Applied Physics Material prepared by Dr. L.

Srinivasa Rao VNR VJIET Hyd

UNIT-I: LASERS AND FIBER OPTICS

Chapter-1 LASERS
Lasers: Laser beam characteristics-Three quantum processes (Absorption, Spontaneous
emission & Stimulated emission), Lifetime, Metastable state, Population inversion, Pumping
methods- Lasing action -Block diagram of laser-Einstein coefficients and their relations,
Ruby laser, He-Ne laser, Applications of laser.

1. Explain the Characteristics of Lasers (OR)

Discuss the Features of Lasers (OR)
Explain the Properties of Lasers (OR)

Characteristics of Lasers: Laser light has the four distinguished features when compared
with the conventional light emitting from the sun, a flame, electric bulb, candle etc.

1. High Directionality
2. High Monochromacity
3. High Intensity (Brightness)
4. High Coherence.

1. Directionality:
A conventional light source emits light in all directions due to its spontaneous emission
character. Due to stimulated emission, laser emits light only in one direction. This is called
Directionality.

d
d2/
The laser light propagates up to d2/distance without any deviation in its path, called
Rayleigh’s region. Beyond this length, the laser light is propagated with divergence ∆θ = d.
Where, d = Width of the aperture of the laser source
Wavelength of the Laser

The directionality is expressed in terms of divergence ∆θ= (a2-a1) / (d2-d1). Where, a1and a2
are the radii of laser beam spots at distances of d1 and d2 respectively from the laser source.

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 Applied Physics Material prepared by Dr. L. Srinivasa Rao VNR VJIET Hyd

2. Monochromacity:
Emission of radiation by light source with a single wavelength (color) is called
Monochromacity.

The degree of non-monochromacity, ξ = ∆

Where, ∆The spectral width.
Oscillating frequency of the Light source.
If ξ decreases, the monochomacity increases.

The spectroscopic quality factor Ω = λ∆λ.

If Ω increases, the monochomacity increases.
Laser is more monochromatic than that of a conventional light source. The value of ξ is small
for Laser sources and it is is high for ordinary light.

λ λ
∆λAo ∆λAo

a) Ordinary light b) laser

For good stable laser, ∆λAo ;

or ordinary light, ∆λAo.

3. Intensity (Brightness):
The intensity of the laser light is many times more than that of the ordinary light. 1 watt of
laser is more intense than the 10000 times to the 100 watt of ordinary light.

16 2
This is because of the ordinary light emits ≈ 10 photons/ m – sec.
22 34 2
The laser light emits ≈ 10 to 10 photons/ m – sec.

4. Coherence:
Emission of radiation by the light source with same phase is called Coherence. The laser
source radiates light waves with same phase, same amplitude and same wavelength. So that
laser light is highly coherent. The laser power of 1013 watt can be concentrated per 1μm.

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 Applied Physics Material prepared by Dr. L. Srinivasa Rao VNR VJIET Hyd

2. Define following terms:

i. Stimulated absorption ii. Life time iii. Meta stable state. iv. Spontaneous emission
v. Stimulated emission vi. Population Inversion vii. Pumping Process [Link] Action

i. Stimulated absorption: The process of transferring a particle from ground state to higher
energy state by absorption of external energy is called excitation or Stimulated absorption or
induced absorption. Then the particle is said to be excited.

ii. Life time: The particle in the excited state can remain for a short interval of time known as
life time. The life time is of the order of 10-8 sec.

iii. Meta stable state: The excited state in which the life time is much greater than 10-8 sec is
called meta stable state. The life time of the particle in the Meta stable state is in the order of
10-3 sec.
iv. Spontaneous emission: The transition of particles from higher energy state to lower
energy state spontaneously by emitting a photon of energy h is known as “spontaneous
emission”. It takes place in the span of ≈ 10-8 sec.

v. Stimulated emission: The transition of a particle from higher state to lower state by
stimulating it with another photon having energy equal to the energy difference between
transition energy levels called stimulated emission. It takes place in the span of > 10-8 sec.

