Foundation of Special and Inclusive

Education
Module 1: Definition, Goals, and Scope of Special and Inclusive Education

What is This Module About?

This module provides information about the context in which special
and inclusive education is provided in the Philippines and other countries.
This is divided into four lessons. Lesson 1.1 deals with the definition of
different concepts and terminologies which intends to assist the students to
understand what is currently meant by the very broad term, special and
inclusive education. Lesson 1.2 examines the history and significant people
who made great contributions to the development of special Education. It
also focuses on the highlights in the history of special education in the
Philippines followed by the vision, policy, goal, and objectives of SPED set by
the Department of Education. Lesson 1.3 discusses the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act or IDEA in the USA and the status of special and
inclusive education in other countries.

Lesson 1.1
Ø Definition of Concepts and Terminologies
Introduction
Special Education is the design and delivery of teaching and learning strategies for
individuals with disabilities or learning difficulties who may or may not be enrolled in regular
schools. In this lesson different terminologies are used to describe these type of children. These
are individuals who have hearing impairment or are deaf, students who have vision impairment
or are blind, students with physical disabilities, students with intellectual disability, students with
learning difficulties, students with behavior disorders or emotional disturbance, and students
with speech or language difficulties.
Advocacy groups, and others representing people with disabilities in recent years, have
asked that professionals, the media and schools discontinue the use of disability terminology

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that devalues people with disabilities. People with disabilities do not wish to be known as `a
Down syndrome person’ or `the handicapped’, or by any such term.
They wish to be recognized as valued members of society, that is, people, who have a
disability. People with disabilities therefore prefer terms such as:
a person with a disability
people with disabilities
the child with cerebral palsy
has a physical disability
individual with hearing impairment

The principle to be followed is people first, disability second (Foreman, 2000).

As future teachers are, you will find children with special needs in regular schools. That is why,
you should know what is special and inclusive education is all about.

Source: Inciong, T. G, [Link], (2007). Introduction to Special Education. (Ed 2007). Rex Book Store

What Will You Learn?

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to do the following:
Ø Demonstrate understanding of concepts related to inclusive and special
education that promote supportive learning environment to diverse learners.
Ø Examine the term special and Inclusive education and the role of special
education in education
Ø Distinguish the following basic terms in special education from each other
Ø Explain how special education enables exceptional children to benefit from the
basic education program of the Department of Education

ASYNCHRONOUS (Essential Questions)

Think, analyze, and share your ideas, views, and opinions before engaging in the
lesson. Consider the following questions:
Ø What is the most important thing for me to learn in special and inclusive
Let education?
Ø What elements must be in place for a student with disabilities to receive an
appropriate education in inclusive classrooms?
Ø What are the main objectives of Inclusive Education?
(Discuss with assigned group and share your ideas in your class with your Professor
during the synchronous discussion.)

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q What is Special Education?
Special Education it is an individually planned, systematically implemented and carefully
evaluated instruction to help exceptional children achieve the greatest possible personal self-
sufficiency and success in present and future environments. It can be differentiated from regular
education by its curriculum – some children need intensive, systematic instruction to learn skills
that normally developing children acquire naturally. It provides learning opportunities that aren’t
provided in standard or regular school curricula or by regular school services.
In special education, the child’s individual needs dictate the curriculum. The
individualized programming, which is the core of special education, must be provided in settings
that best meet each student’s special needs. Some exceptional children are taught certain skills
to compensate or reduce the handicapping effects of a disability. The special education
movement supports the preposition that children with disabilities need to be integrated or
included in normal or regular educational services and programs to the extent that it is
reasonable. TEACHING is what Special Education is all about.
Special Education is the design of teaching and learning strategies for individuals with
disabilities or learning difficulties. It is also about attitude, because teachers need a positive
attitude to be effective special educators (that means teachers need a positive attitude to be
good teachers!). Special education is also about understanding the different needs that students
have, including the different types of disability and learning difficulties. Put simply, whenever a
teacher makes any kind of adaptation to their usual program so that they can assist a student
with a special need, that teacher is implementing special education. The most effective teachers
have an attitude that helps them to be successful with all of their students.
Special education is for students with special educational needs. These may be students
who have a general difficulty with some part of their learning at school or who seem to have
difficulty with all kinds of learning. They may be students with a particular disability, such as a
hearing impairment, visual impairment, speech impairment, physical impairment, or intellectual
disability. They may be students with behavior disorders, emotional problems or a medical
condition of one kind or another. Their special need might be permanent or it might be
temporary; this depends on the nature of the need and, to some extent, on what action is taken
by their parents, teachers and other community members. Any student can have a special
educational need at some time or another, and any student can develop a special need. This is
why it is sometimes said that special education is for all students.
Indeed, all of your students will learn when you find the right way to teach them. Will you
agree, that all your students will learn if you find the right way to teach them? Do not blame your
students for not learning. Do not exclude students who don’t learn well. Examine your strategy,
and try to modify it so that it works better. Students’ success is your success.
Let’s Read
q What is Inclusive Education?
Inclusive education is the process of addressing and responding to the range of needs of
all learners through increasing participation in learning, cultures, and communities, and reducing
exclusion from education and from within education (UNESCO). Inclusion describes the method

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by which a faculty accepts children with special needs for enrolment in regular classes where
they'll learn side by side with their peers. The institution organizes its education program and
includes a SPED teacher in its faculty. The college provides the mainstream where regular
teachers and education teachers organize and implement appropriate programs for both special
and regular students.
In the Philippines, Inclusive education is the core principle of the K to 12 Basic Education
Program. This promotes the right of every Filipino to quality, equitable, culture-based and
complete basic education. Through inclusive education, all Filipinos will realize their full potential
and contribute meaningfully to building the nation Inclusive education embraces the philosophy
of accepting all children regardless of race, size, shape, color, ability or disability with support
from school staff, students, parents and the community
The adoption of an Inclusive Education (IE) approach is the heart of the country's
educational system is mandated by the 1987 Philippine Constitution, the Child and Youth
Welfare Code (PD 603), the Special Protection of Children Against Child Abuse, Exploitation
and Discrimination Act (RA 7610), the Early Years Act (RA 10410). Inclusive education
embraces the philosophy of accepting all children regardless of race, size, shape, color, ability
or disability with support from school staff, students, parents and the community.
In the Philippines, every child with special needs has the basic right for inclusion to
education, rehabilitation, support services, work training and employment opportunities,
community participation and independent living. Inclusive education’s provision is anchored on
the philosophy that all children and youth with special needs must receive an appropriate
education and everything within the system. All kinds of children have the freedom and
guarantee to get education along with other children regardless of human differences (DepEd,
1999, p. 2).
There are specific legal mandates of inclusive education in the Philippines. In 1990, The
World Declaration on Education for All (EFA) held in Jomtien, Thailand has given primacy for an
expanded vision and renewed commitment by providing basic education to all children, youth
and adults.
In 1994, The World Conference on Special Needs Education held in Salamanca, Spain
has recognized the necessity and urgency of providing education for children, youth and adults
with special education needs within the regular educational system.
It has the following principles:
1) Every child has a fundamental right to education and must be given the opportunity
to achieve and maintain an acceptable level of learning;
2) Every child has unique characteristics, interest, abilities and learning needs;
3) Educational system should be designed and educational programs implemented are
to take into account the wide diversity of their characteristics and needs.

From 1993 to 2002, The Agenda for Action of Asian and Pacific Decade of Disabled
Persons declares that all children and young people have the right to education, equality of
opportunities and participation in society. From 1990 to 2000, The Philippine Action Plan in
Support of EFA has focused its policies and strategies to specific groups of people which
include the rural poor, those in the urban slums, cultural communities, the disabled, the
educationally disadvantaged as well as the gifted. Lastly, the Republic Act 7277 or Magna
Carta for the Disabled Persons, enacted in 1991 and approved in 1995 affirms the full
participation and total integration of persons with disabilities into the mainstream of society.
This symbolizes the independence and respect for them as citizens that must also be given
equal opportunities to develop their skills and potentials and must be afforded equal access to
the services of the government (DepEd, 1999, pp. 2-3).

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UDY
Inclusive education talks about the students, regardless of the different challenges that
they encounter, and the placed in age-appropriate general education classes at the school in
their place to receive high-quality instruction, interventions, and supports that enable them to
meet success in the core curriculum (Bui, Quirk, Almazan, & Valenti, 2010; Alquraini & Gut,
2012).

The school and classroom function on the basis that students with disabilities are as
essentially competent as students without disabilities. Therefore, all students can be full
participants in their classrooms and in the local school community. Much of the movement is
related to legislation that students receive their education in the least restrictive environment
(LRE). This means they are with their peers without disabilities to the maximum degree
possible, with general education the placement of first choice for all students (Alquraini & Gut,
2012).

Successful inclusive education happens primarily through accepting, understanding, and

attending to student differences and diversity, which can include physical, cognitive, academic,
social, and emotional. This is not to say that students never need to spend time out of regular
education classes, because sometimes they do for a very particular purpose — for instance, for
speech or occupational therapy. But the goal is this should be the exception.

