if you give AC signal between the base
and emitter of a Transistor amplifier in Common Emitter configuraii6n and if the
input signal frequency is low, the output at the collector will exactly follow the
change in the input (amplitude etc.,). If '1' of the input is high (MHz) and the
amplitude of the input signal is changing the Transistor amplifier will not be able to
respond.
It is because; the carriers from the emitter side will have to be injected into the
collector side. These take definite amount of time to travel from Emitter to Base,
however small it may be. But if the input signal is varying at much higher speed than
the actual time taken by the carries to respond, then the Transistor amplifier will not
respond instantaneously. Thus, the junction capacitances of the transistor, puts a limit
to the highest frequency signal which the transistor can handle. Thus depending upon
doping area of the junction etc, we have transistors which can respond in AF range
and also RF range.
To study and analyze the behavior of the transistor to high frequency signals an
equivalent model based upon transmission line equations will be accurate. But this
model will be very complicated to analyze. So some approximations are made and the
equivalent circuit is simplified. If the circuit is simplified to a great extent, it will be
easy to analyze, but the results will not be accurate. If no approximations are made,
the results will be accurate, but it will be difficult to analyze. The desirable features of
an equivalent circuit for analysis are simplicity and accuracy. Such a circuit which is
fairly simple and reasonably accurate is the Hybrid-pi or Hybrid-π model, so called
because the circuit is in the form of π.
Hybrid - π Common Emitter Transconductance Model
For Transconductance amplifier circuits Common Emitter configuration is
preferred. Why? Because for Common Collector (hrc< 1). For Common Collector
Configuration, voltage gain Av < 1. So even by cascading you can't increase voltage
gain. For Common Base, current gain is hib< 1. Overall voltage gain is less than 1.
For Common Emitter, hre>>1. Therefore Voltage gain can be increased by cascading
Common Emitter stage. So Common Emitter configuration is widely used. The
Hybrid-x or Giacoletto Model for the Common Emitter amplifier circuit (single stage)
is as shown below

Analysis of this circuit gives satisfactory results at all frequencies not only at
high frequencies but also at low frequencies. All the parameters are assumed to be
independent of frequency.

Where B’ = internal node in base

rbb’ = Base spreading resistance
rb’e = Internal base node to
emitter resistance
rce = collector to emitter resistance
Ce = Diffusion capacitance of emitter base junction
rb’c = Feedback resistance from internal base node to collector node
gm = Transconductance
CC= transition or space charge capacitance of base collector junction

Circuit Components

B' is the internal node of base of the Transconductance amplifier. It is not

physically accessible. The base spreading resistance rbb is represented as a lumped
parameter between base B and internal node B'. gmVb'e is a current generator. Vb'e is
the input voltage across the emitter junction. If Vb'e increases, more carriers are
injected into the base of the transistor. So the increase in the number of carriers is
proportional to Vb'e. This results in small signal current since we are taking into
account changes in Vb'e. This effect is represented by the current generator gmVb'e.
This represents the current that results because of the changes in Vb'e' when C is
shorted to E.
When the number of carriers injected into the base increase, base recombination also
increases. So this effect is taken care of by gb'e. As recombination increases, base
current increases. Minority carrier storage in the base is represented by Ce the
diffusion capacitance.
According to Early Effect, the change in voltage between Collector and Emitter
changes the base width. Base width will be modulated according to the voltage
variations between Collector and Emitter. When base width changes, the minority
carrier concentration in base changes. Hence the current which is proportional to
carrier concentration also changes. IE changes and IC changes. This feedback effect
[IE on input side, IC on output side] is taken into account by connecting gb'e between
B', and C. The conductance between Collector and Base is [Link] represents the
collector junction barrier capacitance.

Hybrid Parameter Values

Typical values of the hybrid-n parameter at IC = 1.3 rnA are as follows:
gm= 50 mA/v rbb' = 100 Ω rb'e = 1 kΩ ree = 80 kΩ Cc = 3 pf Ce = 100 pf rb'c = 4 MΩ

These values depend upon:

1. Temperature 2. Value of IC
 Determination of Hybrid-Conductances

1. Transconductance or Mutual Conductance (gm)

The above figure shows PNP transistor amplifier in Common Emitter configuration for
AC purpose,Collector is shorted to Emitter.

ICO opposes IE. IE is negative. Hence IC = ICO – α0IE α0 is the normal value of α at
roomtemperature. In the hybrid - π equivalent circuit, the short circuit current =
gmVb' e
Here only transistor is considered, and other circuit elements like resistors, capacitors
etc,are not considered.

Differentiate (l) with respect to Vb'e partially. ICO is constant

For a PNP transistor, Vb'e = -VESince, for PNP transistor, base is n-type. So negative
voltage is given

If the emitter diode resistance is re then

Neglect IC0

gm is directly proportiortal to IC is also inversely proportiortal to T. For PNP transistor, IC is

negative

At room temperature i.e. T=3000K

Input Conductance (gb'e):

At low frequencies, capacitive reactance will be very large and can be considered as
Open circuit. Soin the hybrid-π equivalent circuit which is valid at low frequencies,
all the capacitances can be neglected.
The equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig.

The value of rb'c» rb'e (Since Collector Base junction is Reverse Biased)So Ib flows
into rb'e only. [This is lb' (IE - Ib)will go to collector junction]

The short circuit collector current,

Feedback Conductance (gb' c)

hre = reverse voltage gain, with input open or Ib = 0 hre
=Vb'e/Vce = Input voltage/Output voltage
Base Spreading Resistance (r bb')
The input resistance with the output shorted is hie. If output is shorted, i.e., Collector and
Emitterarejoined; rb'e is in parallel with rb’c.

Output Conductance (gce)

This is the conductance with input open circuited. In h-parameters it is represented as
hoe. For Ib= 0, we have,

Hybrid - π Capacitances
In the hybrid - π equivalent circuit, there are two capacitances, the capacitance
between the Collector Base junction is the Cc or Cb'e'. This is measured with input
open i.e., IE = 0, and is specified by the manufacturers as COb. 0 indicates that input is
open. Collector junction is reverse biased.
Validity of hybrid-π model
The high frequency hybrid Pi or Giacoletto model of BJT is valid for
frequencies less than the unit gain frequency.

Short Circuit Current Gain:

Consider a single stage Common Emitter transistor amplifier circuit. The

hybrid-1t equivalent circuit is as shown:

If the output is shorted i.e. RL = 0, what will be the flow response of this circuit?
WhenRL = 0, Vo = 0. Hence Av = 0. So the gain that we consider here is the current
gain IL/Ic. The simplified equivalent circuit with output shorted is,
A current source gives sinusoidal current Ic. Output current or load current is IL· gb'c
isneglected since gb'c « gb'e, gce is in shunt with short circuit R = 0. Therefore gce
disappears. The current is delivered to the output directly through Ce and gb'c is also
neglected since this will be very small.
Current Gain with Resistance Load:

Considering the load resistance RL

V b'e is the input voltage and is equal to V1, Vce is the output voltage and is equal to

V2
This circuit is still complicated for analysis. Because, there are two time constants
associated with the input and the other associated with the output. The output time
constant will be much smaller than the input time. So gb'c can be neglected in the
equivalent circuit.

In a wide band amplifier RL will not exceed 2KΩ. If RL is small fH is large.

Thereforegce can be neglected compared with RL. Therefore the output circuit
consists of current generator gm V b'e feeding the load RL so the Circuit simplifies as
shown in Fig.
Miller's Theorem
It states that if an impedance Z is connected between the input and output terminals,
of a network, between which there is voltage gain, K, the same effect can be had by

removing Z and connecting an impedance Zi at the input =Z/(1-K) and Zo across the
output = ZK/(K-1)
Fig. High frequency equivalent circuit with resistive load RL

Therefore high frequency equivalent circuit using Miller's theorem reduces to

Fig. Circuit after applying Millers' Theorem

Vce = - Ic . RL

The Parameters fT
fTis the frequency at which the short circuit Common Emitter current gain becomes unity.
The Parameters fβ
Gain - Bandwidth (B.W) Product
This is a measure to denote the performance of an amplifier circuit. Gain - B. W
product is also referred as Figure of Merit of an amplifier. Any amplifier circuit must
have large gain and large bandwidth. For certain amplifier circuits, the midband gain
Am maybe large, but not Band width or Vice - Versa. Different amplifier circuits can
be compared with thus parameter.

PROBLEM

PROBLEM:
PROBLEM:
Multi-stage amplifiers
In practical applications, the output of a single state amplifier is usually
insufficient, though it is a voltage or power amplifier. Hence they are replaced by
Multi-stage transistor amplifiers.

In Multi-stage amplifiers, the output of first stage is coupled to the input of next
stage using a coupling device. These coupling devices can usually be a capacitor or
a transformer. This process of joining two amplifier stages using a coupling device
can be called asCascading.

The following figure shows a two-stage amplifier connected

in cascade.

The overall gain is the product of voltage gain of individual stages.

V 2 Vo Vo
AV=AV1×AV2=  
V1 V 2 V1

Where AV = Overall gain, AV1 = Voltage gain of 1st stage, and AV2= Voltage gain
of 2nd stage.

If there is n number of stages, the product of voltage gains of those n stages will be
the overall gain of that multistage amplifier circuit.

Purpose of coupling device

The basic purposes of a coupling device are

 To transfer the AC from the output of one stage to the input of next stage.

 To block the DC to pass from the output of one stage to the input of next
stage, which means to isolate the DC conditions.

Typesof Coupling

Joining one amplifier stage with the other in cascade, using coupling devices
form a Multi- stage amplifier circuit. There are four basic methods of coupling,
using these coupling devices such as resistors, capacitors, transformers etc. Let us
have an idea about them.
Resistance-Capacitance Coupling
This is the mostly used method of coupling, formed using simple
resistor- capacitor combination. The capacitor which allows AC and blocks DC is
the main coupling element used here.

The coupling capacitor passes the AC from the output of one stage to the input of
its next stage. While blocking the DC components from DC bias voltages to effect
the next stage. Let us get into the details of this method of coupling in the coming
chapters.
Impedance Coupling
The coupling network that uses inductance and capacitance as coupling elements
can be called as Impedance coupling network.

In this impedance coupling method, the impedance of coupling coil depends on its
inductance and signal frequency which is jwL. This method is not so popular and
is seldom employed.

Transformer Coupling
The coupling method that uses a transformer as the coupling device can be called
as Transformer coupling. There is no capacitor used in this method of coupling
because the transformer itself conveys the AC component directly to the base of
second stage.

The secondary winding of the transformer provides a base return path and hence
there is no need of base resistance. This coupling is popular for its efficiency and
its impedance matching and hence it is mostly used.

Direct Coupling
If the previous amplifier stage is connected to the next amplifier stage directly, it is
called as direct coupling. The individual amplifier stage bias conditions are so
designed that the stages can be directly connected without DC isolation.

The direct coupling method is mostly used when the load is connected in series,
with the output terminal of the active circuit element. For example, head-phones,
loud speakers etc.