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 Applied Physics Material prepared by Dr. L. Srinivasa Rao VNR VJIET Hyd

vi. Population Inversion:

As per Boltzman principle (N1 > N2), the no of atoms in higher energy level is less than the
no of atoms in lowest energy level. The process of making of higher population in higher
energy level than the population in lower energy level is known as population inversion.

Suppose E1 and E2 are the two energy levels with N1 and N2 number of atoms. Then,
according to the Boltzman’s principle, N1> N2. But, we can reverse this condition by
pumping the atoms from E1 to E2, so that N2 > N1 is attained. This condition is called
Population inversion.

vii. Pumping Process:

A system in which population inversion is achieved is called as an active system. The method
of raising the particles from lower energy state to higher energy state is called “Pumping”.
Population inversion is achieved by pumping the atoms from the ground level to the higher
energy level. It is easily achieved at the metastable state, where the life time of the atoms is
higher than that in other higher energy levels.

Various pumping processes are as follows: optical pumping, electrical pumping, thermal
pumping, chemical pumping, carrier injection pumping etc.

viii. LASER ACTION:

E2

E1
Fig. Lasing Action

1. By stimulated absorption atoms are excited from ground level to higher energy level. The
population inversion is achieved by pumping process in active material.
2. First, a photon is released by an atom with spontaneous emission of radiation. This
photon is used to make collision with another excited atom and two photons are released
by stimulated emission of radiation.
3. These two photons are again used to make collision with another two excited atoms and
four photons are released.
4. These four photons are again used to make collision with another four excited atoms and
eight photons are released and soon.
5. This process is repeated and millions of photons are amplified. When sufficient intensity
is commenced, the LASER beam is rushed out through the active material.

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 Applied Physics Material prepared by Dr. L. Srinivasa Rao VNR VJIET Hyd

3. Distinguish Spontaneous emission and stimulated emission.

Distinguish ordinary light and laser light.

[Link]. SPONTANEOUS EMISSION STIMULATED EMISSION

(ordinary light) (laser light)
1 Ordinary light is due to spontaneous Laser light is due to stimulated emission
emission
2 The life of excited levels is about 10-8 s. The life of excited levels is more than 10-8 s.
3 This is rapid process. This is slow process.
4 Need not a bombarding photon Need a photon for bombardment.
5 One photon released by a transition of an two photons released by a transition of an
excited atom excited atom
6 Incoherent radiation coherent radiation
7 Less Intensity high intensity
8 Polychromatic Monochromatic
9 Less directionality high directionality
10 More angular spread during propagation less angular spread during propagation
11 This emission was postulated by Bohr. This emission was postulated by Einstein.
12 Ex: Light from sun, candle, electric bulb, ex: - light from Ruby laser, He-Ne gas laser
tube light etc. etc

4. What are Einstein’s Coefficients? Derive Relation between them (OR)

Discuss the Einstein’s theory of stimulated emission of radiation.
Einstein’s coefficients are the constants, which describe the probability of transition of atoms
per second by stimulated absorption, spontaneous emission and stimulated emission in an
active medium and they are represented by B12, A21 and B21 respectively.

Let us consider an active material.

E1, E2 be the energy states
N1, N2 be the no of atoms per unit volume. ρ( ) is density of radiation.

B12 A21 B21 E2-E1 = h

Fig. Active medium

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 Applied Physics Material prepared by Dr. L. Srinivasa Rao VNR VJIET Hyd

The number of atoms (12) by stimulated absorption per unit volume per second from level
directly proportional to ρ( ) and N1;

E1 to E2 = B12 ρ( ) N1---------- (1) by stimulated absorption.

The number of atoms (21) by spontaneous emission per unit volume per second from level
directly proportional to N2;

E2 to E1= A21 N2--------------- (2) by spontaneous emission.

