Cells, Tissues, and Organs

• All living things are of cells.

• Provide structure and functions of life.

• Tiny particle and see under high magnification microscope.

• Take in nutrients from food, convert into energy, carried out specialize functions.
composed

Cells Theory
• All living things are made of one or more cells.

• Cells are the smallest unit of structure and function in all living things.

• New cells can only be produced from other cells (pre-existing) by mean of division.

Muscle Cell

• Muscle cells are specialized to contract, i.e. create a pulling force to stabilize or move parts of the body.
• There are three types of muscle cell: skeletal, visceral and cardiac.
Specialized Cells

• The following diagram shows just a few of the different types of cells in your body.
• Look at how different the cells’structures are.
• Each cell’s structure helps it to carry out a unique function within the body.
• Muscle cells, for example, must be able to contract so the body can move.
• Nerve cells (neurons) have long appendages for transmitting signals throughout the body.
• Each type of cell is specialized for a particular job.

Blood Cell

• Red blood cells -which carries oxygen from the lungs to all parts of the body.
• White blood cells - which fights infection and other diseases.
• Platelets – smaller cells that help blood to clot.
Skin Cell

• Provides a protective barrier against mechanical, thermal and physical injury and hazardous substances.
• Prevents loss of moisture.
• Reduces harmful effects of UV radiation.

Bone Cell

• Bone is highly specialized connective tissue with three main functions;

• to protect the internal organs,
• to create a rigid frame for muscular movement, and
• to store minerals such as calcium and phosphorus

Epithelial and goblet cells

• Epithelial cells are a type of cell that covers the inside and outside of the surfaces of your body.
• They are found on your skin, blood vessels, and organs, including your urinary tract.
• Goblet cells is to secrete mucin and create a protective mucus layer.
Nerve Cell

• A type of cell that receives and sends messages from the body to the brain and back to the body.
• The messages are sent by a weak electrical current.
• Also called neuron.

Tissue Organization Levels of the Body

Group or layer of cells that work together to

perform a specific functions.

Four types of tissue:

1. Muscle tissue
2. Nervous tissue
3. Connective tissue
4. Epithelial tissue
Cell Functions and Components

• Different types of cells are specialized for different functions in your body.
• All cells do have certain functions in common.
• For example, all cells must be able to carry out a certain set of chemical reactions.
• Metabolism is the name for the set of chemical reactions that use the energy from food to build substances the cell needs.
• Occurs in two parts.
• First, a series of reactions extract energy from food molecules and convert it to a form of energy that the cell can use.
• Then, a second series of reactions uses that energy to fuel processes like building proteins.
• Reproduction is also a necessary function for all cells.
• Cells reproduce by a process called cell division.
• In this process, the “parent” cell divides into two identical “daughter” cells.
• Enzymes are also important molecules found inside cells.
• Enzymes are proteins that help chemical reactions to occur faster.
• Without enzymes, a cell would not be able to produce needed substances fast enough.
 Cell Division

• Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into two or more
daughter cells.

• It is a fundamental process in both single-celled organisms for reproduction and

growth, as well as in multicellular organisms for development, repair, and
maintenance.

There are two main types of cell division:

Mitosis (Asexual reproduction) somatic cell (body cell)

Meiosis (Sexual reproduction) germ cell (sex cell)

• A cell reproduces by a process called cell division.

• Cell division occurs in three stages.
• First, the cell’s nucleus makes an extra copy of its deoxyribonucleic acid
• (DNA) molecules, which carry the genetic instructions for forming new cells.
• Then the nucleus divides into two parts, each containing an identical copy of the DNA.
• Finally, the “parent” cell divides into two identical “daughter” cells.
Mitosis
• It consists of several stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase (PMAT).
• During mitosis, the genetic material of the parent cell is duplicated and divided
equally between the two daughter cells, ensuring that each daughter cell receives an identical set of chromosomes.
• Mitosis plays a crucial role in growth, tissue repair, and asexual reproduction in certain organisms.
• Mitosis is the process of cell division that occurs in somatic (non-reproductive) cells.
Chromosome
• a threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells
• carrying genetic information in the form of genes.

Meiosis
• Meiosis is a specialized form of cell division that occurs in reproductive cells (germ cells) for the purpose of sexual
reproduction.
• It involves two rounds of division, known as meiosis I and meiosis II, resulting in the production of four daughter cells,
each with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
• Occurs only in gonads (testes and ovaries).
• Meiosis are similar to mitosis but with a few important changes.
Photosynthesis

Just as a lightbulb needs electricity and a car needs gasoline, cells need a

source of energy to function.