Role of Capacitors in Amplifiers

Other than the coupling purpose, there are other purposes for which few capacitors
are especially employed in amplifiers. To understand this, let us know about the
role of capacitors in Amplifiers.
The Input Capacitor Cin
The input capacitor Cin present at the initial stage of the amplifier, couples AC
signal to the base of the transistor. This capacitor Cin if not present, the signal
source will be in parallel to resistor R2 and the bias voltage of the transistor base
will be changed.

Hence Cin allows, the AC signal from source to flow into input circuit, without
affecting the bias conditions.

The Emitter By-pass Capacitor Ce

The emitter by-pass capacitor Ce is connected in parallel to the emitter resistor. It
offers a low reactance path to the amplified AC signal.

In the absence of this capacitor, the voltage developed across RE will feedback to
the input side thereby reducing the output voltage. Thus in the presence of Ce the
amplified AC will pass through this.

Coupling Capacitor CC
The capacitor CC is the coupling capacitor that connects two stages and prevents
DC interference between the stages and controls the operating point from shifting.
This is also called as blocking capacitor because it does not allow the DC voltage
to pass through it.

In the absence of this capacitor, RC will come in parallel with the resistance R1 of
the biasing network of the next stage and thereby changing the biasing conditions of
the next stage.

Amplifier Consideration
For an amplifier circuit, the overall gain of the amplifier is an important
consideration. To achieve maximum voltage gain, let us find the most suitable
transistor configuration for cascading.
CC Amplifier

 Its voltage gain is less than unity.

 It is not suitable for

intermediate stages. CB Amplifier

 Its voltage gain is less than unity.

 Hence not suitable for cascading.

CE Amplifier

 Its voltage gain is greater than unity.

 Voltage gain is further increased by cascading.

The characteristics of CE amplifier are such that, this configuration is very

suitable forcascading in amplifier circuits. Hence most of the amplifier circuits use
CE configuration.
CASCODE AMPLIFIER
 UNIT –II
FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS

Feedback:
Definition:
The process by which some part or fraction of output is combined with the input is known as
feedback. In simple words, we can say feedback amplifiers are the type of amplifiers in which a part of
the output is given back to the input.
Feedback Concept:
The figure shown below represents the block diagram of an amplifier employing feedback network

Figure 2.1 Block diagram of feedback Amplifier

The various blocks of the feedback amplifier section are discussed below-

1. Signal Source: The signal source can be a voltage source Vs in series with resistor Rs or it can
be a current source Is with parallel resistor Rs.
2. Feedback network: A feedback network is a linear two-port network that contains resistors,
inductors, capacitors. Its function is to fed back some portion of output to the input.
3. Sampling Network: These are basically of two types, current sampling network and voltage
sampling network. The output voltage is sampled when we connect feedback network in either
shunt or in series with the output.
4. Mixer: Mixer circuit is also known as the comparator; it can be a series mixer or shunt mixer.
It mixes the source signal and feedback signal thus produces positive or negative feedback for
the device.
Types of feedback:
Feedback are basically classified into 2 categories-
a) Positive Feedback
b) Negative Feedback
Positive Feedback amplifier– It is a type of an amplifier in which source signal and the feedback
signal are in the same phase. Thus, the feedback signal applied increases the strength of the input
signal.
The gain of the amplifier is given as

In case of a positive feedback system, the value of denominator is always lessthan 1, this will
resultantly increase the overall gain by 1 – Aβ.
Negative Feedback amplifier– In this type of amplifier source signal and the feedback signal are out
of phase with each other. Thus, the feedback signal applied to decrease the strength of the input signal.

The gain of the amplifier is given as

For a negative feedback, the value of denominator is always greater than 1, this will decrease
the overall gain of the system by the factor 1 +Aβ.

Difference between positive feedback and negative feedback:

Basis of
Positive Feedback Negative Feedback
Difference

Definition It is a type of an amplifier in which source In this type of amplifier source signal
signal and the feedback signal are in and the feedback signal are out of
the same phase. phase with each other.

Alternate The positive feedback is also called a The negative feedback is also called a
name regenerative feedback. degenerative feedback.

System gain The gain of the control system with positive The gain of the control system with
feedback is high. negative feedback is low.

System The stability of a control system having The stability of a system having
stability positive feedback is low. negative feedback is high.

Phase relation In case of positive feedback, the reference In case of negative feedback, the
between input input and feedback signals are in phase (i.e. reference input signal and the
and feedback 0° phase difference). feedback signal are out of phase (i.e.
signals 180° phase difference).

Sensitivity to Positive feedback is highly sensitive to the In case of negative feedback, the
change in change in system parameters. sensitivity to the parameter changes is
parameters low.

Overall gain The overall gain of the system with positive The overall gain of the system with
 feedback is greater than the gain without negative feedback is less than the gain
feedback. without feedback.

Applications The positive feedback is extensively used in The negative feedback is used in
the oscillator circuits. mostly amplifier circuits and many
other control systems like motor
control system, etc.

Classification of basic amplifiers:

The amplifiers are classified into four broad categories:
1) Voltage amplifier
2) Current amplifier
3) Transconductance amplifier
4) Transresistance amplifier
Voltage amplifier:

Figure 2.2 Equivalent circuit of Voltage amplifier

Figure 2.2 shows a Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of a voltage amplifier. If the amplifier input
resistance Ri is large when compared to the source resistance Rs, then Vi Vs. If the external load
resistance RL is large when compared to the output resistance R0 of the amplifier, then V0 AVVi
AVVs, where AV represents the open-circuit voltage gain with RL =∞ . Such an amplifier provides a
voltage output proportional to the voltage input

Current amplifier:

Figure 2.3 Equivalent circuit of current amplifier

Figure 2.3 shows a Norton’s equivalent circuit of current amplifier, in which Ai I L/Ii, with
RL=0, represents the short circuit current gain. An ideal current amplifier is defined as an amplifier
which provides an output current proportional to the signal current.

Transconductance amplifier:
 Figure 2.4 Equivalent circuit of Transconductance amplifier

Figure 2.4 shows the equivalent circuit of transconductance amplifier, in which the input
circuit is Thevenin and the output circuit is Norton. In ideal transconductance amplifier, the output
current is proportional to the signal voltage.

Transresistance amplifier:

Figure 2.5 Equivalent circuit of Transresistance amplifier

Figure 2.5 shows the equivalent circuit of transresistance amplifier, in which the input circuit is
Norton and the output circuit is Thevenin and the output voltage Vo is proportional to the signal
current Is.

FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER TOPOLOGIES:

Voltage-Series Feedback:
In the voltage series feedback circuit, a fraction of the output voltage is applied in series with
the input voltage through the feedback circuit. This is also known as shunt-driven series-
fed feedback, i.e., a parallel-series circuit.
The following figure shows the block diagram of voltage series feedback, by which it is
evident that the feedback circuit is placed in shunt with the output but in series with the input.

Current-Series Feedback:
 In the current series feedback circuit, a fraction of the output voltage is applied in series with
the input voltage through the feedback circuit. This is also known as series-driven series-fed feedback
i.e., a series-series circuit.
The following figure shows the block diagram of current series feedback, by which it is evident
that the feedback circuit is placed in series with the output and also with the input.

Voltage-Shunt Feedback:
In the voltage shunt feedback circuit, a fraction of the output voltage is applied in parallel with
the input voltage through the feedback network. This is also known as shunt-driven shunt-fed feedback
i.e., a parallel-parallel proto type.
The below figure shows the block diagram of voltage shunt feedback, by which it is evident
that the feedback circuit is placed in shunt with the output and also with the input.

Current-Shunt Feedback:
In the current shunt feedback circuit, a fraction of the output voltage is applied in series with
the input voltage through the feedback circuit. This is also known as series-driven shunt-fed feedback
i.e., a series-parallel circuit.
The below figure shows the block diagram of current shunt feedback, by which it is evident
that the feedback circuit is placed in series with the output but in parallel with the input.

CHARACTERISTICS OF NEGATIVE FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS:

The negative feedback in amplifier circuit results in decreased voltage gain, noise and
distortion, but there will be an increase in bandwidth. In addition to these characteristics, input and
output impedances get varied according to feedback connections.
Although there is a reduction in overall voltage gain, there are some improvements in using
negative feedback in amplifier circuits as listed below:
1. Better stabilized voltage gain
2. Enhanced frequency response
3. Higher input impedance
4. Lower output impedance
5. Reduction in noise
6. Increase in linearity
Noise reduction and nonlinear distortion in negative feedback
Noise reduction:
There are numbers of sources of noise in an amplifier. The noise N can be reduced by the
factor of (1+Aβ), in a similar manner to non-linear distortion, so that the noise with feedback is given
by
Nf = N/(1+Aβ)
However, if it is necessary to increase the gain to its original level by the addition of another
stage, it is quite possible that the overall system will be noisier that it was at the start. If the increase in
gain can be accomplished by the adjustment of circuit parameters, a definite reduction in noise will
result from the use of negative feedback.
Nonlinear distortion:
A amplifier will have non-linear distortion because of large signal variations. The negative
feedback reduces the nonlinear distortion.
It can be proved mathematically that:
Df = D/(1+Aβ)
Where D = distortion in amplifier without feedback
Df = distortion in amplifier with negative feedback
It is clear that by applying negative feedback, the distortion is reduced by a factor (1+Aβ)
Negative feedback reduces gain of an amplifier.
Example:
An amplifier has open loop gain 1000 and feedback ratio of 0.04, if the open loop gain
changes by 10% due to temperature, find the percentage change in the gain of the amplifier feedback.

Desensitivity (D)
 The variation due to aging, temperature, replacement, etc., of the circuit components and
transistor or FET characteristics results in unstable amplifier transfer gain. The closed-loop gain of the
amplifier with negative feedback is given by
𝐴
Af =1+𝐴β

The reciprocal of the term sensitivity is called desensitivity D, or desensitivity D = (1 + βA).

ANALYSIS OF FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER:

Voltage Series feedback:
A block diagram of voltage series feedback is shown in figure. Here the input to the feedback
network is parallel with the output of amplifier. A fraction of output voltage through the feedback
network is applied in series with the input voltage of the amplifier.

• The shunt or parallel connection at the output reduces the output resistance Ro.
• The series connection at the input increases the output resistance Ri.

This amplifier is called voltage amplifier.

𝑉𝑓
The voltage feedback factor is β = 𝑉0
Output Resistance with feedback (Rof):
For measuring output resistance RL is disconnected and Vs is set to zero. The external voltage
V applied across the output and the current I divided by V.
𝑉
Rof = 𝐼
Due to feedback input voltage Vf reduces the output voltage AVi which opposes V.