The number of atoms (21) by stimulated emission per unit volume per second from level
directly proportional to ρ( ) and N2;

E2 to E1 = B21 ρ( ) N2 -------------- (3) by stimulated emission.

Where, B12, A21 and B21 are known as Einstein’s coefficients and they are probability of
transition of atoms per second by stimulated absorption, spontaneous emission and stimulated
emission respectively. They depend on the intrinsic nature of the active material.

At steady state, (1) = (2) + (3)

B12 ρ( ) N1 = A21 N2 + B21 ρ( ) N2

B12 ρ( ) N1 - B21 ρ( ) N2= A21 N2

ρ( ) [ B12 N1 - B21 N2] = A21 N2

ρ( ) =

ρ( ) =
⌊ ⌋

But, for homogeneous system B12 = B21 -------------- (4)

ρ( ) =
⌊ ⌋

ρ( ) = -------------- (5)

⌊ ⌋

From Boltzman law: Ni = No e-Ei/KT -------------- (6)

Therefore, N1 = No e-E1/KT -------------- (7)

And N2 = No e-E2/KT -------------- (8)

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 Applied Physics Material prepared by Dr. L. Srinivasa Rao VNR VJIET Hyd

-------------- (9) (since, E2-E1 = hυ)

Substituting (9) in (5); we get

ρ( ) = ⌊ ⌋
-------------- (10)

But, ρ( ) = ⌊ ⌋
-------------- (11), which is the Plank’s law.

Therefore, the density of radiation by spontaneous emission and as well as stimulated

emission is agreed with the standard radiation law, i.e. the Plank’s law. Hence, the stimulated
emission of radiation is essential for Laser action.

Comparing (10) and (11),

= -------------- (12)

The equations (4) and (12) are the relation between Einstein’s coefficients.
For stimulated emission (LASER) to be predominant, we should have A21 / B21 << 1.
For spontaneous emission (Ordinary Light) to be predominant, we should have A21 / B21 >>1.

Merits:
1. This theory is useful to establish the concept of stimulated emission of radiation.
2. This theory is useful to understand the condition for Laser action in terms of A21, B12
and B21.

Demerits:
1. This theory fails to explain the recoil momentum of the incident photon released in
stimulated emission.
2. The both Quantum and Classical approaches are involved in the theory.
3. There is no particular method to solve the Einstein’s coefficients.
4. The theory is silent about the directionality, monochromacity, intensity and coherence
of the Laser.

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 Applied Physics Material prepared by Dr. L. Srinivasa Rao VNR VJIET Hyd

5. What are essential components of Laser system? Explain with the help of a block
diagram.

Any LASER consists of three basic components. These are –

1. Lasing material or active medium.
2. External energy source (Excitation source).
3. Optical resonator.

Fig. Block diagram of a Laser

[Link] active medium: It is the active material system through which laser light can be
emitted. Semiconductors (GaAsSi, GaP) organic dyes, gases (He, Ne, CO 2, etc), solid
materials (YAG, Ruby etc.) are usually used as the active materials.

[Link] excitation source: It is pumping source provides energy which is needed for the
population inversion. Examples of pump sources are electrical discharges, flash
lamps, arc lamps, light from another laser, chemical reactions etc.

3. Optical Resonator (Optical Cavity): In most of the systems, it consists of two

mirrors. One is perfect mirror and another is partial mirror. It provides the guidance
fort the simulated emission process by to and fro oscillations between the mirrors.
Finally, a laser beam will be generated through partial mirror. The length (l) of the
cavity should satisfy the condition 2l = nλ, where λ is wavelength of laser source.

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 Applied Physics Material prepared by Dr. L. Srinivasa Rao VNR VJIET Hyd

6. Explain construction and working principle of Ruby Laser. Discuss its Advantages
and Disadvantages. (OR)
Describe design and working principle of a three level laser source. Outline its
merits and demerits.

Construction: Ruby laser is a three level solid state laser. The system consists of mainly
three parts viz., active material, resonant cavity and excitation source.