• All organisms obtain energy from food.
• Most organisms are consumers; they eat other organisms for food.
Producers, such as plants, take in light energy from the sun and use it to

make their own food.

• The process of converting light energy into food is called photosynthesis.

• Photosynthesis is the process by which plants use sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to create oxygen and energy in the form
sugar.
• The reaction produces glucose (sugar) and oxygen.

• Glucose travels to the rest of the plant to be used or stored.

• The oxygen exits the leaf through the tiny holes.

• The equation accompanying the diagram summarizes the photosynthesis reaction.

Photosynthesis is a chemical reaction that takes place in the cells of plants’ leaves.

• Carbon dioxide enters cells through tiny holes in the leaf.

• Water absorbed by the plant’s roots also travels to the leaf cells.
• When light energy enters the cells, carbon dioxide and water react in
• structures called chloroplasts.

Although organisms get energy from food, the energy is not in a form their cells can use.

• Cells use a process called respiration to convert the energy from food into a usable form.

• Respiration occurs in two stages, as shown in the diagram.

• First, glucose from food enters the cell and is broken down into smaller molecules.

• This process releases a small amount of energy for the cell to use.
• Next, the smaller molecules react with oxygen inside the cell’s mitochondria.
• Rreaction produces carbon dioxide, water, and a large amount of energy.
• The cell now has the energy it needs to carry out its normal functions.
• The equation accompanying the diagram summarizes respiration reaction.
Alleles and Traits

• Alleles are different versions of a gene.

• Most genes have two alleles, though more alleles are possible.

• One of the human eye color genes has two alleles: brown and blue.

• One of the human blood type genes has three alleles: A, B, and O.

• New alleles for a gene are created by mutations.

• A mutation is a random change in the base sequence of a gene.

• The following diagram shows different types of mutations that can lead to new alleles.

Assortment of Alleles

• Recall that at the beginning of meiosis, a cell has two copies of each chromosome.

• Before the chromosomes are separated and new cells are formed, they go through a process called crossing over.
Environmental Altering of Traits
• Some traits, like your blood type, are the direct result of the alleles you inherited from your parents.
• Your blood type is genetically determined, and it cannot be changed.
• Other traits are the result of a combination of your alleles and environmental factors.

Expression of Traits

• When a gene is actively being used to make a protein, the gene is said to be turned on, or “expressed.”
• The genes for some traits are expressed all the time.
• Others are only turned on when a specific protein is needed.
• The study of how genes are turned off and on is called epigenetics.
• Environmental factors like temperature can also directly affect which genes are expressed.

Simple Inheritance

• Remember that you have two copies of every gene—one inherited from your mother and one from your father.
• Your combination of alleles for a specific gene is called your genotype.
• Your physical appearance for a trait is called your phenotype.
• Your genotype determines your phenotype.
In simple inheritance, a gene has two alleles (versions).
• The two alleles are represented by a capital and lowercase letter.
• The following diagram shows the possible genotypes and phenotypes for the human eye color gene.
• (Although there are several different genes that affect human eye color, we will focus only on the blue/brown gene.)

• In simple inheritance, a gene has a dominant and a recessive allele.

• If a person has at least one copy of the dominant allele (represented by a capital letter), he or she will have the
dominant phenotype.
• A recessive phenotype requires two copies of the recessive allele (represented by a lowercase letter).
• Notice in the diagram that brown eye color is dominant and blue eye color is recessive.

• A Punnett square is a chart used to calculate the probability of parents passing on a trait to their child.
• When using a Punnett square, remember:
• One parent’s alleles go along the top and one parent’s alleles go along the left side of the Punnett square.
• The parents’ alleles are matched up inside each box to show all of the allele combinations (genotypes) that the child
could receive.
• The child has a 25% chance of inheriting the combination in each box.
Recall that brown eyes are dominant over blue eyes.

• The Punnett square shows the eye color probabilities for the child of a brown- eyed father (Bb) and a blue-eyed mother (bb).

• The child has a 50% chance of having brown eyes (Bb) and a 50% chance of having blue eyes (bb).

Pedigree Chart
• A pedigree chart is used to trace the inheritance of a trait through the generations of a family.