The driving principle is to make all students feel welcomed, appropriately challenged,
and supported in their efforts. It’s also critically important that the adults are supported, too. This
includes the regular education teacher and the special education teacher, as well as all other
staff and faculty who are key stakeholders — and that also includes parents. (McManis, 2020)

Let’s READ

Special and Inclusive Education Terminology

People with disabilities do not wish to be seen as the object of a punishment or blight, or
as victims, either. Nor do they wish to be seen as continually suffering or in need of sympathy.
They don’t like terms such as `suffers from’, `afflicted with’, `physical problem’, etc. They
prefer their disability to be referred to as something that they just have. Foreman (2000, p.21)
provides a list of suggested terms:
The World Health Organization (1980) determined the following definitions, which have
been generally accepted throughout the world:

q impairment
an abnormality in the way organs or systems function e.g., a medical condition, eye
disease, a heart problem
q disability
the functional consequence of an impairment e.g., an intellectual disability due to brain
impairment; low vision; deafness
q handicap

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 the social or environmental consequence of a disability e.g., a person with a wheelchair
is not handicapped when paths and buildings are wheelchair accessible
In writing and speaking about, and with, people with disabilities, whether they are young
or old, it is most important to use appropriate terminology. Firstly, it demonstrates to all that we
value people with disabilities as members of our society. Secondly, it educates those who read
and hear what we say, about appropriate terminology, and therefore gives them an opportunity
too, to help develop and promote positive, inclusive and equitable values.

Source: [Link]
[Link]

Other Terminologies/Concepts in Special and Inclusive Education

q Special Education as Intervention
- Intervention is a general name for all efforts in behalf of individuals with disabilities
- The goal of SPED is to eliminate or at least reduce the obstacles that might keep a child
or adult with disabilities from full and active participation in school and society
q Preventive Techniques
- Most effective when started early even before birth
- Social and educational programs to stimulate infants and very young children to acquire
skills that most children learn normally and without help

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q Remedial Programs
- Remediation and rehabilitation
- Teaching a person with disabilities basic skills for independence – may be academic
(reading, writing, speaking, math), social (following instructions, routines, schedules,
getting along with other children, behaving) or even personal (feeding, dressing,
toileting)
- Vocational rehabilitation – preparation for work; habits and attitudes, programs that help
people succeed in normal settings
q Compensatory Efforts
- Giving a kind of substitute skill or device to rely on to compensate for a person’s
disability (e.g., use of wheelchair, Braille, sign language)
- Aims to give an individual some kind of asset to be able to use tools and techniques for
meeting learning needs

q At-Risk
Children who have not been formally identified as having a disability but who may be
developing conditions that will limit their success in school or lead to disabilities
q Developmental Delay
Developmentally delayed or at risk for future problems in school.
Children who do not have to be identified with any disability label. However, they are
considered to have a high probability of developing a disability. Use a generic category
(e.g. children with disabilities, children with special needs, developmentally delayed, and
at-risk).

Let’s MEET Activity 1.1

ASYNCHRONOUS (Activity 1.1)

Go to My Supplementary Materials / Required Readings Packet via Google
Classroom.

Let’s meet Giwi and Embosa (p.6). Read the vignettes about them. Take a look at
how they are assessed at home and at school. In the case of Benjamin (p.13),
examine how traditional beliefs affect Benjamin and how parents support his
disability.
Link: [Link]
[Link]
(Share your reflection in your class with your Professor during the synchronous
discussion)

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Let’s Try This (Activity 1.2)
Go to your My Activity via Google Classroom. Read the following questions carefully and
choose the one best answer out of the four choices given.

1. It is an individually planned, systematically implemented and carefully evaluated instruction

A. Special Education C. Magna Carta for Disabled Person
B. Implemented Curriculum D. Individualized Education Program

2. Which is not true about Special Education?

A. It can be differentiated from regular education by its curriculum
B. Some exceptional children are taught certain skills to compensate or reduce the
handicapping effects of a disability
C. The parent’s individual needs/requests dictate the curriculum
D. It helps exceptional children achieve the greatest possible personal self-sufficiency

3. Social and educational programs to stimulate infants and very young children to acquire skills
that most children learn normally and without help
A. Remedial programs C. Compensatory efforts
B. Preventive techniques D. Special Education as Intervention

4. Teaching a person with disabilities basic skills for independence – may be academic, social,
or even personal.
A. Remedial programs C. Compensatory efforts
B. Preventive techniques D. Special Education as Intervention

5. It refers to problems a person with disability or impairment encounters in interacting with the
environment
A. Disability C. Developmental delay
B. At-Risk D. Handicap

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Let’s RESEARCH and UNDERSTAND ( Activity 1.3)

ASYNCHRONOUS (ACTIVITY 1.3)

Go to My Supplementary Materials / Required Readings Packet via Google

Classroom. Read the article “Who Are Exceptional Children or Children and Youth
with Special Needs?” Link: [Link]

In a five sentence paragraph , answer the questions that follow:

In what ways is special and inclusive education:
•A legislatively government enterprise?
•A part of basic education?
•The process of teaching children with special education needs?
Submit your answer to your MY ACTIVITY via Google Classroom

Source: Inciong, T. G, [Link], (2007). Introduction to Special Education. (Ed 2007). Rex Book
Store

Lesson 1.2 Vision, Policy, Goal, and Objectives of Special and Inclusive
SEducation in the Philippines

Lesson 1.2

Ø Vision, Policy, Goal and Objectives of Special and Inclusive Education in

the Philippines
Introduction
The Department of Education clearly states its vision for children with special needs in
consonance with the philosophy of inclusive education, thus:
"The State, community and family hold a common vision for the Filipino child with special
needs. By the 21st century, it is envisioned that he/she could be adequately provided with basic
education. This education should fully realize his/her own potentials for development and
productivity as well as being capable of self-expression of his/her rights in society. More
importantly, he/she is God-loving and proud of being a Filipino.”
It is also envisioned that the child with special needs will get full parental and community
support for his/her education without discrimination of any kind. This special child should also be
provided with a healthy environment along with leisure and recreation and social security
measures" (Department of Education Handbook on Inclusive Education, 2000).
The policy on Inclusive Education for All is adopted in the Philippines to accelerate
access to education among children and youth with special needs. Inclusive education forms an
integral component of the overall educational system that is committed to an appropriate
education for all children and youth with special needs.

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The goal of the special education program of the Department of Education all over the country is
to provide children with special needs appropriate educational services within the mainstream of
basic education.
The two-pronged goal includes the development of key strategies on legislation, human
resource development, family involvement and active participation of government and non-
government organizations. Likewise, there are major issues to address on attitudinal barriers of
the general public and effort towards the institutionalization and sustainability of special
education programs and services.

What Will You Learn?

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to do the following:
Ø Demonstrate understanding of concepts related to inclusive and special
education that promote supportive learning environment to diverse learners.
Ø Discuss the current status of special education in the country and its implication
on special and inclusive education programs for learners with special needs.

Let’s THINK and SHARE

ASYNCHRONOUS (Essential Questions)

Think analyze, and share your ideas, views, and opinions before engaging in the lesson.
Consider the following questions:
Ø What is the vision for children with special needs?
Ø What are the goals and objectives of Special and Inclusive Education?
Ø Discuss the policy of inclusive education for All
(Discuss and share your ideas in your class with your Professor during the synchronous
discussion.)
Let’s READ

DepEd’s Vision for Children with Special Needs

The Department of Education clearly states its vision for children with special needs in
consonance with the philosophy of inclusive education, thus:

"The State, community and family hold a common vision for the Filipino child with special
needs. By the 21st century, it is envisioned that he/she could be adequately provided with basic
education. This education should fully realize his/her own potentials for development and

10
productivity as well as being capable of self-expression of his/her rights in society. More
importantly, he/she is God-loving and proud of being a Filipino.”
It is also envisioned that the child with special needs will get full parental and community
support for his/her education without discrimination of any kind. This special child should also be
provided with a healthy environment along with leisure and recreation and social security
measures" (Department of Education Handbook on Inclusive Education, 2000).

Policy, Goal and Objectives of Special Education

The policy on Inclusive Education for All is adopted in the Philippines to accelerate
access to education among children and youth with special needs. Inclusive education forms an
integral component of the overall educational system that is committed to an appropriate
education for all children and youth with special needs.
The goal of the special education program of the Department of Education all over the
country is to provide children with special needs appropriate educational services within the
mainstream of basic education. The two-pronged goal includes the development of key
strategies on legislation, human resource development, family involvement and active
participation of government and non-government organizations. Likewise, there are major
issues to address on attitudinal barriers of the general public and effort towards the
institutionalization and sustainability of special education programs and services.
Special education aims to:
1. provide a flexible and individualized support system for children and youth with special
needs in a regular class environment in schools nearest the students' home.
2. provide support services, vocational programs and work training, employment
opportunities for efficient community participation and independent living
3. implement a life-long curriculum to include early intervention and parent education, basic
education and transition programs on vocational training or preparation for college.
4. make an available array of educational programs and services:
- the Special Education Center built on a “a school within a school concept” as the
resource center for children and youth with special needs;
- inclusive education in regular schools, special and residential schools, home-bound
instruction, hospital instruction and community-based programs;
- alternative modes of service delivery to reach the advantaged children in far-flung
towns, depressed areas and underserved barangays.
The past decades saw the continuous development of special education programs
for a wide range of exceptional children and youth; those with intellectual disability,
giftedness and talent, crippling conditions, behavior problems, severe disabilities and
physical impairments. The then Philippine Normal College and the University of the
Philippines, both state tertiary institutions, continue to work hand in hand with the
department of Education enhance the professionalization of special education
through their teacher
training program
The scope, policies and guidelines shall apply to all schools, centers and classes
(national or local, public or private, formal or non-formal) established under the educational
system of the Philippines for the education of the learners with special needs.
The state shall promote the right of every individual to relevant quality education
regardless of sex, age, creed, socio-economic status, physical and mental condition, social or
ethnic origin, political and other affiliation. The state shall therefore promote and maintain
equality of access to education as well as the enjoyment of the benefits of education by all its
citizens (BP Blg.232).