Xenon flash tube

E3
N3
LASER

o
N2
6943 A
E2
Perfect Ruby
Partial
Mirror mirror
Power supply
E1 N1
Cool air Hot air
Fig. Schematic of (a) Ruby Laser and (b) its energy level diagram.

1) ACTIVE MATERIAL: A rod of Ruby crystal (Al2O3+Cr2O3) of 3 to 5 mm in diameter

and 5 to 30 cm length is used as active material. The Cr3+ ions accomplish the laser
transition.
2) RESONANT CAVITY: A couple of perfect and partial mirror at the ends of the ruby rod
is used as optical cavity. Both the surfaces of mirrors are optically flat and exactly
parallel to each other.
3) EXCITING SYSTEM: A helical xenon flash tube with power supply source is used as the
exciting source. It accomplishes the optical pumping.

Working Principle:
1. When the power supply is switched on, the Xenon flash tube releases a photo flash on the
surface of the ruby rod. Thus, the Cr3+ ions are excited to energy level E3 from the ground
level E1.

2. By means of non-radiative transition a Meta stable state E2 is formed. Thus, the

population inversion is established between levels E2 and E1. i.e., N2>N1.

3. By the transition of Cr3+ ion from E2 to E1, causes the spontaneous emission of radiation
by releasing a photon.

4. Now, this single photon make collision with another excited Cr3+ ion in the level E2 and
releases two photons, so that the Cr3+ ion returns back to the ground state E1. These two
photons knock out two more photons and so on.

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 Applied Physics Material prepared by Dr. L. Srinivasa Rao VNR VJIET Hyd

5. The photon beam improves its strength making back and forth oscillations between
perfect mirror and the partial mirror. When the sufficient intensity is commenced, then
the photon beam rushed out as LASER out put through the partial mirror.
Advantages:
1. The output beam have principle wavelength 6943 Ao, which is in visible spectrum (Red
color).
2. The duration of output flash is about 300 μs.
3. It is very intense about 10,000 watt.

Disadvantages:
1. It needs cooling process to prevent damage and cracking of ruby rod with the dissipated
heat.
2. It generates a pulsed laser. The output radiation is not continuous.

7. Explain construction and working principle of He-Ne Laser. Discuss its

Advantages and Disadvantages. (OR)
Describe how stimulated emission is produced continuously by a 4-level
laser source. Present its features.

Construction: He-Ne laser is a four level gas laser. The system consists of mainly three
parts viz., active material, resonant cavity and excitation source.

Quartz tube

He : Ne = 10 : 1 LASER 6328 Ao

Perfect Partial
Mirror Mirror
RF generator
Fig. Schematic of He-Ne gas laser

Ne6
He3 3.39 μm
Ne5
Energy transfer

He2 Ne4 LASER

1.15 μm 6328 Ao
Ne3
Spontaneous emission
Ne2
Discharge by Collision with Quartz tube walls
He1
Ne1
Fig. Energy level diagram of He-Ne gas laser

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 Applied Physics Material prepared by Dr. L. Srinivasa Rao VNR VJIET Hyd

1) ACTIVE MATERIAL: He - Ne gas laser consists of a gas discharge tube of length

80cm and diameter of 1cm. The tube is made up of quartz and is filled with a mixture of
Neon under a pressure of 0.1mm of Hg and the Helium under the pressure of 1mm of
Hg. The ratio of He-Ne mixture of about 10:1. The Ne atoms are used to produce the
laser.

2) RESONANT CAVITY: A couple of perfect and partial mirror at the ends of the ruby rod
is used as optical cavity. Both .the surfaces of mirrors are optically flat and exactly
parallel to each other.

3) EXCITING SYSTEM: RF generator of several MHz frequency and 50 k watt power is

used as the exciting source. It accomplishes the electrical discharge pumping.

Working principle:
1. When a discharge is passed through the gaseous mixture electrons are accelerated. These
accelerated electrons collide with the helium atoms and excite them to higher energy
levels He2 and He3.