𝑉−𝐴𝑉𝑖 𝑉+𝐴𝛃𝐕
I= =
𝑅0 𝑅0

𝑉(1+𝐴𝛃)
I= 𝑅0
𝑉 𝑅0
= (1+𝐴𝛃)
𝐼

𝑅0
Output resistance R0f=(1+𝐴𝛃)
Output resistance with feedback reduces by a factor (1 + 𝐴𝛃)

Input Resistance with feedback (Rif):

Input resistance with feedback is
𝑉𝑠
Rif = 𝐼𝑖
Apply KVL to input loop,
Vs = Vi + Vf
= Ii Ri + Vf
= Ii Ri + βVo
= Ii Ri + β Av Vi
= Ii Ri + β Av IiRi
= Ii Ri(1+ β Av)

𝑉𝑠
Rif = 𝐼𝑖 = Ri(1+ β Av)
Input resistance with feedback increases by a factor (1 + 𝐴𝛃)
Example for voltage series feedback is Emitter follower (or) Common Collector Circuit.
Example:
A voltage series negative feedback amplifier has a voltage gain without feedback of A=500,
input resistance Ri=3 kΩ, output resistance Ro=20 kΩ and feedback ratio β=[Link] the voltage
gain Af, input resistance and output resistance of the amplifier with feedback.

Current Series Feedback:

In current series feedback amplifier, the voltage developed is proportional to output current.
This is called current feedback even though feedback voltage and input voltage subtracted. This type
of amplifier is called trans conductance amplifier.

𝑉𝑓
The feedback factor is β = 𝐼0

Output Resistance with feedback (Rof):

Apply KCL to output loop,
𝑉
GMVi + I = 𝑅0

Sub Vi = -β Io

𝑉
GM( -β Io)+ I = 𝑅0

𝑉
I = 𝑅0+GM β Io

𝑉
= - GM β I
𝑅0

𝑉
I +GM β I =𝑅0

𝑉
I (1 +GM β) = 𝑅0
𝑉
= R0 (1 +GM β)
𝐼
 R0f = R0(1+ β GM)
Output resistance with feedback increases by a factor (1+ β GM)
Input Resistance with feedback (Rif):
Input resistance with feedback is
𝑉𝑠
Rif = 𝐼𝑖
Apply KVL to input loop,
Vs = Vi + Vf
= Ii Ri + Vf
= Ii Ri + βVo
= Ii Ri + β Av Vi
= Ii Ri + β Av IiRi
= Ii Ri(1+ β Av)
𝑉𝑠
Rif = 𝐼𝑖 = Ri(1+ β Av)
Input resistance with feedback increases by a factor (1+ β Av)
Example for current series feedback is Common Emitter amplifier with un bypassed emitter resistor
circuit.
Current shunt feedback amplifier:
The current shunt feedback is also called series derived; shunt feed feedback. The shunt
connection at the input reduces the input resistance and the series connection at the output increases
the output resistance. This is called current amplifier.
𝐼𝑓
The feedback factor is β =𝐼0

Figure 2.9 Equivalent circuit of current shunt feedback amplifier

Output Resistance with feedback (Rof):
For measuring output resistance RL is disconnected and Vs is set to zero. The external voltage V
applied across the output and the current I divided by V.
𝑉
Rof =
𝐼
Due to feedback input voltage Vf reduces the output voltage AVi which opposes V.
𝑉 𝑉−𝑅0𝐴β𝐼
I = 𝑅0- βA I= 𝑅0

I R0=V-R0AβI
I R0+R0AβI=V
𝐼
𝑣
= R0(1+Aβ)
R0f=R0(1+Aβ)

Output resistance with feedback increases by a factor (1+Aβ)

Input Resistance with feedback (Rif):
 Input resistance with feedback is
𝑉𝑖
Rif= 𝐼𝑠
Apply KVL to input loop,
Is = Ii + If
= Ii + βIo
Io = A Ii
Is = Ii + β A Ii
= Ii (1+ β A)
𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖
Rif = 𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖(1+𝐴β )
Input resistance with feedback decreases by a factor (1+ β A).

Voltage Shunt feedback amplifier:

A block diagram of voltage shunt feedback is shown in figure. A fraction of output voltage
through the feedback network is applied in shunt with the input voltage of the amplifier. It is also
called as shunt derived, shunt fed feedback. The feedback signal If is proportional to the output
voltage. This type of amplifier is called transresistance amplifier.

𝐼𝑓
The feedback factor is β =𝑉0

Figure 2.10 Block diagram of voltage shunt feedback

The voltage shunt feedback provides a stabilized overall gain and decreases both input and output
resistances by a factor (1+ β A)

Figure 2.10 a Equivalent circuit of voltage shunt feedback

Output Resistance with feedback (Rof):
For measuring output resistance RL is disconnected and Vs is set to zero. The external voltage V
applied across the output and the current I divided by V.
𝑉
Rof = 𝐼
Due to feedback input voltage Vf reduces the output voltage AVi which opposes V.
𝑉−𝐴𝑉𝑖 𝑉+𝐴𝑉β
I = 𝑅0 = 𝑅0

𝑉+𝐴𝑉β
I= 𝑅0

𝑉 𝑅0
=
𝐼 1+𝐴β
 𝑅0
R0f=1+𝐴β
Output resistance with feedback reduces by a factor (1+ β A).
Input Resistance with feedback (Rif):
𝑉𝑖
Rif=
𝐼𝑠
Apply KVL to input loop,
Is = Ii + If
= Ii + βVo

Vo = RM Ii
Is = Ii + β RM Ii
= Ii (1+ β RM)
𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖
Rif = 𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖(1+RMβ )
Input resistance with feedback decreases by a factor (1+ β A).
Example for voltage Shunt feedback is Common Emitter amplifier circuit.

Performance comparison of negative feedback amplifier:

Characteristics Current-series Voltage-series Voltage-shunt Current-shunt

Voltage gain Decreases Decreases Decreases Decreases

Bandwidth Increases Increases Increases Increases

Input resistance Increases Increases Decreases Decreases

Output resistance Increases Decreases Decreases Increases

 UNIT III

OSCILLATORS

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF OSCILLATOR:

Oscillator is a circuit which is used to generate a periodic voltage without an A.C input signal.
To generate the periodic voltage, the circuit is supplied with energy from a d.c source. An oscillator is an
amplifier which uses positive feedback that generates an output frequency without the use of an input
signal.

Figure 3.1: Block diagram of Oscillator

The gain with positive feedback is given as

A β =1 then the gain with feedback is infinite.

The essential conditions for maintaining oscillations are:
1. | A β | = 1, i.e. the magnitude of loop gain must be unity.
2. The total phase shift around the closed loop is zero or 360 degrees.
BARKHAUSEN CRITERION (CONDITION FOR OSCILLATION):
• The magnitude of loop gain must be unity.
• The total phase shift around the closed loop is 00 or 3600.
Case 1: | A β | > 1
When the total phase shift around the closed loop is 00 or 3600 and | A β | > 1then the output
oscillates but the oscillations are growing type. The amplitude of oscillations goes on increasing called
over damping.

Figure 3.2: Growing type of oscillations

Case 2: | A β | = 1
When the total phase shift around the closed loop is 00 or 3600 and | A β | =1, then the
oscillations are with constant amplitude and desired frequency. This condition is called sustained
oscillation.
 Figure 3.3: Sustained oscillations
Case 3: | A β | < 1
When the total phase shift around the closed loop 00 or 3600 and | A β | < 1, then the output
oscillates but the oscillations are decaying type. The amplitude of oscillations decreases exponentially.
This circuit work as an amplifier instead of oscillator called under damping.

Figure 3.4: Exponentially decaying oscillations

TYPES OF OSCILLATORS:
Oscillators are classified in the following different ways.
1. According to the waveforms generated:
(a) Sinusoidal oscillator
(b) Relaxation oscillator
Sinusoidal oscillator generates sinusoidal voltages or currents as shown in Fig.
Relaxation oscillator generates voltages or currents which vary abruptly one or more times in a cycle of
oscillation as shown in Fig.2.5.

Fig.3.5. Sinusoidal oscillator and Relaxation oscillator

2. According to the fundamental mechanisms involved:

(a) Negative resistance oscillators
(b) Feedback oscillators

Negative resistance oscillators uses negative resistance of the amplifying device to `

 Neutralize the positive resistance of the oscillator.
Feedback oscillators use positive feedback in the feedback amplifier to satisfy the Barkhausen
Criterion.
3. According to the frequency generated:
(a) Audio frequency oscillator (AFO): up to 20 kHz
(b) Radio frequency oscillator (RFO): 20 kHz to 30 MHz
(c) Very high frequency (VHF) oscillator: 30 MHz to 300 MHz
(d) Ultra high frequency (UHF) oscillator: 300 MHz to 3 GHz
(e) Microwave frequency oscillator: above 3 GHz
4. According to the type of circuit used, sine-wave oscillators may be classified as
(a) LC tuned oscillator
(b) RC phase shift oscillator

ANALYSIS OF RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR USING BJT:

RC phase shift Oscillator:
In a RC Oscillator the input is shifted 180o through the amplifier stage and180oagainthrough a
second inverting stage giving us "180o + 180o = 360o " of phase shift which is the same as0o thereby
giving us the required positive feedback. In other words, the phase shift of the feedback loop should be
"0". • This resistor-capacitor feedback network can be connected as shown above to produce a leading
phase shift (phase advance network) or interchanged to produce a lagging phase shift (phase retard
network) the outcome is still the same as the sine wave oscillations only occur at the frequency at which
the overall phase-shift is 360o . • If all the resistors, R and the capacitors, C in the phase shift network
are equal in value, then the frequency of oscillations produced by the RC oscillator.

Figure 3.6: RC phase shift oscillator

Analysis:
The small-signal ac equivalent model is shown in figure 1
 Figure 3.7:Equivalent circuit

Solving the above matrix form and equating the imaginary part to zero to get frequency of oscillations
and it is given by

To get the condition for oscillation equate the real part to zero and we get

Example:
Determine the frequency of oscillations when an RC phase shift oscillator has R=100 kΩ,
C=0.01µF and RC = 2.2 KΩ.
ANALYSIS OF WEIN-BRIDGE OSCILLATORUSING BJT:
One of the simplest sine wave oscillators which use a RC network is the Wien Bridge
Oscillator.
• The Wien Bridge Oscillator is so called because the circuit is based on a frequency selective form of
the Whetstone bridge circuit.
• The Wien Bridge oscillator is a two-stage RC coupled amplifier circuit that has good stability at its
resonant frequency, low distortion and is very easy to tune making it a popular circuit as an audio
frequency oscillator.
• The output of the amplifier is fed back to both the inputs of the amplifier.
• One part of the feedback signal is connected to the inverting input terminal (negative feedback) via the
resistor divider network of R1 and R2 which allows the amplifiers voltage gain to be adjusted within
narrow limits.

Figure 3.8: Wein Bridge Oscillator

The output of the amplifier is fed back to both the inputs of the amplifier. One part of the
feedback signal is connected to the inverting input terminal (negative feedback) via the resistor divider
network of R1 and R2 which allows the amplifiers voltage gain to be adjusted within narrow limits.
• The other part is fed back to the non-inverting input terminal (positive feedback) via the RC Wien
Bridge network. The RC network is connected in the positive feedback path of the amplifier and has
zero phase shift a just one frequency.
• Also the voltage gain of the amplifier circuit MUST be equal to three "Gain =3" for oscillations to
start.
Analysis:

The gain of the Wein bridge oscillator is at least equal to 3 for oscillation to occur.