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 Every learner with special needs has a right to an education program that is suitable to
his needs. Special education shares with regular education basic responsibilities of the
educational system to fulfill the right of the child to develop his potential.
The ultimate goal of special education shall be the integration or mainstreaming of
learners with special needs into the regular school system and eventually into the community
The objective, therefore of special and inclusive education is to provide equal
opportunities for all learners with special needs to acquire the knowledge, skills and values
necessary for them to adapt to a changing world develop life skills in all learners to ensure their
active and sustained participation in the learning process through relevant programs, projects
and enabling policies

Is It Correct to Use Disability Category Labels?

Labeling is the process of identifying that a student qualifies eligibility criteria for special
education services. The label may refer to students with disabilities. Labeling may offer comfort
to children and families for it may lead to government and local funding and other resources,
which can be used for special education programs and interventions to better serve
the children with special needs. However, there are pressing issues at present regarding some
drawbacks and objections to labeling children with disabilities.
To learn more about labeling, explore more about this topic. Let us go to the next
activity.

ASYNCHRONOUS (ACTIVITY 1.2.1)

Go to My Supplementary Materials / Required12Readings Packet via Google
Classroom.: Read the article, “Labelling and Eligibility for Special Education”
link: [Link]/dnqBZ . Answer the questions that follow:
Source: Source: Heward, W.L. (2003). Exceptional Children: An Introduction to Special
Education(10thEdition).Retrieved
from:[Link]
exceptional_children_by_william_l._hewa

’s Study

Transition Program
Transition program was created since it is included in the Policies and Guidelines in Special
Education in the Philippines, however, it was focused only on adult learners with special needs.
Transition program was viewed as a coordinated set of activities for a student designed within
an outcome-oriented process that promotes movement from school to out-of-school activities.
Quijano (2007) presented the Philippine Model of Transition that focuses on enabling
every special learner for community involvement and employment.

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 The model envisions full participation, empowerment, and productivity of those enrolled
in the program. The transition program includes 3 curriculum domains:
(1) Daily Living Skills
- include competencies on managing, selecting and maintaining living
environment, caring for personal health, developing and maintaining intimate
relationship, eating at home and in the community, cleaning and purchasing
clothing, participating in leisure or recreational activities, and getting around the
community.
(2) Personal and Social Skills
- focus on achieving self-awareness, acquiring self-confidence, achieving socially
responsible behavior, maintaining good interpersonal skills, achieving
independence, making informed and adequate decisions, and communicating
with others.
(3) Occupational Guidance and Preparation
- covers competencies like exploring and locating occupational training and job
placement opportunities, making occupational training and job placement
choices, applying for and maintaining occupational training and job placements,
developing and maintaining appropriate work skills and behavior, and matching
physical and manual skills to occupational training and employment. Each of the
domains has competency rating scale which evaluates mastery of the
competencies learned.

This model necessitates the need for support from professionals and other key people in
the community in order for the individual with special needs to attain independent living.
The Transition Program in the Philippines could be expanded to many different possible
points of entry that would extend the scope of transition program from young children to adults.
These may include the following examples:

1. Transition to school life – may include children and adult special learners who would
like to attend or who have been assessed to be ready for regular school under the inclusion
program. This may also include students who would like to learn basic literacy programs under
the Alternative Learning System.
2. Transition after post-secondary schooling – includes programs that will prepare
special learners for vocational courses and on-the-job trainings. It may also include programs
that will help students go to higher education if possible.
3. Transition from school to entrepreneurship – includes programs that will allow special
learners to become entrepreneurs in their respective communities.
4. Transition from school to adult life – includes programs that will allow students to
adjust and adapt to adult life.
5. Transition to Functional Life – includes learning of life skills that will allow the special
learners to learn how to take care of themselves and develop some special skills that they can
use every day.

Through classroom and community-based activities, the TEP aims to foster

independence in the areas of personal and home management,
social and communication skills, functional literacy, work and leisure. It incorporates pertinent

14
principles and techniques of special education, occupational and speech therapy. It is
composed of the following subjects:

These entry points for students are important for planning an effective and efficient
transition program that is truly relevant and responsive to the needs, interests, abilities, and
aspirations of special learners. Transition at any point is an important program to empower
special learners to experience normal lives.

The transition program aims to realize the aim of the K to 12 basic education program of
producing holistically developed and functionally literate Filipino learners in the context of
special education. This qualifies it as an organic part of the K to12 curriculum by providing both
academic and extra-curricular support systems to all special learners.

Source : Quijano, Y. (2007). Transition program: A Philippine model. Proceedings of the 18th
Asian Conference on Mental Retardation, November 18-23, 2007, Taipei, Taiwan.

Let’s TRY This Activity 1.2.2

Go to your My Activity via Google Classroom. Read the following questions carefully and
choose the one best answer out of the four choices given.

1. A tenth-grade student with specific learning disability tells her special education
teacher that she wants to find a job after graduation that allows her to work with
animals. Which of the following would be the special education teacher’s best initial
step in collaborating with the student to support this long-term goal?

A. Providing the student with course catalogues from a variety of agricultural

colleges and universities

B. Encouraging the student to write a list of the pros and cons of a career that
involves working with animals

C. Having the students complete an interest inventory that will help her define
her objectives more specifically

D. Advising the student to take as many science classes as possible while she
is in high school

2. A team that includes personnel from several community agencies will be facilitating
the transition of a high school student with cerebral palsy from school to

15
 independent living. Which of the following conditions is most critical to effective
communication and collaboration between the student, agency personnel, special
education staff, and others on the team?

A. Designation of one individual as team leader who has final authority in

decisions

B. Similar backgrounds and experiences among team members

C. Regular opportunities for the team to meet, discuss ideas, and develop

D. Overnight of team discussions and processes by a neutral party

3. An Individualized Education Program (IEP) team will be developing a transition plan

for a ninth-grade student who has specific learning disabilities and attention-deficit/
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Which of the following steps should the team take
first in supporting a successful transition for this student?
A. Identifying long-term postsecondary goals for the student’s transition into
community living

B. Assessing the student’s individual interest, preferences, and level of supports

needed

C. Determining how to measure the student’s progress toward transition goals

D. Assessing the student’s need for assistive technology related to employment

or postsecondary education

4. A special education teacher is planning an initial discussion about post school

transition with a 14-year-old student and her parents. Which of the following factors
would likely be most important to consider in the context of this discussion?

A. The number of local organizations that offer the possibility of future

B. The student’s current level of knowledge about the skills needed for various jobs

C. The types of vocational training that are available at the school

D. The family’s values and expectations regarding the student’s adult life

5. A 16-year-old high school student with a mild intellectual disability will soon transition
into a vocational learning environment within the community. As part of this transition,
the special education teacher plans to assess the student’s functional reading ability,
ability to use a telephone, and ability to use local public transportation. This
assessment would best help the teacher determine the student’s level of:

16
 A. Aptitude

B. Intellectual functioning

C. Adaptive behavior

D. Interest

ASYNCHRONOUS
Let’s Think and Reflect (Activity 1.2.3)
Go to your Google Classroom and reflect on the following issues. Submit your ten
sentence paragraph reflective writing to your My Reflection Journal via Google
Classroom.
What is the status of special education programs in your community? What do you think
will be the future of the children with special needs when they leave school? In your
own way, how can you be of help to these children with exceptionalities?
_________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Let’s Think_______________________________________________________________
and Reflect (Activity 1.2.3)

1.3. Special and Inclusive Education in the USA and other countries

Lesson 1.3
Lesson 3.1.1
Ø Special and Inclusive Education in the USA and other countries

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The IDEA (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act)
In the United States, there is a landmark piece of legislation enacted in 1975 that change
the face of SPED. Public Law 94-142 or the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
has changed the American system education. It has affected every school in the country and
has changed the roles of regular and special education teachers, school administrators, parents
and others in the educational. The IDEA provides children with qualifying disabilities, from birth
to age 21, with the right to a free public education that is specifically designed to meet their
unique, individual needs. Some important concepts carried over from the Education for All
Handicapped Children Act, passed in 1975.
The IDEA is written in three parts: A, B and C.
Part A describes the general goals and purpose of the law. The right of a child with
disabilities to receive an education that prepares that child for adult life is stated in Part A:
“Disability is a natural part of the human experience and in no way diminishes the right of
individuals to participate in or contribute to society…
“Improving educational results for children with disabilities is an essential element of our
national policy of ensuring equality of opportunity, full participation, independent living, and
economic self-sufficiency for individuals with disabilities.”
Part B of the IDEA covers children ages 3 through 21—or until graduation from high
school. Students who receive services through an Individualized Education Program (IEP)
are covered under Part B.
Part C protects children Birth to age 3 who need family support for early learning. The
disability category of developmental delay overlaps early learning and IEP and can qualify a
child for free, family-focused services to age 3 and school-based services through age 8.