2. The excited He atoms collide with Ne atoms in the ground level Ne1. Then neon atoms
are excited to the higher energy levels Ne4 & Ne6 and helium atoms are de excited to the
ground state He1.

3. Population inversion establishes at three pairs energy levels. The stimulated emission
o
takes place between Ne6 & Ne3 gives a laser light of wave length 6328A and the
stimulated emission between Ne6 and Ne5 gives a laser light wave length of 3.39µm.
Another stimulated emission between Ne4 to Ne3 gives a laser light wave length of
1.15µm.

4. The neon atoms undergo spontaneous emission from Ne3 to Ne2 and Ne5 to Ne2.

5. Finally, the neon atoms are returned to the ground state Ne1 from Ne2 by non-radeative
diffusion and collision process.

6. After arriving to the ground state, once again the neon atoms are raised to Ne6 & Ne4 by
excited helium atoms thus we can get continuous output from He-Ne laser.

Advantages:
1. The output beam have principle wavelength 6328 Ao, which is in visible spectrum (Red
color).
2. Spectral purity is high. (i.e. Highly directional and highly monochromatic).
3. Need not any cooling process.
4. It produces a continuous laser.
Disadvantages:
1. Its intensity is poor and about 100 m watt.

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 Applied Physics Material prepared by Dr. L. Srinivasa Rao VNR VJIET Hyd

8. Briefly, outline the application of lasers.

Laser in Medicine:
1) The heating action of a laser beam used to remove diseased body tissue.
2) Lasers are used for elimination of moles and tumors developing in the skin tissue.
3) Argon and CO2 lasers are used in the treatment liver and lungs.
4) Laser beam (Nd: YAG) is used to correct the retinal detachment by eye specialist.
5) Blood less surgery.
6) Lasers are used to coding the structure of DNA, Jeans and cell in Genetic engineering.
7) Using lasers the internal structure of microorganisms and cells are studied very accurately.
Lasers in Industry: Lasers are used
1) To blast holes in diamonds and hard steel
2) To cut, drill, welding and remove metal from surfaces
3) To measure distance to making maps by surveyors
4) For cutting and drilling of metals and non-metals such a ceramics plastics glass
Lasers in Communication:
1) More amount of data can be sent due to the large band width of semiconductor lasers
2) More channels can be simultaneously transmitted
3) Signals cannot tapped
4) High speed communication
Lasers in Computers: Lasers are used
1) Data transmission in LAN.
2) Recording of CD and DVD.
3) IC design.
4) Laser Printing
Lasers in scientific research
1) Lasers are used to clean delicate pieces of art, develop hidden finger prints.
2) Laser are used in the fields of 3D photography called holography
3) Lasers are used to produce certain chemical reactions.
4) Thermonuclear reactions can be held by producing high temperature (1019 K).
5) Lidar (Light detection and ranging) are used to measure the concentration of
atmospheric pollutants, ozone, water vapor etc. and to estimate the depth of the
minerals in the ocean and height of the air craft’s etc.
6) Separation of isotopes of uranium.
7) Generation of plasma
8) Determination of absolute rotation of earth and planets.
Lasers in disaster management
1) Seismography
2) Fire Detection
3) Intrusion Alarm
General applications of Lasers
1) Laser show.
2) Detect finger prints on cloths, papers etc.
3) Bar coding, Biometry.
4) Determination of fake currency.
5) Laser for Surveying
6) High-Speed Photography (9,000 frames per second)

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 Applied Physics Material prepared by Dr. L. Srinivasa Rao VNR VJIET Hyd

Laser Applications in Defense

1) Death ray weapon in army.
2) Laser Range Finder ((Lidar)
3) Underwater Laser (blue-green lasers)
4) Laser-Guided Anti-Tank Missile (ATM)
5) Ring Laser Gyroscope
6) Air Reconnaissance
7) Anti-Missile Defence System (Star Wars)
8) Laser Proximity Fuze
9) Laser Beacon
10) Weapon Firing Simulator

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