Color blindness - color vision deficiency (CVD)is when you don’t see colors in the traditional way because some cones
(nerve cells) in your eyes are missing or don't work correctly.

• The person with the half-shaded symbol is called a “carrier” because she has one copy of the recessive colorblindness
allele and one copy of the dominant color vision allele.
• She is not colorblind, but she can pass the colorblindness allele on to her child.
Evolutionary Relationships

• Lions, tigers, and cheetahs are different species of large cats.

• Although they live in different parts of the world, scientists believe that these, and all large cats, are related through a
now-extinct ancestor species.
Cladograms

A cladogram is a diagram that uses shared characteristics to show how organisms are related.
Organisms are arranged on branches based on the characteristics each has.
Evolution by Natural Selection

• Consider the long neck of a giraffe.

• Ancestral giraffes had necks of varying lengths and ate grass.

• During periods when grass was scarce, giraffes with longer necks were able to eat the leaves off of trees.
• Since these giraffes were better able to find food, they were more likely to survive and reproduce than the giraffes
with shorter necks.

• Gradually over time, the proportion of long-necked giraffes increased until no short necked giraffes were left.
• This process of some members of a species being better able to survive and reproduce than others is called natural selection.
• Farmers and animal breeders use a similar process called artificial selection.
• Natural selection works on traits that affect organisms’ ability to survive in their environment.

• In artificial selection, humans specifically choose two organisms to breed based on desired traits.
• Farmers, for example, might specifically breed two tomato plants that are the most resistant to disease.
• A dog breeder might choose to breed two dogs that have the most desirable temperament.
 Requirements for Selection

Natural selection causes species to evolve.

For natural selection to act on a species, though, two conditions must be met.
First, the species must show variation in traits.
In peppered moths, for example, the wing-color trait has two versions (dark and light).
When the moths’ environment changed, natural selection favored the dark- winged moths.

• If all of the moths had the same color wings to begin with, natural selection wouldn’t have had anything to favor.
• A species must also show differential survivability.
• This means that one version of the trait must provide a greater chance of survival.
• The dark-winged moths were better able to survive and reproduce than the light-winged moths, so their numbers increased.
• If light-winged moths were able to survive just as well as dark-winged moths, natural selection would not occur.

Evolutionary Change

• An adaptation is a trait shared by all members of a species that helps them survive or reproduce in their unique environment.

• Natural selection leads to adaptations.

 • Species develop adaptations because the environment exerts something called selection pressure.
• Selection pressure is anything in the environment that affects a species’survival.
• The following table describes different types of selection pressure.

Speciation

• When a new species evolves from an existing species, the process is called speciation.

• In general, speciation happens when some members of a species develop adaptations that are different from the rest of the
species.
• This often happens if a group becomes geographically separated from the original population.
• The selection pressures in the new environment may cause the separated group to develop new adaptations.

Flow of Energy

• Models allow us to visualize the feeding relationship between organisms at different levels.

• They show the energy gained and lost over time.

• Producers form the base of the pyramid.
• The size of each block is proportional to the amount of available energy.
Energy in Ecosystems

• Energy is constantly cycling through ecosystems.

• In most ecosystems, there are four important feeding levels that determine the direction of energy flow.
• Energy is moved from one level to another as organisms are consumed.
• Producers are organisms (usually plants) that convert some of the sun’s energy into stored chemical energy.
• Primary consumers are herbivores.
• They obtain energy by consuming producers.
• Secondary consumers are carnivores that consume primary consumers for energy.
• Decomposers are organisms that obtain energy by breaking down dead organisms from the three other levels.

Food Chains

• One way to represent feeding relationships is with a food chain.

• This model uses arrows to show the direction in which matter and energy are transferred between organisms.
Food Webs

• Most ecosystems are complicated.

• They cannot be modelled by a single, unbranched food chain, because most organisms depend on more than one
other species for food.
• The best way to model these feeding relationships is with elaborate food webs.
 • Food webs are a more natural model than a food chain because they show all possible feeding relationships at each
feeding level.
• Some consumers feed at several different levels.
• The duck in this food web may eat snails (primary consumers) and big fish (higher-level consumers).
• Omnivores, including humans, eat producers as well as consumers from different levels.

➢ Food webs also help identify limitations in communities.

➢ Consider what might happen to the frog population if pollution led to
the destruction of aquatic plants.
➢ The organisms in the next feeding level would lose an important food
source.
➢ The entire food web would be negatively impacted.