The basic requirements of IDEA for all IEPs include statements of:
1. the child's present level of performance, academic achievement, social adaptation,
prevocational and vocational skills, psychomotor skills, and self-help skills;
2. annual goals describing the educational performance to be achieved by the end of each
school year;
3. short-term instructional objectives presented in measurable, intermediate steps between
the present level of educational performance and the annual goals;
4. specific educational services; and
5. needed transition services from age 16 or earlier before the student leaves the school
setting.

To qualify for an IEP, a student meets criteria in one of the IDEA’s 14 disability
categories:
1. Autism: 8. Orthopedic Impairment
2. Emotional Disturbance 9. Hearing Impairment
3. Specific Learning Disability 10. Deaf blindness
4. Other Health Impairment (OHI) 11. Deafness
5. Speech/Language Impairment. 12. Visual Impairment/Blindness
6. Multiple Disabilities 13. Traumatic Brain Injury
7. Intellectual Disability 14. Developmental Delay (ages 0-8)

Educational evaluations ask 3 key questions

18
 The disability must have an adverse impact on learning. Not every student who has a
disability and receives an evaluation will qualify for an IEP. Following procedures described by
the IDEA, school districts evaluate students to consider 3 key questions:
1. Does the student have a disability?
2. Does the disability adversely impact education?
3. Does the student need Specially Designed Instruction (SDI)?
When each answer is yes, a student qualifies for services. In each area of eligibility,
specialized instruction is recommended to help the student overcome the impact of the disability
in order to access FAPE.

IDEA’s Primary Principles:

1. Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE): Students with disabilities who need a
special kind of teaching or other help have the right to an education that is not only free
but also “appropriate,” designed just for them. Under IDEA rules, schools provide special
education students with “access to FAPE,” so that’s a common way to talk about
whether the student’s program is working.
2. Appropriate Evaluation: The IDEA requires schools to take a closer look at children
with potential disabilities. There are rules about how quickly those evaluations get done.
The results provide information that the school and parents use to make decisions about
how the child’s education can be improved.
3. Individualized Education Program (IEP): An IEP is a dynamic program, not a packet
of paper. The document that describes a student’s special education program is carefully
written and needs to be reviewed at least once a year by a team that includes school
staff and parents/guardians. Every student on an IEP gets some extra help from
teachers, but the rest of the program depends on what a student needs to learn.
Learning in school isn’t just academic subjects. Schools also help students learn social
and emotional skills and general life skills. By age 16, an IEP includes a plan for life
beyond high school, and helping the student make a successful transition into life after
high school becomes a primary goal of the IEP.
4. Least Restrictive Environment (LRE): The IDEA says that students should be in class
with non-disabled classmates “to the maximum extent appropriate.” That means that
regular classrooms and school spaces are first choice as the “least restrictive” places. If
the school has provided extra help in the classroom but the special education student
still struggles to be successful, then the IEP team considers other options, such as a
structured learning classroom. The school explains placement and LRE in writing on the
IEP document.
5. Parent and Student Participation: The IDEA and state regulations about IEP team
membership make it clear that parents or legal guardians are equal partners with school
staff in making decisions about their student’s education. When the student turns 18,
educational decision-making is given to the student. The school does its best to bring
parents and students into the meetings, and there are specific rules about how the
school provides written records and meeting notices.
6. Procedural Safeguards: The school provides parents with a written copy of their rights
at referral and yearly thereafter. A copy of the procedural safeguards is available online
from the Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction (OSPI), the guidance agency for
Washington schools. Parents may receive procedural safeguards from the school any
time they request them. They also may receive a copy if they file a Citizen Complaint or
Due Process. Procedural safeguards are offered when a school removes a student for
more than 10 days in a school year as part of a disciplinary action. When parents and
schools disagree, these rights describe the actions that a parent can take informally or
formally

19
Reference: [Link]

Let’s STUDY

Special Education in Other Countries

The following section provides a brief overview of special education systems in various
countries. Special education systems are constantly evolving around the world; therefore, it is
important to be up to date with the most current systems employed.

Brazil
The Ministry of Education is responsible for national policies of special education in
Brazil. Special education includes groups of individuals with specific behavior patterns (problem
behavior) and those with special skills (gifted individuals). There is a range of services for
individuals with disabilities from nursery-level programs to higher education. Brazil has shifted
its Special Educational Model from one of exclusion to inclusion.
In the Brazilian school system, there have been limited special considerations made for
children with disabilities or learning difficulties in the state school system. Schools may
recognize disabilities and learning difficulties and make accommodations or arrangements for
special classes. In the private school system, most institutions recognize the need for
accommodations and special classes for individuals with special education needs. They also
provide referrals to other schools with better accommodations to meet the needs of individual
children. It is a constitutional right for children with special educational needs to be integrated
into the mainstream classroom.
With the shift towards inclusion, there has been increased access to regular public
education for individuals with special needs. The curriculum is modified to accommodate
individuals with special needs and is expanded to reflect local possibilities. At the age of 14,
educational programs shift depending on the educational achievements or an individual's
potential. They may be enrolled in workshops or pre-vocational training.

China
In China the Ministry of Education is appointed to license teachers, standardize the
curriculum, and supervise the education system. China boasts various types of schools.
Education is compulsory, however local tuition fees and taxes are common. Children must
attend school for nine years. Attendance through primary and middle school is high in the
country with the main language of instruction being Mandarin.
There are schools and vocational training centers for children with special needs in
China. However, mainstream schools are able to accommodate special needs students.
Mainstream schools often have special classrooms or classes to help those with different
needs. Children with special needs are encouraged to complete their years of education and
reach the standards to graduate.
The Chinese government is providing more money and services to help to alleviate this
statistic. The government is working to provide more schools for special education, especially in
more rural areas. Social views on special education are slowly changing here as well. In less

20
developed areas often families don’t see the need to educate their child with a disability.
However, inclusive education is gaining strength in the country.

Mexico
In the 1990s Mexico moved towards an inclusive education model. This changed the
role of the special education teacher to assist mainstream teachers within their classrooms to
provide appropriate accommodations for children with special needs. It is required by law for
individuals with disabilities to be served and provided education through the mainstream
classroom, which in Mexico is called “educational integration.”
Currently, special education is not focused on specific disabilities of children, rather they
use an all-encompassing approach to look at all factors of a child (home, school, community,
learning style etc.) that may impact a child. Students are put into five categories following
assessment of special needs

Saudi Arabia
The Ministry of Education, along with the Ministry of Higher Education heads the
educational system in Saudi Arabia. The Ministry of Education is further divided into divisions for
male and female education. The Ministry develops the curriculum, which focuses on Islamic
education and is taught primarily in Arabic. In state schools English is taught beginning in the
fourth grade and in private schools beginning in Kindergarten. Foreign children rarely are
allowed to enroll in state run schools and must enroll in international schools.
In Saudi Arabia schools, are separated for male and female students with each
occupying separate facilities. This often includes parents of the same gender only being allowed
to enter the school of their same gendered child.
Students with special education needs are allowed to enroll in public, private, or
international schools if their academics are consistent with their age matched peers. If this is not
the case the student may attend a private school. However, these schools are typically only
located in the largest cities. Causing children outside of this area to lack the necessary services
for education.

South Africa
Schooling in South Africa is compulsory for children between the ages of 7 and 15 years
old. South Africa has 11 official languages, however, schooling is often conducted in English or
Afrikaans. All children are entitled to this basic education as defined in the constitution in 1996.
The quality of state sponsored education varies greatly. Under the apartheid schools
were segregated with schools serving white students receiving the most funding. Today, these
traditionally “white schools” are still considered the best for education, teachers and facilities.
In 2001 The Inaugural White Paper stated that all people, children and adults, have the
potential to learn, given the necessary support. The paper however pointed out that the current
system did not have the capacity to recognize and accommodate the diverse range of learning
needs. Focus was then shifted to screening, identification, assessment and support.
Secondarily, guidelines to assist teachers in planning for, and supporting students with special
needs were implemented. The White Paper did include conditions to segregate within “special
schools” on the basis of race and disability.
South Africa has three main types of schools: public, private and “special schools”. The
“special schools” are for children with significant cognitive or physical handicaps. Parents of
children with special needs are often tasked with fighting the system to get their child into a
mainstream school, even with the laws requiring a basic education for all. Inclusion is not
something that is highly available for children that may require more assistance.

United Kingdom

21
 There is a European trend towards integration for children with special educational
needs. Schools and educational providers are required to increase access for children with
special education needs and that any accommodations made for children does not lead to
discrimination.
Schools for children with special education needs may be broad or specific in the range
of children who attend them (e.g., range of learning disabilities and physical disabilities vs.
autism diagnosis specific). These schools are no longer under the local authority and are now
considered academies allowing them flexibility in the curriculum and the rates of teachers pay.
School or other educational providers must accept those with disabilities without discrimination,
harassment and victimization. They are required to make fair adjustments to ensure children
with special education needs and disabilities are not discriminated against.
The United Kingdom Children’s and Families Act was created to aid families in
understanding and accessing the support available to them for a variety of services, which
includes children with special needs between the ages of 0-25 years. For children with special
education needs the act ensures a child’s educational, health and social care services work
together. It helps families understand their child’s delay or disability and what services they have
access to. Children and their families are to have more choice in the help they receive. The
councils need to determine if a child has special education needs or if they have a disability.
Children should be given an overall assessment, which leads to a plan to address their
educational, health and social care needs.