Example:
In a Wien bridge oscillator, if the value of R is 100 kohm, and frequency of oscillation is
10KHz, find the value of capacitor C.
GENERALIZED ANALYSIS OF LC OSCILLATORS:
The LC Oscillator is therefore a "Sinusoidal Oscillator" or a "Harmonic Oscillator" as it is
more commonly called. LC oscillators can generate high frequency sine waves for use in radio
frequency (RF) type applications with the transistor amplifier being of a Bipolar Transistor or FET.

Figure 3.9: a) General form of an oscillator b) its equivalent circuit

The active devices vacuum tube, transistor, FET and operational amplifier may be used in the
amplifier section. Z1, Z2, Z3 are reactive elements constituting the feedback tank circuit. Z1, Z2 and Z3
are reactive elements constituting the feedback tank circuit which determines the frequency of
oscillation., The frequency of oscillation of the LC oscillator is

𝟏
𝒇𝟎 =
𝟐𝝅√𝑳𝑪

Load impedance equation of a generalized LC Oscillator.

HARTLEY OSCILLATOR WITH BJT:
Hartley oscillator:
In the Hartley Oscillator the tuned LC circuit is connected between the collector and the base
of the transistor amplifier. The feedback of the tuned tank circuit is taken from the centre tap of the
Inductor coil or even two separate coils in series which are in parallel with a variable capacitor, C as
shown.

Figure.3.10: Hartley oscillator

The Hartley circuit is often referred to as a split-inductance oscillator because coil L is centre tapped.
There is a 180 phase change in the voltage between the Base and Collector and this along with the
original 180 phase shift in the feedback loop provides the correct phase relationship of positive feedback
for oscillations to be maintained.
• The amount of feedback depends upon the position of the "tapping point" of the inductor. Resistors,
R1 and R2 provide the usual stabilizing DC bias for the transistor in the normal manner while the
capacitors act as DC-blocking capacitors. Hartley Oscillator produces output amplitude which is
constant over the entire frequency range.

Analysis:
In Hartley oscillator Z1, Z2 are inductive reactance and Z3 is capacitive reactance. M is mutual
inductance between two inductors.
Substitute the above values in general for of LC oscillator equation

Frequency of Oscillation:
Equating the imaginary part of the above equation to zero.

Example:
In the Hartley oscillator L2=0.4mH and C=0.004µF. If the frequency of the oscillator is 120
kHz, find the value of L1. Neglect mutual inductance.

COLPITTS OSCILLATOR USING BJT:

Colpits oscillator:
The Colpitts Oscillator, named after its inventor Edwin Colpitts is another type of LC oscillator
design. Colpitts oscillator is the exact opposite of the Hartley Oscillator. The two capacitors, C1 and C2
are placed across a common inductor, L as shown so that C1, C2and L forms the tuned tank circuit the
same as for the Hartley oscillator circuit.
 Figure 3.11: Colpitts oscillator
The advantage of this type of tank circuit configuration is that with less self and mutual inductance in
the tank circuit, frequency stability is improved along with a more simple design.
• The frequency of oscillations for a Colpitts oscillator is determined by the resonant frequency of the
LC tank circuit
• The configuration of the transistor amplifier is of a Common Emitter Amplifier with the output signal
180o out of phase with regards to the input signal. The additional 180o phase shift require for oscillation
is achieved by the fact that the two capacitors are connected together in series but in parallel with the
inductive coil resulting in overall phase shift of the circuit being zero or 360o .
• Resistors, R1 and R2 provide the usual stabilizing DC bias for the transistor in the normal manner
while the capacitor acts as a DC-blocking capacitors.
Analysis:
In Colpitts oscillator Z1, Z2 are capacitive reactance and Z3 is inductive reactance.
 Example:
In the Colpitts oscillator, C1=0.2µF and C2 = 0.02µ[Link] the frequency of oscillator is 10kHz,
find the value of inductor.

Difference between Hartley and Colpitts oscillator:

Hartley oscillator Colpitts oscillator

The Hartley Oscillator uses a tapped coil for the Colpitts oscillator uses two capacitors tapered in series
feedback for oscillation. for the feedback for oscillations.
These tend to be more difficult to make . These tend to be more easy to tap 2 capacitors .

It has 2 –Inductors and I It has 2 – Capacitor and

1-Capacitor 1- Inductors
The equation for frequency of Hartley oscillator is The equation for frequency of Colpitts oscillator is given as
given as

Where

Where
CT is the total capacitance of C1 and C2 connected in series.

L1 and L2 represent inductances of 1st and 2nd coils;

and M represents mutual inductance.
The applications of Hartley oscillator are The applications of Colpitts oscillator are as follows −
It is used to produce a sinewave of desired frequency. Colpitts oscillator can be used as High
 Mostly used as a local oscillator in  frequency sinewave generator.
 radio receivers. This can be used as a temperature sensor with
 It is also used as R.F. Oscillator. some associated circuitry.
 Mostly used as a local oscillator in radio receivers.
 It is also used as R.F. Oscillator.
 It is also used in Mobile applications.
 It has got many other commercial applications.

Example:
In a transistorized Hartley, oscillator the two inductances are 2mH and 20µ[Link] the
frequency is to be changed from 950 kHz to 2050 kHz. Calculate the range over which the capacitor is to
be varied.
Solution:
Given, for a Hartley oscillator , L1 = 2 mH
L2 = 20 mH
f1 = 950 kHz
f2 = 2050 kHz

CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR:
One of the most important features of any oscillator is its frequency stability, or in other words
its ability to provide a constant frequency output under varying load conditions. Some of the factors that
affect the frequency stability of an oscillator include: temperature, variations in the load and changes in
the DC power supply.
• Frequency stability of the output signal can be improved by the proper selection of the components
used for the resonant feedback circuit including the amplifier but there is a limit to the stability that can
be obtained from normal LC and RC tank circuits.
• This piezo-electric effect is the property of a crystal by which an electrical charge produces a
mechanical force by changing the shape of the crystal and vice versa, a mechanical force applied to the
crystal produces an electrical charge.

Figure 3.12: Crystal oscillator

When a voltage source is applied to a small thin piece of quartz crystal, it begins to change shape
producing a characteristic known as the Piezo-electric effect. Examples for crystals are Quartz,
tourmaline, and Rochelle salt.

Difference between LC and Crystal oscillator:

LC Oscillator Crystal Oscillator

Frequency of oscillation dependent on values of Frequency of Oscillations dependent on the
L andC dimensions of crystal.

These are used at high frequencies. These are used at high frequencies.
Examples of LC oscillators are: Hartley,Colpitts’s Examples of Crystal oscillators are:Miller crystal,
and Clapp oscillator and pierce crystal oscillator
Poor frequency stability except for the Very high frequency stability.
clapp oscillator.
Crystal clock,synthesizer,special type receivers are
Used in radio,TV as high the applications.
frequency sources,frequency synthesizers.
FREQUENCY STABILITY OF OSCILLATORS:
The frequency stability of an oscillator is a measure of its ability to maintain a constant
frequency, over a long time interval. However, it has been found if an oscillator is set at a particular
frequency, it does not maintain it for a long period. The cause of change in oscillation frequency or the
factors affecting the stability of oscillator is given as under.
1. Operating point The operating point of the active device i.e. bipolar transistor is selected in such a
way that its operation is nonlinear region, changes the values of device parameters which, in turn affects
the frequency stability of the oscillator.
2. Circuit Components The values of circuit components (i.e. resistor, inductors and capacitors) change
with the variation in temperature. Since such changes take place slowly, they also cause a drift in
oscillator frequency.
3. Supply Voltage The changes in DC supply voltage applied to the active device, shift the oscillator
frequency. This problem can be avoided by using a highly regulated power supply
4. Output Load A change in the output load may cause a change in the Q factor of the tank circuit,
hereby causing a change in oscillator output frequency.
5. Inter element Capacitances Any changing the inter element capacitances of a transistor (particularly
collector to emitter capacitance), cause changes in the oscillator frequency and thus affects the frequency
stability.
6. Stray Capacitances The stray capacitances also affect the frequent stability of an oscillator. The
effect of changes in inter element capacitances can be neutralized by putting an additional capacitor
across the corresponding elements. However, it is difficult to avoid the effect of stray capacitances.
 UNIT-IV
PowerAmplifiers

.
PowerAmplifier
After the audio signal is converted into electrical signal ,it has several voltage
amplifications done, after which the power amplification of the amplified signal is done
just before the loudspeaker [Link] is clearly shown in thebelowfigure.

While the voltage amplifier raises the voltage level of the signal, the power
amplifier raises the power level of the signal. Besides raising the power level, it can
also be said that a power amplifier is a device which converts DC power to AC power
and whose action is controlled by the input signal.
TheDCpowerisdistributedaccordingtotherelation,
DC power input = AC power output+losses
Classification Based on Mode of Operation
On the basis of the mode of operation, i.e., the portion of the input cycle
during which collector current flows, the power amplifiers may be classified as
follows.
 Class A Power amplifier − When the collector current flows at all times
during the full cycle of [Link] power amplifier is known as class A
power amplifier.
 Class B Power amplifier − When the collector current flows only during
the positive half cycle of the input signal ,the power amplifier is known
as class B power amplifier.
 Class C Power amplifier − When the collector current flows for less
than half cycle oftheinputsignal,thepower amplifier is known as
Class C power amplifier.
There forms another amplifier called Class AB amplifier, if we combine the class A
andclass B amplifiers so as to utilize the advantages of both. Before going into the
details of these amplifiers, let us have a look at the important terms that have to be
considered to determine the efficiency of an amplifier.
currents are used. But in power amplifiers, as large currents are in use, the problem
ofdistortioncertainly arises.
Distortion is defined as the change of output wave shape from the input wave shape of
theamplifier. Anamplifier thathas lesser distortion, produces a betteroutput
andhenceconsideredefficient.
Wehavealreadycomeacrossthedetailsoftransistorbiasing,whichisveryimportantforthe
[Link], the biasing of the
transistor has to be done such that the amplifier operatesoverthelinearregion.

A Class A power amplifier is onein which theoutput currentflows for the entirecycle
of the AC input supply. Hence the complete signal present at the input is amplified
[Link].

From the above figure, it can be observed that the transformer is present at the collector
[Link],resultinginthetransferenceofm
aximumpowerto theloade.g. loudspeaker.
 The operating point of this amplifier is present in the linear region. It is so
selectedthat the current flows for the entire ac input cycle. The below figure explainsthe
selectionofoperating point.

The output characteristics with operating point Q is shown in the figure above.
Here(Ic)Qand (Vce)Qrepresent no signal collector current and voltage between collector
andemitter respectively. When signal is applied, the Q-point shifts to Q1and Q2. The
outputcurrent increases to (Ic)maxand decreases to (Ic)min. Similarly, the collector-emitter
voltageincreases to(Vce)maxanddecreasesto(Vce)min.

[Link]

Pin=voltage×current=VCC(IC)Q

Thispowerisusedinthefollowingtwoparts−

 Powerdissipated inthecollectorloadasheatisgivenby

PRC=(current)2×resistance=(IC)2QRC

 Powergiventotransistorisgivenby

Ptr=Pin−PRC=VCC−(IC)2QRC

Whensignalisapplied,the powergiventotransistorisused inthe followingtwoparts−

 [Link]
ut.