Source: [Link]
education-around-the-world

22
Let’s Think and Reflect (Activity 1.2.4)
Go to your My Reflection Journal via Google Classroom. Write a one paragraph
reflection/comparative analysis on the following issues:
Compared to the special education system in the developed countries like in USA, do
you think that the schools in the Philippines or in any Southeast Asian country face more
challenges or difficulties? What do you think are these challenges?
______________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________.

What is This Module About?

In this module, you will learn about the Legal Bases and Policies of Special
and Inclusive Education. This is divided into four lessons. Lesson 1 talks about the
Psychological Bases and the different Leaning Theories. Lesson 2 deals with
Philosophical, Historical, and Sociological Bases. Lesson 3 discusses the Legal
Bases and Policies of the Special Education in the Philippines. The last lesson
talks about the Principles, Dimensions, and Policies and Guidelines of Special
Education in the Philippines.

Module 2: Bases and Policies of Special and Inclusive Education

23
Lesson 2.1 Psychological Bases

Lesson 2.1
Ø Psychological Bases
Introduction
The purpose of theory is to bring form, coherence, and meaning to what we observe in the real
world, in the world of children with special needs. In this lesson, developmental psychology
offers an important for understanding learning disabilities. The investigations of the complex
problems of learning disabilities. The theories generated in the field of learning disabilities also
have significant applications in other areas of special education and in general education. We
now turn our attention to the three major theories in psychology and their implications for
learning disabilities: developmental psychology, behavioral psychology, and cognitive
psychology.

WHAT WILL YOU LEARN?

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to do the following:

Ø Examine theories of learning and give its implication to teaching.
Ø Discuss developmental psychology as it applies to learning disabilities.
Ø Discuss the basic concepts of cognitive psychology and how can these be
translated into teaching students with learning disabilities.

Let’s Think and Share

ASYNCHRONOUS (Essential Questions)

Think analyze, and share your ideas, views, and opinions before engaging in the lesson.
Consider the following questions:
Ø What are the basic assumptions of Piaget’s cognitive theory and how do they apply
to the study of learning by students with disabilities.
Ø What can we learn from the work of Piaget and Vygotsky to help us understand
leaner with special needs?
Ø Discuss developmental psychology as it applies to learning disabilities.
(Discuss and share your ideas in your class with your Professor during your synchronous
discussion.)

24
2.1 A Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development

Piaget's (1936) theory of cognitive development explains how a child constructs a mental
model of the world. He disagreed with the idea that intelligence was a fixed trait, and regarded
cognitive development as a process which occurs due to biological maturation and interaction
with the environment. His theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire
knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence. For Piaget, cognitive
development was an aspect of children's adaptation to their physical and social environment in
order to survive. Over time, exposure to new features of the environment led to further
adaptation. Piaget understood children's cognitive development as linear, progressing through
four increasingly complex stages towards mature thinking.

These stages are:

1. Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years
2. Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7
3. Concrete operational stage: ages 7 to 11
4. Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up
Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting much like
little scientists as they perform experiments, make observations, and learn about the world. As
kids interact with the world around them, they continually add new knowledge, build upon
existing knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to accommodate new information.
Piaget's theory, applied to special populations, assumes that all children, disabled and
nondisabled, proceed through the same invariant sequence of stages using the same processes
of schema, assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration.

2.1.B Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Alfred Bandura was a mid-20th-century child psychologist who proposed the theory of
social learning and developed the concept of self-efficacy. His theory provides a basis upon
which one can evaluate learning through the lens of our social interactions with others. His
work stands in contrast to theorists who argued that only reward and punishment influence
behavior; instead, Bandura argued that a complex network of social interactions could affect
behavior, beliefs and impulses. While Bandura did not directly address behavioral disorders
such as Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), his work can be applied to
students with ADHD, offering guidance about how to help these students achieve.

25
 In his theory, he identified three (3) basic models of observational learning:
1. A live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a behavior.
2. A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and explanations of a behavior.
3. A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviors in
books, films, television programs, or online media.
The necessary conditions required for effective social/observational learning include:
1. Attention
2. Retention
3. Reproduction
4. Motivation

Attention Deficit and hyperactivity Disorder

ADHD can interfere with social learning. Children with the disorder are often hyper and
distracted, which limits their ability to notice and emulate role models. They may also have
trouble interacting with other kids and special education programs sometimes remove children
with severe ADHD from traditional environments, which means that their peers -- after whom
they often model their behavior -- end up being only other children with learning disabilities.
ADHD can also interfere with self-efficacy, particularly when a child believes or is told that he
can't control his own behavior.

Implications
Parents and educators should take extra steps to model the behavior they want to see in
children with ADHD, rather than focusing solely on correcting behavior. Teaching children basic
skills and encouraging independence and autonomy can help kids with learning disorders
develop self-efficacy. This sense of self-efficacy can encourage them to take control of their
ADHD by developing healthy coping mechanisms, following treatment plans and improving
impulse control.

Let’s STUDY

2.1.C. Lev Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism

Vygotsky emphasized children's learning is socially and culturally mediated through

interactions with adults and peers with a higher skill level. His key ideas included:
1. Mediated learning;
2. Tools of the mind;
3. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD);
4. Dynamic assessment.
Vygotsky’s contribution of the idea of zone of proximal development to the study of
developmental psychology has had a significant impact on the teaching of students with
disabilities. His interest in the role of social environment on learning is very relevant to the
current practices in the instruction of students receiving special education supports and

26
services. Vygotsky viewed disabilities as biological and social “abnormality”. He argued that
differences in an individual’s biological make-up only become “abnormal” when brought into the
social context. In the case of students with neurological processing differences or attention
issues, for example, the concept of a “disability” does not come into play until the student is
unable to behave and perform like the typical peer in the social context of the school
environment. For individuals who are deaf living within the DEAF community where the
common language is American Sign Language, there is no perceived disability. However,
outside of that context, if the individual has no alternative way of communicating with the
hearing population, he/she would be perceived as disabled.
Vygotsky views this social perception as the primary disability. His proposal for
instruction was mainly to provide a quality of life that included appropriate and varied social
interactions and relationships, adequate and timely methods of education that develop
“alternative but equivalent roads for cultural development”. We maintain this paradigm in the
structure of special education today. The mandate to consider the “least restrictive
environment” for students with disabilities is an attempt to provide students with the appropriate
social interactions in typical environments of which Vygotsky speaks. Assessing students using
multiple measures to determine their present level of performance is a mandated part of their
Individualized Education Program (IEP). This helps educators determine what the student can
do with and without assistance. It is the identification of the student’s zone of proximal
development, this is where instruction should be focused.
2.1.D Jean Lave’s Situated Learning

Lave’s Situated Learning argues that learning as it normally occurs is a function of the
activity, context and culture in which it occurs (i.e., it is situated). This contrasts with most
classroom learning activities which involve knowledge which is abstract and out of context.
Situated learning theory holds that effective education requires learning that is
embedded in authentic contexts of practice, wherein students engage in increasingly more
complex tasks within social communities. Opponents of the theory point out its failure to account
for individual differences among students and its insufficient emphasis on knowledge
acquisition.

Situated Learning in a Special Needs Environment

We could easily see the potential of such a method in special education. Since we want
individuals with special needs to be able to perform well beyond that of their classrooms, a
contextualized and social learning approach made possible by situated learning could well
accelerate the learning process of children. Granted that it will still take a lot of repetition but by
exercising a contextualized approach, we make it easier for special needs individuals to
remember and to instantly apply their knowledge with real-life needs.

Mainstreaming and Situated Learning

Though mainstreaming is a technical term used to denote the practice of integrating
special needs children in the classroom, it’s also often used to describe the process of enabling
people with special needs to adapt to the daily living rigors of the norm. In effect, it is the goal of
special education to enable individuals with special needs to be able to work their way alongside
their peers with the least restriction.
Many methods have been employed to achieve such a goal, one of which is the practice
of situated learning. First advocated by social learning theorists Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger,
situated learning was defined as the co-creation of knowledge through a contextualized and

27
social process. For Lave and Wenger, emphasis is placed on how learning occurs naturally as a
result of social behavior. For example, if we want to teach the dynamics of a small-business
enterprise using situated learning, we ask our students to establish a real small-business
enterprise, lead, managed, and governed by them. This is done with guidance of course, but the
point of the exercise is to allow them to learn naturally from the experience by way of
cooperating with their peers.

Situated Learning Examples

Traffic Signs – One way of teaching traffic signs to a special education class is to
reconstruct the classroom to depict roads and road signs in which children could try out traffic
rules. Line out roads one the floor and put up standees showing the actual road signs, then
“tour” the students inside the classroom, repeating the process for a period of time. After this,
field trips could be organized just within the school grounds to make them even more familiar
about the concept.
Buying Stuff – Though some might think that concepts of economy are pretty hard to
teach children with special needs, it could be done if a simple buy-and-sell simulation could be
done during a class period. The teacher could “set up shop” inside the classroom, and simulate
how people buy things from other people, taking care to emphasize the need for understanding
the concept of prices, the value of money, and simple arithmetic in daily living tasks. Of course,
this should only be done if the students know the foundations of basic arithmetic so it is
suggested that supplemental exercises in a similar vein should be used.
Eating and Drinking – The teacher could re-organize the classroom to seem like a
restaurant or a fastfood joint, with the objective of teaching children with special needs about
correct social behavior while eating out. Children could be asked to bring their home-cooked
meals inside the classroom and just participate in the simulated environment.

Let’s Think and Reflect About

This
Let’s TRY This (Activity 2.1.1)
Go to your My Activity via Google Classroom and answer the following questions:

1. Describe/discuss the theory of Piaget and Vygotsky and its implication to understanding
the cognitive functioning of learners with intellectual disabilities.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
2. Analyze the implications of Bandura’s Social Learning Theory and Lave’s Situated
Learning for understanding the emotional and behavioral development of learners with
disabilities.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

28
Lesson 2.2 Philosophical, Historical, and Sociological Bases

Lesson 2.2
Ø Philosophical ,Historical and Sociological Bases

Introduction
This lesson tackles the historical and social perspectives of special and inclusive education. The
degree to which a person with disabilities are included in social environments is always set in
the context of a particular society and time. The response of society to those of with disabilities
is determined by the demands and values of the times. Economic and social conditions have
always defined and driven decisions about the role education plays in a society and about
society’s response to disabilities. To help us understand, it is useful to review some important
events and movements throughout human history discussed in this lesson.

WHAT WILL YOU LEARN?

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to do the following:

Ø Cite important events relevant to the implementation of special education in
the Philippines
Ø Discuss important issues of special and inclusive education

Let’s THINK and SHARE

ASYNCHRONOUS (Essential Questions

Think analyze, and share your ideas, vie
lesson. Consider the following questions
Ø What is the history of special and
Ø What major events in special and
(Discuss and share your ideas in y
synchronous discussion.)

29
Let’s Read

Historical Perspective in Special Education

Brief History of Special Education
§ Categories – idiots and insane
17th Century § Children were put in asylums – no categories
§ No education or intervention
§ Effective procedures were developed and devised for teaching
18th Century children with sensory impairments
§ Programs for the blind and the deaf
th § First systematic attempts were made to educate the idiotic and the
19 Century
insane, mental retardation and emotional/behavioral problems
§ Change in attitude
§ Political reformers and leaders in medicine and education began to
champion the cause of handicapped children and adults
Ideas of
§ Urged that the “imperfect” and “incomplete” individuals (physically
Democracy in
disabled) be taught skills that would allow them to be independent
France and
and productive citizens
America
§ Desire to protect and defend handicapped people
§ Sought to normalize exceptional children to the greatest extent
possible
§ Recognition of children and people with exceptionalities
§ Establishing rights
§ Creation of laws and legislation for the care and protection of
20th Century exceptional children
§ Focus on education
§ Creation of specific educational programs for each exceptionality
§ Mainstreaming and inclusion

Highlights in the History of Special Education in the Philippines

Let’s take a look at the timeline of the development of Special Education in the country.
Date Event
Mr. Fred Atkinson, the General Superintendent of Education, expressed his
interest to educate Filipino children. He reported to the Secretary of Public
1902
Instruction that deaf and blind children were found in a census of school-aged
children in Manila and nearby provinces.

The Special Education program formally started in the country. Mr. David
1907 Barrows, the Director of Public Education, worked for establishment of the
Insular School for the Deaf and the Blind in Manila.

30
 On May 2007, Miss Delia Delight Rice, an American educator, arrived in the
Manila. Shortly after her arrival, she found out the she has no students. But
instead of leaving, she looked for students in the provinces and found Paula
Felizardo first. More students enrolled in the School for the Deaf and the
Blind (SDB) after she successfully taught Paula in a few months. She was
considered as the first administrator and teacher of the special school in the
country.
Silent Worker, a newspaper published in the United States serving the deaf
community, acknowledged that SDB transferred to a new building.
1911
Ms. Rice married Ralph Webber. Although the marriage ended in 1913, her
official records were filed under her married name.
Ms. Rice wrote an article in the Silent Worker and Wisconsin Times about
1912
SDB’s new building.
Rogelio Lagman, an SDB graduate who studied for a year in California, came
1914 back and was in-charge of classes for the blind in SDB. He later left in 1920 to
establish a carpentry shop that employs the blind.

The Public Welfare Board was created to see social services. It was later
1915 abolished in 1921 and replaced by the Bureau of Public Welfare, under the
Bureau of Public Instruction.
Ms. Rice worked on the possibility of sending Jose Servilles, an SDB
1916
student, as the first Filipino Gallaudet University student.
Gallaudet University President Percival Hall informed Ms. Rice that Jose
Servilles failed the Gallaudet University admission test.
1917 The Home for the Orphaned and Destitute Children was built. It was later
called Unit A and became one of the eight Welfareville Institutions under Act
3203, the “first socialized law the Philippines ever had under the American
regime.”
Pedro Santos, another SDB graduate, studied in California for a year before
1920
going to Gallaudet University.
Pedro Santos went back to the Philippines and established the Philippine
1926
Association for the Deaf (PAD).
The government established the “Welfareville Children’s Village,” was
1927
established in a forty-hectare lot in Mandaluyong, Rizal.
Mrs. Maria Villa Francisco was appointed as the first Filipino principal of the
1936
School of the Deaf and the Blind (SDB).
The National Orthopedic Hospital opened its School for Crippled Children
1945 (NOHSCC) for young patients who had to be hospitalized for long periods of
time.
Inauguration of the Quezon City Science High School for gifted students.
In the same year, the Philippine Foundation for the Rehabilitation of the
1949
Disabled started to help in the rehabilitation of people with disabilities. Later
on, they facilitated teacher training in special education.
Dr. Matilde Valdes’ interest in special education was ignited when she was
1955
inadvertently hospitalized at the National Orthopedic Hospital.
On May 1956, Ms. Amelita Lita Servando established the Special Child
1956
Study Center in Manila, the first special school for children with mental

31
 retardation in the Philippines.

Special Child Study Center began to systematically train. They began with two-
month summer workshops which culminated their co-sponsorship of the First
Institute in Education and Training of the Mentally Retarded. The other co-
sponsors were the Bureau of Public Schools and Philippine Mental Health.
1959 Bureau of Public Schools issued a memorandum that called for the
development of classes for educable students with mental retardation.
Thirty-two (32) first-year high school students were selected from several
schools using competitive tests and were put together in one class. (They
became the first batch of the Manila Science High School in 1963).
The SDB historical marker was unveiled during the honorary dinner for Delia
1961
Delight Rice which she attended.
The First National Seminar in Special Education was held in the historic
1962
School for the Deaf and the Blind from November 29 to December 5.
On July, Centers for Excellence (CENTEX) schools for poor but bright children
opened in Manila.
1998
“Teaching Filipino Children with Autism”, the first reference book on autism in
the Philippines, was published.
On the month of August, a National Workshop reviewed the accomplishments
2002
of the Asian Decade of the Disabled.
2003 The Philippine Decade of Persons with Disabilities started and ended in 2012.
UP-SPED publishes “Anno B?” an annotated bibliographies in Special
2007 Education.
Year-long centennial celebration of special education in the Philippines.
Source:
Impact of disability on learning and development. (2008). Retrieved November 22, 2013 from
[Link] uploads/3/4/1/9/3419723/timeline_ _the_history_of_special_education.

Inciong, T.G, Quijano, Y.S., Capulong, Y.T., Gregorio, J.A., & Gines, A.C.( (2007)). Introduction to special education.
Manila: Rex Book Store
[Link] Including-History-of-
SPED-in-the-Philippines

Let’s Study
A. UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989)
The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) is a legally-binding
international agreement setting out the civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights of
every child, regardless of their race, religion or abilities. The UNCRC applies to all children and
young people under 18. Its aim is to recognize the rights of children and young people and

32
ensure that they grow up in the spirit of peace, dignity, tolerance, freedom, equality and
solidarity.
According to the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Children all children are
born with fundamental rights:
q Right to Survival – to life, health, nutrition, name, nationality
q Right to Development – to education, care, leisure, recreation, cultural activities
q Right to Protection – from exploitation, abuse, neglect
q Right to Participation – to expression, information, thought, religion
B. UNESCO Salamanca Statement (Inclusion)
Reaffirming the right to education of every individual, as enshrined in the 1948 Universal
Declaration of Human Rights, and renewing the pledge made by the world community at the
1990 World Conference on Education for All to ensure that right for all regardless of individual
differences.
• Education for all disabled children – inclusion to the norm
• Give highest policy and budget to improve education services
• Ensure that organizations of disabled children/people, their parents and communities are
included in planning and decision-making
• Put greater effort to preschool education and vocational training
Ensuring that each individual has an equal opportunity for educational progress remains a
challenge worldwide. Sustainable Development Goal 4 on Education and the Education 2030
Framework for Action emphasize inclusion and equity as laying the foundations for quality
education.
The UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education (1960) and other international
human rights treaties prohibit any exclusion from, or limitation to, educational opportunities on
the basis of socially-ascribed or perceived differences, such as by sex, ethnic/social origin,
language, religion, nationality, economic condition, ability.
Reaching excluded and marginalized groups and providing them with quality education
requires the development and implementation of inclusive policies and programmes.
In this context, UNESCO promotes inclusive education systems that remove the barriers
limiting the participation and achievement of all learners, respect diverse needs, abilities and
characteristics and that eliminate all forms of discrimination in the learning environment.
UNESCO works with governments and partners to address exclusion from, and inequality in,
education. Among marginalized and vulnerable groups, UNESCO pays special attention to
children with disabilities as they are overrepresented in the population of those who are not in
education. Indigenous people also continue to experience exclusion within and from education.