(PO)ac=I2RC=V2/RC=(Vm/√2)/RC=V2m/2RC

 [Link],[Link].
c. voltage,andVmis themaximumvalueofV.
 The D.C. power dissipated by the transistor (collector region) in the form of
heat, i.e.,(PC)dc

Wehaverepresentedthewhole powerflowinthefollowingdiagram.
 ThisclassApoweramplifiercanamplifysmallsignalswithleastdistortionandtheoutputwillbeanexact
replicaoftheinputwithincreasedstrength.

Letusnowtrytodrawsome expressionstorepresentefficiencies.

AdvantagesofClassAAmplifiers
The advantages ofClassApoweramplifier areasfollows−
 Thecurrentflowsforcompleteinputcycle
 Itcanamplifysmallsignals
 Theoutputissameasinput
 Nodistortionispresent
DisadvantagesofClassAAmplifiers
The advantages of Class Apoweramplifier areasfollows−
 Lowpoweroutput
 Lowcollectorefficiency
 The class A power amplifier as discussed in the previous chapter, is the circuit in
whichthe output current flows for the entire cycle of the AC input supply. We also have
[Link]
hoseeffects,thetransformercoupledclassApoweramplifierhasbeenintroduced.
The construction of class A power amplifier can be understood with the help of
belowfigure. This is similar to the normal amplifier circuit but connected with a transformer
in thecollector load.

[Link], C e is the
bypass capacitor and Reto prevent a.c. voltage. The transformer usedhereisastep-
[Link]
[Link](generallyloudspeaker).

TransformerAction:
The transformer used in the collector circuit is for impedance matching. R L is the loadconnected in
the secondary of a transformer. RL’ is the reflected load in the primary of thetransformer.
The number of turns in the primary are n1 and the secondary are n2. Let V1 and V2 bethe primary
and secondary voltages and I1and I2be the primary and secondary
[Link] thetransformerclearly.
 Apoweramplifier maybematchedbytakingproperturn ratioinstepdowntransformer.

CircuitOperation
If the peak value of the collector current due to signal is equal to zero signal
collectorcurrent, then the maximum a.c. power output is obtained. So, in order to achieve
completeamplification,theoperatingpointshouldlieatthecenteroftheloadline.
The operating point obviously varies when the signal is applied. The collector voltage
variesin opposite phase to the collector current. The variation of collector voltage appears
acrosstheprimary ofthetransformer.
CircuitAnalysis
Thepowerlossintheprimaryisassumedtobenegligible,asitsresistanceisvery
small.
Theinputpowerunderdcconditionwillbe

TheefficiencyofaclassApoweramplifierisnearlythan30%whereasithasgotimprovedto50%
byusing thetransformercoupledclass Apoweramplifier.

Advantages
Theadvantages oftransformercoupledclassApoweramplifier areasfollows.
 Nolossofsignalpowerin thebaseorcollectorresistors.
 Excellentimpedancematchingisachieved.
 Gainishigh.
 DCisolationisprovided.
Disadvantages
Thedisadvantagesoftransformercoupled classApoweramplifierareasfollows.
 Lowfrequencysignalsarelessamplifiedcomparatively.
  Humnoiseisintroducedbytransformers.
 Transformersarebulkyandcostly.
 Poorfrequencyresponse.
Applications

Theapplicationsoftransformercoupled classApoweramplifierareasfollows.
Thiscircuitiswhereimpedancematchingisthemaincriterion.
Theseareusedasdriveramplifiersandsometimesasoutputamplifiers.
Whenthecollectorcurrentflowsonlyduringthepositivehalfcycleoftheinputsignal,thepoweramplifi
eris knownasclassBpoweramplifier.
ClassBOperation
The biasing of the transistor in class B operation is in such a way that at zero
signalcondition,[Link]
cutoff [Link], when the signal is applied,only the positive half
cycleisamplifiedattheoutput.

ThefigurebelowshowstheinputandoutputwaveformsduringclassBoperation.

When the signal is applied, the circuit is forward biased for the positive half cycle
ofthe input and hence the collector current flows. But during the negative half cycle of
theinput, the circuit is reverse biased and the collector current will be absent. Hence only
thepositivehalfcycle is amplifiedattheoutput.

Asthe negative half cycleiscompletely absent,the signal distortion willbe [Link],

when the applied signalincreases, the power dissipation willbe [Link] whencompared to
class A power amplifier, the output efficiency is [Link], in order tominimize the
disadvantages and achieve low distortion, high efficiency and high outputpower,thepush-
pullconfigurationis usedinthisclass Bamplifier.
ClassBPush-PullAmplifier
Though the efficiency of class B power amplifier is higher than class A, as only
onehalf cycle of the input is used, the distortion is high. Also, the input power is not
completelyutilized. In order to compensate these problems, the push-pull configuration is
introduced inclassBamplifier.

Construction:
The circuit of a push-pull class B power amplifier consists of two identical
transistorsT1andT2whosebasesareconnectedtothesecondaryofthecenter-
[Link]
oughtheprimary of theoutputtransformerTr2.
The circuit arrangement of class B push-pull amplifier, is same as that of class A push-
pullamplifierexcept that the transistors arebiasedat cutoff,instead of using the
biasingresistors. The figure below gives the detailing of the construction of a push-pull class
Bpoweramplifier.

ThecircuitoperationofclassBpushpullamplifierisdetailedbelow.

Operation
The circuit of class B push-pull amplifier shown in the above figure clears that
boththe transformers are center-tapped. Whenno signal is applied at the input, the
transistorsT1and T2are in cut off condition and hence no collector currents flow. As no
current isdrawnfromVCC,nopoweris wasted.

When input signal is given, it is applied to the input transformer T r1 which splits
thesignal into two signals that are 180o out of phase with each other. These two signals
aregiven to the two identical transistors T1and T2. For the positive half cycle, the base of
thetransistor T1becomes positive and collector current flows. At the same time, the
transistorT2 has negative half cycle, which throws the transistor T 2 into cutoff condition and
hence [Link].
 For the next half cycle, the transistor T1 gets into cut off condition and the
transistorT2 gets into conduction, to contribute the output. Hence for both the cycles, each
transistorconducts alternately. The output transformer Tr3serves to join the two currents
producinganalmostundistortedoutputwaveform.

PowerEfficiencyofClassBPush-PullAmplifier
[Link]
neloop,Idcis givenby
 Thecollectorefficiencywouldbethe same.
HencetheclassBpush-pullamplifierimprovestheefficiencythantheclassApush-pullamplifier.
ComplementarySymmetryPush-PullClassBAmplifier
The push pull amplifier which was just discussed improves efficiency but the usage
ofcenter-tapped transformers makes the circuit bulky, heavy and costly. To make the
circuitsimple and to improve the efficiency, the transistors used can be complemented, as
showninthefollowing circuitdiagram.

The above circuit employs a NPN transistor and a PNP transistor connected in
[Link],duringthepositivehalfcycleoftheinputsig
nal,[Link],theN
PNtransistorcutsoff andthePNPtransistorconducts.

In this way, the NPN transistor amplifies during positive half cycle of the input,
whilePNP transistor amplifies during negative half cycle of the input. As the transistors are
bothcomplementtoeachother,yetactsymmetricallywhilebeingconnectedinpushpullconfigura
tion of class B, this circuit is termed as Complementary symmetry push pull class
Bamplifier.
Advantages
Theadvantages ofComplementarysymmetrypushpullclassBamplifierareasfollows.

 Asthereisnoneedofcentertappedtransformers,theweightandcostarereduced.
 Equalandoppositeinputsignalvoltagesarenot required.

Disadvantages

ThedisadvantagesofComplementarysymmetrypushpullclassBamplifierareasfollows.
  Itisdifficulttogetapairoftransistors(NPNandPNP)thathavesimilarcharacteristics.
 Werequire bothpositiveandnegativesupplyvoltages.
The class A and class B amplifier so far discussed has got few limitations. Let us now try
tocombine these two to get a new circuit which would have all the advantages of both class
Aand class B amplifier without their inefficiencies. Before that, let us also go through
anotherimportantproblem,calledasCrossoverdistortion,theoutputofclassBencounterswith.

Cross-overDistortion:
In the push-pull configuration, the two identical transistors get into conduction,
oneaftertheotherandtheoutputproducedwillbethecombinationof both.

When the signal changes or crosses over from one transistor to the other at the
zerovoltagepoint,[Link] in
order to conduct, the base emitter junction should cross 0.7v, the cut offvoltage. The time
taken for a transistor to get ON from OFF or to get OFF from ON state
iscalledthetransitionperiod.

At the zero voltage point, thetransition periodof switchingover thetransistorsfromone to

the other, has its effect which leads to the instances where both the transistors areOFF at a
time. Such instances can be called as Flat spot or Dead band on the output waveshape.

The above figure clearly shows the cross over distortion which is prominent in the
outputwaveform. This is the main disadvantage. This cross over distortion effect also
reduces theoverall peak to peak value of the output waveform which in turn reduces the
maximumpower output. This can be more clearly understood through the non-linear
characteristic ofthewaveformas shownbelow.
 It is understood that this cross-over distortion is less pronounced for large
inputsignals,[Link]
canbe eliminated if the conductionofthe amplifieris more thanone half
cycle,sothatboththetransistors won’tbeOFFatthesametime.

This idea leads to the invention of class AB amplifier, which is the combination
ofbothclass Aandclass Bamplifiers,as discussedbelow.
 TUNED AMPLIFIERS
Introduction:
To amplify the selective range of frequencies, the resistive load RC is
replaced by a tuned circuit. The tuned circuit is capable of amplifying a signal
over a narrow band of frequencies centered at fr. The amplifiers with such a tuned
circuit as a load are known as tuned amplifier.

The Fig. shows the tuned parallel LC circuit which resonates at a particular
frequency. The resonance frequency and impedance of tuned circuit is given as,

The response of tuned amplifiers is maximum at resonant frequency and it

falls sharply for frequencies below and above the resonant frequency, as shown in
the fig . 3 dB bandwidth is denoted as and 30dB bandwidth is denoted as S. The
ratio of the 30dB bandwidth (S) to the 3 dB bandwidth (B) is known as Skirt
selectivity.
At resonance, inductive and capacitive effects of tuned circuit cancel each
other. As a result, circuit is like resistive and cos φ = 1 i.e. voltage and current are
in phase. For frequencies above resonance, circuit is capacitive and for frequencies
below resonance, circuit is inductive. Since tuned circuit is purely resistive at
resonance it can be used as a load for amplifier.
1
 Coil Losses:
As shown in the ckt , the tuned circuit consists of a coil. Practically, coil is
not purely inductive. It consists of few losses and they are represented in the form
of leakage resistance in with the inductor. The total loss of the coil is comprised of
copper loss, eddy current loss and hysteresis loss. The copper loss at low
frequencies is equivalent to the d.c. resistance of the coil. Copper loss is inversely
proportional to frequency.
Therefore, as frequency increases, thecopper loss decreases. Eddy current
loss in iron and copper coil are due to currents flowing within the copper or core
based by induction. The result of eddy currents is a loss due to heating within the
inductors copper or core. Eddy current losses are directly proportional to
frequency. Hysteresis loss is proportional to the area enclosed by the hysteresis
loop and to the rate at which this loop is transversed. It is a function of signal level
and increase with frequency.