C. EFA
The Education for All (EFA) movement is a global commitment to provide quality basic
education for all children, youth and adults. EFA is a global movement led by UNESCO, aiming
to meet the learning needs of all children, youth and adults by 2015.
Susan Peters (2004) suggested that we should promote not only education for all, but also
education for all together. That is, an inclusive learning environment. Inclusive education has
been recognized as a strategy to reach the EFA goals in the Dakar Framework for Action. EFA
was adopted by The Dakar Framework in April 2000 at the World Education Forum in Senegal,
Africa, with the goal in mind that all children would receive primary education by 2015.
D. K to 12 Inclusion Policy
Inclusive education is the core principle of the K to 12 Basic Education Program. This
promotes the right of every Filipino to quality, equitable, culture- based and complete basic
education. Inclusion also promotes institutional sensitivity and responsiveness on the nature,

33
situation, and realities of the learners through learner-centered and context-responsive
programs. Through inclusive education, all Filipinos will realize their full potential and contribute
meaningfully to building the nation.

Let’s Try this (Activity 2.2.1)

Go to your My Activity via Google Classroom and answer the following questions:

[Link] does the K to 12 Inclusion Policy relate to the requirement of IDEA in the USA?
______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________.

Let’s Apply What You Have Learned

ASYNCHRONOUS
PROJECT-BASED (Activity 2.2.2): Infographic
Make a timeline infographic of Special and Inclusive Education emphasizing important events, dates and
people involved.
You can create a timeline infographic by following these 6 steps:
1. Create an outline for your timeline
2. Pick a layout for your infographic
3. Create the framework for your timeline
4. Add dates, text, and images to your timeline infographic.
34
5. Embellish your timeline with colors, fonts, and decorative shapes
6. Download and share your timeline to our Google Classroom

You can create a customize your timeline using Google Docs, Google Slides, etc. Submit your
output to your My Activity via Google Classroom
Lesson 2.3 Legal Bases

Introduction
Special education in the Philippines is anchored on fundamental legal documents that
present a chronology of events on the growth and development of the program. The first legal
basis of the care and protection of children with disabilities was enacted in 1935.
Articles 356 and 259 of Commonwealth Act No.3203 asserted “the right of every child to live in
an atmosphere conducive to his physical, moral, and intellectual development” and the
concomitant duty of the government “to promote the full growth of the faculties of every child.

The world is gearing towards the reality of inclusion of children with special needs that
leads them to the purpose of attaining the sense of belonging within the school
community and later on into the whole system of society. Inclusion, inclusive
classroom, inclusive schooling or inclusive education hosts a various range of
conceptual definitions that depends on every country’s policy guidelines vis-à-vis laws
and provisions. The inclusion of CWSN in the general education remains controversial
and uncertain.

WHAT WILL YOU LEARN?

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to do the following:

Ø Discuss the legal bases of special and inclusive education in the country.
Ø Discuss the importance of laws and policies pertaining to special
education and students with exceptional learning needs
Discuss
Ø THINK
LET’S the SHARE
AND role of the general education teacher in special education

35
 ASYNCHRONOUS (Essential Questions)
Think analyze, and share your ideas, views, and opinions before engaging in the
lesson. Consider the following questions:
Ø What are the legal bases of special education in the Philippines?
Ø Why is it important for special education teachers to be aware of these
laws and policies?
Ø What do I need to know about special education and learning
disabilities?
You may discuss the questions with your assigned group and share your ideas with
your Professor during the synchronous discussion.)

LETS READ

A. The 1987 Phil. Constitution, Art XIV (Education, Science and Technology, Arts, Culture
and Sports Education), Sec 1&2
Section 1. The State shall protect and promote the right of all citizens to quality
education at all levels, and shall take appropriate steps to make such education accessible to
all.
Section 2. The State shall:
1. Establish, maintain, and support a complete, adequate, and integrated system of
education relevant to the needs of the people and society;
2. Establish and maintain, a system of free public education in the elementary and high
school levels. Without limiting the natural rights of parents to rear their children,
elementary education is compulsory for all children of school age;
3. Establish and maintain a system of scholarship grants, student loan programs,
subsidies, and other incentives which shall be available to deserving students in both
public and private schools, especially to the under-privileged;
4. Encourage non-formal, informal, and indigenous learning systems, as well as self-
learning, independent, and out-of-school study programs particularly those that respond
to community needs; and
5. Provide adult citizens, the disabled, and out-of-school youth with training in civics,
vocational efficiency, and other skills.

B. Commonwealth Act #3203

Articles 356 and 259 of Commonwealth Act No. 3203
Ø "the right of every child to live in an atmosphere conducive to his physical, moral and
intellectual development" and the concomitant duty of the government "to promote the
full growth of the faculties of every child."

36
C. Declaration of the Rights of the Child
In 1959, the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Declaration of the Rights of
the Child. It marked the first major international consensus on the fundamental principles of
children’s rights.
Content of the Declaration of the Rights of the Child
The Preamble to the Declaration of the Rights of the Child highlights children’s need for
special care and protection, “including appropriate legal protection, before as well as after birth.”
The Declaration of the Rights of the Child lays down ten principles:
1. The right to equality, without distinction on account of race, religion or national origin.
2. The right to special protection for the child’s physical, mental and social development.
3. The right to a name and a nationality.
4. The right to adequate nutrition, housing and medical services.
5. The right to special education and treatment when a child is physically or mentally
handicapped.
6. The right to understanding and love by parents and society.
7. The right to recreational activities and free education.
8. The right to be among the first to receive relief in all circumstances.
9. The right to protection against all forms of neglect, cruelty and exploitation.
10. The right to be brought up in a spirit of understanding, tolerance, friendship among
peoples, and universal brotherhood.
Source: [Link]

D. Republic Act No. 3562: "An Act to Promote the Education of the Blind in the
Philippines
Ø provided for the formal training of special education teachers of blind children at
the Philippine Normal College, the rehabilitation of the Philippine National School
for the Blind (PNSB) and the establishment of the Philippine Printing House of
the Blind
Source: [Link]

E. Republic Act No. 5250: "An Act Establishing a Ten-Year Teacher Training Program for
Teachers of Special and Exceptional Children."
Ø provided for the formal training of teachers for deaf, hard-of-hearing, speech
handicapped, socially and emotionally disturbed, mentally retarded and mentally
gifted and youth at the Philippine Normal College and the University of the
Philippines.
Source: [Link]

F. Republic Act No. 10533: Enhanced Basic Education Act – including ALS and Learners
with Special Needs
Ø SEC. 3. Basic Education. — Basic education is intended to meet basic learning
needs which provides the foundation on which subsequent learning can be
based. It encompasses kindergarten, elementary and secondary education as
well as alternative learning systems for out-of-school learners and those with
special needs.
Ø Sec. 5 Curriculum Development - (a) The curriculum shall be learner-centered,
inclusive and developmentally appropriate.
Reference: [Link]

37
G. Republic Act No. 8371: Indigenous People’s Right Act (IPRA)
The Indigenous Peoples Rights Act (IPRA) of 1997, which emanated from the
constitutional provision on the recognition and protection of the rights of indigenous cultural
communities/IPs (Art. II, Sec. 2), mandates the State to:
- provide equal access to various cultural opportunities to the ICCs/IPs through the
educational system, public or cultural entities, scholarships, grants and other incentives
without prejudice to their right to establish and control their educational systems and
institutions by providing education in their own language, in a manner appropriate to
their cultural methods of teaching and learning” and that “indigenous children/youth shall
have the right to all levels and forms of education of the State” (Sec. 30, Chap. VI).
Source: [Link]

H. Presidential Decree No. 603 Child and Youth Welfare Code

Articles 3 and 74 of the Presidential Decree No. 603 of 1975
Ø "The emotionally disturbed or socially maladjusted child shall be treated with sympathy
and understanding and shall be given the education and care required by his particular
condition."
Ø "Thus, where needs warrant, there shall be at least special classes in every province,
and if possible, special schools for the physically handicapped, the mentally retarded,
the emotionally disturbed and the mentally gifted. The private sector shall be given all
the necessary inducement and encouragement."