Hysteresis loss is however independent of frequency.

As mentioned earlier, the total losses in the coil or inductor is represented by
inductance in series with leakage resistance of the coil

2
Unloaded and Loaded Q:
Unloaded Q is the ratio of stored energy to dissipated energy in a reactor or
resonator. The unloaded Q or QU, of an inductor or capacitor is X/RS, where X
represents the reactance and RS represents the series resistance. The loaded Q or
QL, of a resonator is determined by how tightly the resonator is coupled to its
terminations.

Let us consider the tuned load circuit as shown in the ckt Here, L and C represent
tank circuit. The internal circuit losses of inductor are represented by R o and RC
represents the coupled in load.

where QU is unloaded Q and QL is loaded Q.

The circuit efficiency for the above tank circuit is given as,

From above equation, it can be easily realized that for high overall power
efficiency, the coupled-in load RC should be large in comparison to the internal
circuit losses represented by Ro of the inductor.
The quality factor QL determines the 3 dB bandwidth for the resonant circuit. The
3 dB bandwidth for the resonant circuit is given as,

Where fr represents the centre frequency of a resonator and BW represents the

bandwidth.
If Q is large, bandwidth is small and circuit will be highly selective. For small Q
values, bandwidth is high and selectivity of the circuit is lost, as shown in ckt

3
 Thus in tuned amplifier Q is kept as high as possible to get the better selectivity.
Such tuned amplifiers are used in communication or broadcast receivers where it
is necessary to amplify only selected band of frequencies.

Requirements of Tuned Amplifier:

The basic requirements of Tuned Amplifiers are:
1. The amplifier should provide selectivity of resonant frequency over a very
narrow band.
2. The signal should be amplified equally well at all frequencies in the selected
narrow band.
3. The tuned circuit should be so mounted that it can be easily tuned. If there
is more than one circuit to be tuned, there should be an arrangement to tune all
circuit simultaneously.
4. The amplifier must provide the simplicity in tuning of the amplifier
components to the desired frequency over a considerable range of band of
frequencies.

Classification of Tuned Amplifier:

We know that, multistage amplifiers are used to obtain large overall gain.
The cascaded stages of multistage tuned amplifiers can be categorized as given
below:
1. Single Tuned Amplifiers
2. Double Tuned Amplifiers
3. Stagger Tuned Amplifiers

These amplifiers are further classified according to coupling used to cascade the
stages of multistage amplifier. They are,
1. Capacitive Coupled
2. Inductive Coupled
3. Transformer Coupled

4
 Small Signal Tuned Amplifier:
A common emitter amplifier can be converted into a single tuned amplifier by including a
parallel tuned circuit as shown in the Fig. 3.7. The biasing components are not shown for
simplicity.

Before going to study the analysis of this amplifier, the practical assumptions to simplify
the analysis are:
Assumptions:
1. RL << RC
2. rbb’ = 0
With these assumptions, the simplified equivalent circuit for a single tuned amplifier is shown in
Fig

Where Ceq = C’ + Cb’e + (1 + gm RL ) Cb’c and C’ is the external capacitance used to tune the
circuit, (1 + gm RL ) Cb’c is the Miller Capacitance. rs represents the losses in the coil. The series
RL circuit in Fig. 3.7 is replaced by the equivalent RL circuit in Fig 3.8 assuming coil losses are
low over the frequency band of interest, i.e. the coil Q is high.

5
The conditions for equivalence are most easily established by equating the admittances of the
two circuits shown in the Fig

6
We define the Q of the tuned circuit at the resonant frequency w0 to be

The gain versus frequency plot for the single tuned amplifier. It shows thevariation of the
magnitude of the gain as a function of frequency.

This equation is quadratic in w2 and has two positive solutions, wH and wL. After solving equation
(8), 3 dB bandwidth is given below:
BW = fH – fL = w0 / 2πQi = 1 / 2πRC (since Qi = w0RC) ….. (9)

7
 Single Tuned Capacitive Coupled Amplifier:

Single Tuned multistage amplifier circuit uses one parallel tuned circuit as a load in
each stage with tuned circuits in all stages tuned to same frequency. Fig shows a
typical single tuned amplifier in CE configuration. As shown in Fig, tuned circuit
formed by L and C acts as collector load and resonates at frequency of operation.
Resistors R1, R2 and RE along with capacitor CE provides self bias for the circuit.

Double Tuned Amplifier:

The high frequency signal which has to be amplified is given to the input of the
[Link] amplifier circuit with a double tuner section being at the collector of the
amplifier circuit is called as Double tuner amplifier circuit.
 CONSTRUCTION

The construction of double tuned amplifier is understood by having a look at the

following figure. This circuit consists of two tuned circuits L 1C1 and L2C2 in the collector
section of the [Link] signal at the output of the tuned circuit L 1C1 is coupled to the
other tuned circuit L2C2 through mutual coupling method. The remaining circuit details
are same as in the single tuned amplifier circuit, as shown in the following circuit
[Link] shows double tuned RF amplifier in CE configuration. Here, voltage

developed across tuned circuit is coupled inductively to another tuned circuit. Both tuned
circuits are tuned to the same frequency.
 The double tuned circuit can provide a bandwidth of several percent of
the resonant frequency and gives steep sides to the response curve.
Let us analyze the double tuned circuit.
 The Fig. shows the coupling section of a transformer coupled double
tuned amplifier.
 The Fig. shows the equivalent circuit for it, in which transistor is
replaced by the current source with its output resistance (Ro). The C1
and L1 are the tank circuit components of the primary side.

 The resistance R1 is the series resistance of the inductance L 1. Similarly

on the second side L2 and C2 represent the tank circuit components of
the secondary side and R2 represents resistance of the inductance L2.

 The resistance Ri represents the input resistance of the next st

shows double tuned RF amplifier in CE configuration. Here, voltage developed across tuned
circuit is coupled inductively to another tuned circuit. Both tuned circuits are tuned to the same
frequency. The double tuned circuit can provide a bandwidth of several percent of the resonant
frequency and gives steep sides to the response curve. Let us analyze the double tuned circuit.

Analysis:
,
We know that, the 3 dB bandwidth for single tuned amplifier is 2f r / Q. Therefore, the 3 dB
bandwidth provided by double tuned amplifier (3.1f f / Q) is substantially greater than the 3 dB
bandwidth of single tuned amplifier.
Compared with a single tuned amplifier, the double tuned amplifier
1. Possesses a flatter response having steeper sides.
2. Provides larger 3 dB bandwidth.
3. Provides large gain-bandwidth product.

Effect of cascading Single Tuned Amplifier on Bandwidth:

In order to obtain a high overall gain, several identical stages of amplifiers can be used
in cascade. The overall gain is the product of the voltage gains of the individual stages. Let us
see the effect of cascading of stages on bandwidth.
Consider n stages of single tuned direct coupled amplifiers connected in cascade. We
know that the relative gain of a single tuned amplifier w.r.t. the gain at resonant frequency f r is
given from equation (14).
 Effect of cascading Double Tuned Amplifiers on Bandwidth:
When a number of identical double tuned amplifier stages are connected in cascade, the
overall bandwidth, of the system is thereby narrowed and the steepness of the sides of the
response is increased, just as when single tuned stages are cascaded. The quantitative relation
between the 3 dB bandwidth of n identical double tuned critically coupled stages compared with
the bandwidth Δ2 of such a system can be shown to be 3 dB bandwidth for n identical stages
double tuned amplifiers is,

where Δ2 is the 3 dB bandwidth of single stage double tuned amplifier.

The above equation assumes that the bandwidth Δ2 is small compared with the resonant
frequency.

Staggered Tuned Amplifier:

Double tuned amplifiers give greater 3 dB bandwidth having steeper sides and flat top.
But alignment of double tuned amplifier is difficult. To overcome this problem, two single tuned
cascaded amplifiers having certain bandwidth are taken and their resonant frequencies are so
that they are separated by an amount equal to the bandwidth of each stage. Since the resonant
frequencies are displaced or staggered, they are known as stagger tuned amplifiers. The
advantage of stagger tuned amplifier is to have better flat, wideband characteristics in contrast
with a very sharp, narrow band characteristic of synchronously tuned circuits (tuned to same
resonant frequencies). Fig 3.23 shows the relation of amplification characteristics of individual
stages in a staggered pair to the overall amplification of the two stages.

The overall response of the two stage stagger tuned pair is compared in the Fig. 3.24
with the corresponding individual single tuned stages having same resonant circuits. Looking at
Fig 3.24, it can be seen that staggering reduces the total amplification of the centre frequency to
0.5 of the peak amplification of the individual stage and at the centre frequency each stage has
amplification that is 0.707 of the peak amplification of the individual stage. Thus the equivalent
voltage amplification per stage of the staggered pair is 0.707 times as great as when the same
two stages are used without staggering. However, the half power (3 dB) bandwidth of the
staggered pair is √2 times as great as the half power (3 dB) bandwidth of on individual single
tuned stage. Hence the equivalent gain bandwidth product per stage of a stagger tuned pair is
0.707 x √2 = 1.00 times that of the individual single tuned stages.
 The stagger tuned idea can be easily extended to more stages. In case of three stages
staggering, the first tuning circuit is tuned to a frequency lower than centre frequency while the
third circuit is tuned to higher frequency than centre frequency. The middle tuned circuit is
tunedat exact centre frequency.

Analysis:
Form equation (14), the gain of the single stage tuned amplifier can be written as,

STABILITY OF TUNED AMPLIFIERS

The transistor is a nonunilateral device which, if appropriately terminated, can
become unstable at frequencies where its "internal feedback" is sufficiently large. At
such frequencies, the maximum power gain is infinite and the transistor may
oscillate. This paper discusses the maximum power gain realizable as a function of a
required degree of stability. A "stability factor" is defined in terms of the transistor
parameters and terminations (the admittance matrix is used as an example, but the
approach is analogous using other representations). The maximum stable power gain
of an isolated amplifier stage and the terminating admittances required for the
realization of this maximum power gain are then computed as functions of the
stability factor. The computations are extended to include bandwidth requirements
and limitations. (It is found that, although bandwidth requirements may impose
limitations on the power gain, there is no simple relationship tying together
bandwidth and power gain.) The treatment of multistage amplifiers is outlined with
the conclusion that the gain realizable in an n-stage amplifier is smaller than n times
the gain of a one-stage amplifier having the same stability factor as the stages of the
n-stage amplifier. The respective advantages of different representations for different
circuit configurations are discussed.
 UNIT-V

MULTIVIBRATORS
Definition and types:

A multivibrator is basically a two stage R-C coupled amplifier with positive feedback
from the output of one amplifier to the input of the other.

Depending upon the type of coupling network employed, the multivibrators are classified
into the following three categories.

1. Astable or free running multivibrator.

2. Monostable or single-shot multivibrator.
3. Bistable or flip-flop multivibrator.

Astable or Free running Multivibrator:

In an astable multivibrator, both coupling networks provide ac coupling through
coupling capacitors. Each amplifier stage provides phase shift of 180° in the midband so as to
provide an overall phase shift of 360° or 0° and thus a positive feedback. The circuit,
therefore, oscillates, provided that the total loop gain is equal to or greater than unity. It has
no stable state. The two states of operation of astable multivibrator are quasi stable
(temporary) states. The astable multivibrator, therefore, makes successive transitions from
one quasi state to the other one after a predetermined time interval, without the aid of an
external triggering signal. The periodic time depends upon circuit time constants and
parameters. Thus it is just an oscillator as it does not need any external pulse for its operation.
Since its output oscillates in between off and on states freely, it is called a free running
multivibrator. It is also named as square-wave generator based on its application. AMV
may also be used as a synchronised oscillator and for driving sweep generators.

Circuit diagram:

1
 Regenerative switching circuits such as the Astable Multivibrator are the most
commonly used type of relaxation oscillator because not only are they simple, reliable and
ease of construction they also produce a constant square wave output [Link] the
Monostable Multivibrator or the Bistable Multivibrator we looked at in the previous tutorials
that require an “external” trigger pulse for their operation, the Astable Multivibrator has
automatic built in triggering which switches it continuously between its two unstable states
both set and reset.
The Astable Multivibrator is another type of cross-coupled transistor switching
circuit that has NO stable output states as it changes from one state to the other all the time.
The astable circuit consists of two switching transistors, a cross-coupled feedback network,
and two time delay capacitors which allows oscillation between the two states with no
external triggering to produce the change in state.
In electronic circuits, astable multivibrators are also known as Free-running
Multivibrator as they do not require any additional inputs or external assistance to oscillate.
Astable oscillators produce a continuous square wave from its output oroutputs, (two outputs
no inputs) which can then be used to flash lights or produce a sound in a loudspeaker.

he basic transistor circuit for an Astable Multivibrator produces a square wave output
from a pair of grounded emitter cross-coupled transistors. Both transistors either NPN or
PNP, in the multivibrator are biased for linear operation and are operated as Common Emitter
Amplifiers with 100% positive [Link] configuration satisfies the condition for
oscillation when: ( βA = 1∠ 0o ). This results in one stage conducting “fully-ON”
(Saturation) while the other is switched “fully-OFF” (cut-off) giving a very high level of
mutual amplification between the two transistors. Conduction is transferred from one stage to
the other by the discharging action of a capacitor through a resistor as shown.

Assume a 6 volt supply and that transistor, TR1 has just switched “OFF” (cut-off) and
its collector voltage is rising towards Vcc, meanwhile transistor TR2 has just turned “ON”.
Plate “A” of capacitor C1 is also rising towards the +6 volts supply rail of Vcc as it is
connected to the collector of TR1 which is now cut-off. Since TR1 is in cut-off, it conducts
no current so there is no volt drop across load resistor R1. The other side of capacitor, C1,
plate “B”, is connected to the base terminal of transistor TR2 and at 0.6v because transistor
TR2 is conducting (saturation). Therefore, capacitor C1 has a potential difference of +5.4
volts across its plates, (6.0 – 0.6v) from point A to point B. Since TR2 is fully-on, capacitor
C2 starts to charge up through resistor R2 towards Vcc. When the voltage across capacitor C2
rises to more than 0.6v, it biases transistor TR1 into conduction and into saturation. The
instant that transistor, TR1 switches “ON”, plate “A” of the capacitor which was originally at
Vcc potential, immediately falls to 0.6 volts. This rapid fall of voltage on plate “A” causes an
equal and instantaneous fall in voltage on plate “B” therefore plate “B” of C1 is pulled down
to -5.4v (a reverse charge) and this negative voltage swing is applied the base of TR2 turning
it hard “OFF”. One unstable state. Transistor TR2 is driven into cut-off so capacitor C1 now
begins to charge in the opposite direction via resistor R3 which is also connected to the +6
volts supply rail, Vcc. Thus the base of transistor TR2 is now moving upwards in a positive
direction towards Vcc with a time constant equal to the C1 x R3 combination.

However, it never reaches the value of Vcc because as soon as it gets to 0.6 volts
positive, transistor TR2 turns fully “ON” into saturation. This action starts the whole process
over again but now with capacitor C2 taking the base of transistor TR1 to -5.4v while
charging up via resistor R2 and entering the second unstable [Link] we can see that the
circuit alternates between one unstable state in which transistor TR1 is “OFF” and transistor
2
TR2 is “ON”, and a second unstable in which TR1 is “ON” and TR2 is “OFF” at a rate
determined by the RC values. This process will repeat itself over and over again as long as
the supply voltage is [Link] amplitude of the output waveform is approximately the
same as the supply voltage, Vcc with the time period of each switching state determined by
the time constant of the RC networks connected across the base terminals of the transistors.
As the transistors are switching both “ON” and “OFF”, the output at either collector will be a
square wave with slightly rounded corners because of the current which charges the
capacitors.

Waveforms:

3
Period of waveform:

4
Applications:

 The astable multivibrator is used as the wave generator.

 It is used as voltage-frequency converter.
 It is used in pulse synchronization.
 Since it produces square waves, it is a source of production of a harmonic frequency
of higher order.
 It is used in the construction of voltmeter and SMPS.
 I can be operated as an oscillator over a wide range of audio and radio frequencies.

5
EMITTER COUPLED ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR:

Circuit diagram:

Operation:
In an Emitter Coupled Astable Multivibrator circuit capacitor C is connected between
emitters of two transistors, as shown in Fig. Transistor Q1 remains either in saturation or in
cut-off while transistor Q2 is either in cut-off region or in active region. Capacitor C is a
storage element. Let the transistor Q2 start conducting first.
As soon as Q2 starts conducting, a current flows through RC2 making its collector
voltage to fall and a voltage drop across RE2 too. This drop is followed by RE1 as voltage
across capacitor C cannot change instantaneously. This emitter voltage keeps tran-sistor Q1
off. Now the capacitor C begins charging in the direc-tion shown in Fig. 31.21 and as a result
emitter voltage of tran-sistor Q1 starts falling.
When capacitor C charges to a level so that emitter voltage of transistor Q1 falls to a
level to make it conducting. When transistor Q1 starts conducting, its collector voltage drops
causing base voltage of transistor Q2 to fall. Thus transistor Q2 goes into cutoff region. Now
capacitor C starts charg-ing in reverse direction and when it goes to a level so that emitter
voltage of transistor Q2 falls to force it to conduct. When transis-tor Q2 begins conducting
and voltage drop across RE2 rises cou-pling to emitter of Q1. Thus Q1 is cutoff. Thus one
cycle of op-eration is completed.
An emitter coupled astable multivibrator has the following advantages over a
collector-coupled astable multivibrator.
Collector of transistor Q2 is not connected to any part of the circuit, so it can be used
to provide an output terminal.
Frequency adjustment is easy because of use of only one capacitor in the circuit.
Synchronization is easily possible at base of transistor Q1 as input at base is isolated.
There are no recovery transients (such as overshoot voltages) in the output.
However, the emitter coupled astable multivibrator has the drawbacks of using more
components and difficulty in obtaining proper operating conditions.

6
Problem:

MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR:

Circuit diagram:

Operation:
It consists of two similar transistors Q1 and Q2 with equal collector resistances R3
and R4 (i.e., R3 = R4). The circuit is de-signed for operation with transistor Q2 normally
conducting and transistor Q1 cut off. The output of transistor Q1 is coupled to the base of
transistor Q2 via capacitor C1. However, the other coupling is direct one through base
resistor R1. Transistor Q2 is forward biased by power supply VCC and base resistor R2 and
remains saturated in stable state. Operation in this stable state is ensured if the biasing resistor
R2 is selected to permit sufficient base current in transistor Q2 for operation in saturation
region. Transistor Q1 is reverse biased by power supply VBB and resis-tor R5 remains cut off
in the stable state. The input pulse is ap-plied through capacitor C2. The output may be taken
from either of the transistors Q1 or Q2.
When the power supply is switched on but with no input pulse applied, transistor Q2
is on and is operating in its satura-tion region. It is being forward biased by supply VCC and

7
base resistor R2. The collector of transistor Q2 is virtually at ground potential. The base of
transistor Q2 is 0.7 V above ground po-tential because of the forward-bias of base-emitter
junction. This is illustrated in Figs.
Transistor Q1 is cut off being reverse biased by supply VBB and resistor R5. Its base
resistor R1 is connected to the collector of transistor Q2, which is at zero potential. Thus
collector resistor R3 is completely disconnected from the grounded emitter of transistor Q1
and is free to carry current to charge capacitor C1. Since capacitor C1 is connected to the
base of transistor Q2, which is close to ground potential, it will charge up almost to the
supply voltage VCC. The polarity of the charge on capacitor C1 is plus (+) on the left and
minus (–) on the right, as shown.
When a positive trigger pulse of short duration and sufficient magnitude is applied to
the base of transistor Q1 through capacitor C2, it (input pulse) overrides the reverse bias of
emitter-base junction of transistor Q1 and gives it a forward bias. Thus transistor Q1 starts
conducting and the potential of collector of transistor Q1 comes down to ground. Since
charge on capacitor C1 cannot disappear instantly, the voltage across the capacitor plates is
maintained. With the positive side of the capacitor C1 pulled down to zero volt by transistor
Q1, the negative side goes to a voltage far below ground potential. Thus a negative bias is
applied to the base of transistor Q2 and transistor Q2 is cut off. The collector of transistor Q2
rises toward VCC and is now capable of supplying base current to transistor Q1 through its
base resistor R1. Thus transistor Q1 remains turned on even after the positive spike from the
transistor Q1 is removed.

8
 As time passes charging current flows onto the plates of capacitor C1. The flow path
is down through R2, through capacitor C1 and through collector to emitter of Q1 into ground.
As can be seen, this path seeks to charge capacitor C1 to the opposite polarity, what happens
is that the voltage across capacitor C1 gets reduced. When the voltage across the capacitor
crosses through zero and attains 0.7 V in the opposite polarity, as shown in Fig. 31.25 (b), it
bleeds a small amount of current into the base of transistor Q2. This small base current causes
collector current to flow in transistor Q2, lowering its collector voltage. The reduced collector
voltage causes a reduction in base current to transistor Q1. This in turn causes a reduction in
collector current of Q1. The Q1 collector voltage rises slightly, thereby raising the base of Q2
higher yet. This action is regenerative; once it begins, it avalanches. In the end, transistor Q2
is saturated once again and transistor Q1 is cut off. Thus the circuit reverts back to its original
stable state. The circuit remains in this state until another triggering pulse causes the circuit to
switch over the state and the other cycle repeats itself.
The width of the output pulse is determined by the time constant of C1R2. The
multivibrator generates one output pulse for every input trigger pulse and that is why it is
sometimes called the one shot multivibrator. The width or duration of the pulse is given as T
= 0.693 C1R2.
Applications:
The falling part of the monostable multivibrator output is often used for triggering
another pulse generator circuit, thus producing a pulse delayed by a time T with respect to the
input pulse.
Monostable multivibrator is also employed for regener-ating or rejuvenating old and
worn-out pulses. Various pulses used in computers and telecommunication systems become
some-what distorted during use. A monostable multivibrator can be employed to generate
new, clean and sharp pulses from these distorted and used pulses.
Time Period:

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Problem:

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Emitter Coupled Monostable Multivibrator:
Circuit diagram:

Let initially MMV is in stable state with Q1 non-conducting and Q2 conducting. As

transistor Q2 is conducting, voltage drop across RE is large enough to provide a negative bias
at base of transistor Q1. Thus the output states are stable.
Now voltage at base of transistor Q1 is increased with the help of potentiometer R so
as to forward bias the transistor Q1 and make it conducting. When Q1 starts conducting its
collector potential falls. This reduced potential is applied to the base of transistor Q2 through
capacitor C and current through transistor. Q2 falls and so the voltage drops across RE. This
in turn increases the Q1 collector current by which the collector voltage reduces further and
finally transistor Q2 is cut off. As time passes, charging current flows onto the plates of
capacitor C. The flow path is down through RB, capacitor C and through collector to emitter
of transistor Q1 into ground. As the capacitor C gets charged, the base potential of transistor
Q2 rises. Thus charging continues until the voltage at base of transistor Q2 becomes
suf-ficiently large to make it conducting. When the transistor Q2 starts conducting, voltage
drop across RE increases. This reduces the bias applied to Q1 and so its collector current
increases its collector voltage. Thus base voltage of Q2 is further increased, Q2 conducts
more and more and so voltage drop across RE rises and reduces the bias applied to the base
of transistor Q1. The action is regenerative, once it begins, it avalanches. In the end transistor
Q2 is saturated once again and transistor Q1 is cut off. Thus the circuit reverts back to its
original stable state.
Emitter-coupled monostable multivibrator (MMV) has got the follow-ing advantages
over collector-coupled MMV.
Since in such an MMV, collector of Q2 is not connected to base of Q1, signal at
collector of Q2 is not directly involved in regenerative loop and hence terminal C2 can be
used freely to provide output.
Separate negative supply is not required as emitter junction of transistors is self-
biased through RE.
Since base of Q1 is free from coupling in the circuit, trigger source cannot load the
circuit, if it is connected at B1.
Due to presence of RE, circuit has good stability. The pulse width depends on the
magnitude of input voltage at base of Q1, which can be varied by potentiometer rotation.

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BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR:
The bistable multivibrator circuits considered here are of two types viz. fixed-bias
bistable and self-bias bistable multivibrators. Fixed-bias bistable multivibrator makes use of
two separate sources for biasing the devices whereas self-bias multivibrator uses one self-bias
to derive the biasing voltage.
Fixed Bias Bistable Multivibrator:
Circuit diagram:

Operation:
The circuit of a fixed bias bistable multivibrator is shown in Fig. 31.30 (a). It consists
of two identical transistors Q1 and Q2 with equal collector resistors RC1 and RC2 and with
output of one supplied to the other. The feedback is coupled through resistors R1 and R2. The
output may be taken from either of the two transistors Q1 and Q2.
When power is first applied to the circuit, both transistors start conducting. Because
of small differences in their operating characteristics, one of the transistors will conduct
slightly more than the other. This starts a series of events. Assume arbitrarily that transistor
Q1 initially conducts more than transistor Q2. This causes the collector voltage of transistor
Q1 to drop more rapidly than that of transistor Q2. The resulting negative signal is fed to the
base of transistor Q2. The falling voltage makes the conduction of Q2 less. Thus, its collector
current starts falling with corresponding increase of voltage at terminal C2. This increasing
voltage is applied to the base of transistor Q1 which makes it more forward biased. Because
of this cumulative feedback within no time transistor Q1 goes to saturation and Q2 to cut-off.
The output of saturated transistor Q1 is approximately zero and that of cut-off transistor Q2
approximately VCC. This is the first stable state of the multivibrator. The multivibrator can
be driven from the first stable state (Q1 on and Q2 off) to the other stable state (Q1 off and
Q2 on) by applying either a negative trigger pulse to the base of transistor Q1 or a positive
trigger pulse to the base of transistor Q2.

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 Let a negative pulse of short duration and sufficient magnitude be applied to the base
of transistor Q1 through capacitor C1. This reduces the forward bias on transistor Q1 and
causes a reduction in collector current and, thereby, increase in potential of its collector
terminal C1. The rising collector voltage appears across the emitter-base junction of transistor
Q2 as it is connected to collector terminal C1 via resistor R2. As a result collector current of
transistor Q2 increases and, therefore, its collector voltage falls. The decreasing collector
voltage appears across the emitter-base junction of transistor Q1 where it further reverse
biases the emitter-base junction of transistor Q1 to make collector current to fall. After few
cycles, the transistor Q2 is driven into saturation and transistor Q1 to cut-off. This is the
second stable state of the multivibrator. The circuit will now remain in this second stable state
(Q1 off and Q2 on) until a positive pulse is applied to the base of transistor Q1 or a negative
pulse to the base of transistor Q2.

The noteworthy points are :

1. Under cut-off condition nearly the full supply voltage VCC appears across the
transistor and this restricts the supply voltage VCC to the order of several tens of volts
(smaller than the transistor breakdown voltage VCE).
2. Under saturation condition, the collector current is maximum. Hence RC1 and RC2
must be chosen so as to restrict the collector current to the permissible value. The values of
resistors R1, R2, R3 and R4 and VBB must be so selected that in one state the base current is
large enough to drive the transistor into saturation while in second state the emitter-base
junction must be below cut-off value.

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 3. The values of R1, R2, R3 and R4 are selected so that they are much larger than
collector resistances RC1 and RC2 and consequently have no loading effects on the amplifier
circuit.

Analysis: If transistor Q1 is in conducting state and transistor Q2 is in non-

conducting state, the voltages VB1 between point B1 and ground (points E1 and E2) and
VC1 between point C1 and ground are both small. The base-bias voltage VB2 on transistor
Q2 is then

which being negative, keeps transistor Q2 in its cut-off state. Since RC2 is much
smaller than R1 and the collector current of transis-tor Q2 is assumed zero, the collector
voltage of transistor Q2 is + VCC. The base current IB1 is then

and if VB1 can be considered negligibly small,

For keeping transistor Q1 conducting, the value of IB1, must be sufficiently positive
to ensure continued current i.e.,

The values of VCC, VBB, R1, R2, RC1 and RC2 are so selected that Eq. (31.27) is
satisfied and consequently a stable state exists with Q2 cut-off and Q1 in saturation. For the
symmetry of circuit (RC1 = RC2; R1 = R2 and R3 = R4), it is evident that a second stable
state exists with Q1 cut-off and Q2 in saturation.

Two points should be noted about the switching process. First the pulse used for
switching need only be applied for a time sufficient for the changeover; it can then be
removed. Second, if a negative pulse is used to affect switching, a positive pulse is required
for the next switching, a negative pulse for the one fol-lowing, etc.

Idealized output waveforms for the bistable multivibrator are shown in Fig. 31.30 as
solid curves. The dotted waveforms are those of an actual circuit, the deviations from the
idealized result from switching transients.
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Loading:

The bistable multivibrator may be employed to drive other circuits and therefore at
one or both the collectors there are shunting loads which are not indi-cated in Fig. Such loads
reduce the magnitude of the collec-tor voltage VC1 of the cut-off tran-sistor. This will cause
reduction in the output voltage swing. A re-duced VC1 will result in the reduc-tion of IB, and
it is possible that transistor Q2 may not be driven into saturation. Hence, the components of
the multivibrator must be chosen so that under the heaviest load, which the multivibrator
drives, one transistor remains in saturation while the other is in cut-off.

For some applications, the loading varies during the operation. In such cases, the
extent to which a transistor is driven into saturation varies. A constant output swing Vw = V,
and a constant base saturation current IB, can be had by clamping the collectors to an
auxiliary voltage V < VCC through the diodes D1 and D2 as shown in Fig. 31.32. As
transistor Q1 cuts off, its collector voltage increases and when it becomes V, the collector
“catching diode” D1 conducts and clamps the output to V.

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SELF BIAS BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR:

Circuit diagram:

Here the emitter of both the transistors are common and a resistance RE is connected
from the common emitter to ground. The voltage drop across RE provides the self-bias to
keep one of the transistors in the off state. The two stable states of the bistable multivibrator
(binary) are:

Transistor Q1 off and transistor Q2 on.

Transistor Q2 off and transistor Q1 on.

The working and operation of self-bias binary is the same as that of fixed-bias binary.

PROBLEMS:

PROBLEM1:

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SOLUTION:

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TRIGGERING OF BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR:
Unsymmetrical triggering:
Unsymmetrical triggering is a process in which the signal is effective in inducing
transition in only one direction. If reverse transition is to be introduced, a second triggering
signal from a separate source has to be introduced in a different manner.

Refer to Fig. (a) and add the circuit shown in Fig. b at input stage and that in Fig. 3 at
the output stage. Consider a stable state in which Q1 is “on” and Q2 is “off‟.

When Q1 is “on”, the diode D at the collector of Q1 is reverse biased by drop across
RC1. The diode will not transmit a positive pulse and even the negative pulse cannot be
transmitted unless it has an amplitude larger than this voltage drop which anyway cannot
affect the state of Q2. Thus there can be no change in state due to the application of a pulse at
the collector of Q1 when it is “on”. When Q2 is “off”, both anode and cathode of the diode at

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its collector are at VCC and so there is no voltage drop across diode D. The diode still fails to
transmit a positive-going trigger, but will transmit a negative pulse or step to the base of Q1
which is “on”, and that will cause change in state. Thus in the assumed stable state, only a
negative pulse impressed at „R‟ can make change in state. The resistor R is required to be
small enough so that any charge accumulating on capacitor C during the interval. when diode
D conducts, will have time to decay during the time between pulses but it must be large
enough to avoid the loading down of the trigger source. In case the triggering rate is high,
then resistor R will have to be replaced by a diode.

Figure is redrawn for unsymmetrical triggering through a diode at the base of a

transistor and is shown in Fig. 31.40. Here a negative pulse is applied to the base of the “on”
stage through a diode. In case the available trigger amplitude is small, amplification of the
input signal may become necessary before it is applied to the flip-flop. In such a case there
will be no need of using diode, as the amplifier itself can provide the unilateral action for
which diode is required.

Symmetrical triggering:

When Q2 is “on” and Q1 is “off”, in one of the stable states, diode D2 is reverse
biased by supply voltage VCC and diode D1 is at zero bias as the collector of Q2 is at
VCE(sat) and the collector of Q1 is at VCC. Thus a negative input signal will be transmitted
to the collector of Q1 through diode D1 and, therefore, to the base of “on” stage Q2 via the

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combination R2C2 connecting the output of Q1 to the input of Q2. This negative pulse at the
base of Q2 (which is “on”), turns it to the “off” state causing transition. After completion of
this transition, diode D1 will be reverse biased and D2 will be at zero bias. The next negative
pulse will pass through diode D2 instead of through diode D1. Hence these diodes are known
as steering diodes.

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