I. Republic Act No. 7277

- provided for the rehabilitation, self-development and self-reliance of disabled
person and their integration into the mainstream of society and for other
purposes.
Source: [Link]

J. Republic Act No. 9442

- An Act Amending Republic Act No. 7277, Otherwise known as the Magna Carta
for Persons with Disability as Amended, and For Other Purposes’ Granting
Additional Privileges and Incentives and Prohibitions on Verbal, Non-Verbal
Ridicule and Vilification Against Persons with Disability.
- persons with disability are part of Philippine society, and thus the State shall give
full support to the improvement of their total well-being and their integration into
the mainstream of society. They have the same rights as other people to take
their proper place in society.
Source: [Link]

K. Republic Act No. 7610 Special Protection against Child Abuse and Exploitation
- provides legal protection of children and monitors and coordinate the
investigation and prosecution of cases of child abuse, exploitation, and
discrimination
Source: [Link]

38
L. Republic Act No. 9344 Juvenile Justice and Welfare Act
- defines the Juvenile Justice and Welfare System as a system dealing with
children at risk and children in conflict with the law, which provides child-
appropriate proceedings, including programmes and services for prevention,
diversion, rehabilitation, re-integration and aftercare to ensure their normal growth
and development.
Source: [Link]
M. Republic Act No. 10665 Open High School System Act
- to broaden access to relevant quality education through the employment of an
alternative secondary education program that will enable the youth to overcome
personal, geographical, socioeconomic and physical constraints, to encourage
them to complete secondary education. This is in line with the constitutional policy
that mandates the State to “encourage non-formal, informal, and indigenous
learning systems, as well as self-learning, independent, and out-of-school study
programs particularly those that respond to community needs”, as stated in Article
XIV, Section 2, paragraph 4 of the 1987 Constitution.

Let’s Try This

Let’s Try This! (Activity 2.3.1)
Go to your My Activity via Google Classroom and answer the following questions:

1. What is the importance of legislation in the development and sustenance of special education
programs?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

2. Enumerate the laws that pertain to:

a. the inclusion of children with special needs in all programs and concerns of the
government.
b. the education of children with special needs
c. the participation of the home, parents and the community in special education activities
d. commemoration of significant events

Read the following questions carefully and choose the one best answer out of the four choices
given.

39
1. Which of the following legislative acts guarantees the civil rights of a student with
disabilities to access public buildings and facilities within them?

A. Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)

B. Education for All Handicapped Children Act

C. Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA)

D. Developmental Disabilities Assistance and Bill of Rights Act

Let us view this ( Activity 2.3.2)

Go to My Supplementary Materials / Required Readings Packet via Google Classroom.
Let’s view “Miracle Cell Number 7” link: Link:
[Link]

Make a ten sentence paragraph reflection on the role of family, politics, government and
community in protecting the rights of individuals with disabilities.
Submit your reflection writing to My Reflection Journal

What is This Module About?

In the previous modules, you became more familiar with the definition,
scope, bases, and policies of the Special Education in the local and international
context. In this module, you will learn about the identification, characteristics,
and nature of learners with special needs. This module also includes effective
classroom management organization and behavior change strategies utilizing
best practices and ways of providing instruction in both special and regular
settings.

Lesson 3.1 Learners with Intellectual Disability

Lesson 3.1
40
Ø Learners with Intellectual Disability
 Introduction
This lesson starts with the different definition of intellectual disability and is presented
with the factors and assumptions on the presence of the condition. In the past,
intellectual disability was called mental retardation. People with intellectual disability
have formed international associations aimed at eliminating discrimination against
people with intellectual disability. The association asked governments and others to use
the term person with intellectual disability instead of person who is mentally retarded.
The classifications, causes, and learning behaviors/adaptive skills are presented in this
module. The identification and assessment procedures as well as educational
approaches and interventions are described

WHAT WILL YOU LEARN?

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to do the following:
Ø Demonstrate and in-depth understanding on the definition of intellectual disability.
Ø Enumerate and discuss the classifications of intellectual disability.
Ø Describe the educational approaches in teaching children with intellectual
disability
Ø Discuss, identifications, etiologies assessments and educational programs
LET’S THINK AND for
children with Cerebral Palsy, Down Syndrome, and Autism. SHARE

ASYNCHRONOUS: Essential Questions

Think, analyze, and share your ideas,
lesson.
Consider the following questions:
Ø What are the learning and behav
intellectual disabilities?
Ø What are the definitions, identific
educational programs of intellect

(You may discuss the questions with yo

class with your Professor during the syn

LET’S READ

41
Intellectual Disability
Definition
Intellectual Disability is a condition diagnosed before age 18 that includes below-average
intellectual function and a lack of skills necessary for daily living. In the past, the term mental
retardation was used to describe this condition.

Causes
Intellectual disability affects about 1% to 3% of the population. There are many causes
of intellectual disability, but doctors find a specific reason in only 25% of cases.
Risk factors are related to the causes.
Causes of intellectual disability can include:
1. Genetic Factors - those resulting from some damage to genetic material such as
chromosomal abnormalities those due to hereditary transmission. These include:
• Down’s Syndrome – a condition resulting from chromosomal abnormalities
• Fragile X syndrome – the bottom of the X chromosome in the 23rd pair of chromosomes
is pinched off
• Tay-Sachs disease – an inherited condition; results in brain damage and eventual death.
• Phenylketonuria (PKU) – a metabolic genetic disorder caused by the inability of the body
to convert phenyl nine into tyrosine which results in abnormal brain development.
2. Brain Damage
Infections that may lead to intellectual disability:
• Rubella
• Syphilis
• Herpes simplex
• Meningitis
• Encephalitis
• Pediatric AIDS
Environmental Hazards:
• Radiation
• Malnutrition
• Poisoning
• Pre-maturity/post maturity
• Birth Injury
•
3. Cultural-Familial Factors - due to an unstimulating environment

Symptoms
You may suspect your child has an intellectual disability when your child has any of the
following:
• Lack of or slow development of motor skills, language skills, and self-help skills,
especially when compared to peers
• Failure to grow intellectually or continued infant-like behavior
• Lack of curiosity
• Problems keeping up in school
• Failure to adapt (adjust to new situations)
• Difficulty understanding and following social rules

42
Assessment
Professional assesses two major areas to determine whether persons are intellectually
disabled: Intelligences and the adaptive skills.
1. Intelligence. Intellectual functioning is measured by standardized intelligence tests, which
usually consists a series of questions and problems solving tasks assumed to require certain
amounts of intelligence to answer or solve correctly. The intelligence quotient (IQ) is based on
the relationship between the individual’s chronological age (CA) and the Mental Age (MA). IQ
scores do not change significantly. However with children with intellectual disability, IQ scores
can be influenced by experience and can change significantly. Intelligence tests are imperfect
instruments, imperfectly understood, used for classification purpose assignment of labels and
placement of children or adults in special programs.

2. Adaptive Skills/Behavior
Generally, these covers communication, home-living, self-direction, self-care, social-
skills, health and safety, leisure, functional academics, work. Adaptive functioning measurement
is required in the identification of intellectual disability. An individual must be clearly normal
measurements in adaptive behavior. Operationally, this means that there is clear deficit in the
effectiveness or degree to which the individual meets the societal standards of personal
independence and social responsibility that are expected of his or her age and social group
(Grossman, 1983).
Adaptive Behavior refers to how a person meets or fails to meet the challenges and
requirements of daily living and the extent to which a child can function and interact with others
in his or her environment. It is also a measure of how well children adapt to school as well as to
the environment outside the school.

t’ Study
Educational Considerations for Children with Intellectual Disability
Students with Mild Intellectual Disability:

• Readiness skills – necessary before academics can be learned ( e.g. attending skills,
ability to follow directions, letters)
• Functional academics – practical skills rather than academic skills ( e.g. reading
newspaper, reading a grocery list)
• Inclusion programs
Students with Moderate to Severe Intellectual Disability

43
 • Age-appropriate curriculum and materials – do not use infantile materials foster
independent behavior if possible
• IEP
• Behavioral Therapy Programs – behavior modification is used to decrease disruptive
and inappropriate behavior, help students attend to learning tasks, maintain attention,
and shape new learning behaviors by rewarding appropriate behavior.
• Functional activities – teach only what they will need and can learn
• Community-based instruction – more effective when education instruction is done
outside the classroom (ex. Grocery store, mall)
• Integrated Therapy – integrate techniques into the overall education program
• Interaction with non-disabled students – model behavior, peer tutoring
• Family involvement
• Task analysis
• An alternative Program – education socialization and vocational training; physical
education training and dance, body rhythm, calisthenics and indoor and outdoor sports
activities; recreational, leisure, theater, music and work experiences should be provided.

Early Invention
- Designed to help intellectually disabled children achieve a high cognitive level as
possible. Place a great deal of emphasis on language and conceptual
development

Transition
q Community adjustment – acceptance in the community, manage money, maintain a
clean house/room, keep one’s self groomed
q Employment – sheltered workshop competitive employment, supported competitive
employment, job coach

Teachers must be responsive to the following concerns:

1. A good grasp of each student’s status in each area
2. Structure the learning situation and reduce distractions
3. Present materials clearly, sequentially and reinforcement for correct responses
4. In planning IEP consider readiness, motivation and performance evaluation.
Source:
Bacino CA, Lee B. Cytogenetics. In: Kliegman RM, St. Geme JW, Blum NJ, Shah SS, Tasker
RC, Wilson KM, eds. Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics. 21st ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier;
2020:chap 98.

44
Let’s TRY This (Activity 3.1.1)
Go to your My Activity via Google Classroom. Read the following questions carefully and
choose the one best answer out of the four choices given.

1. Compared to peers without disabilities, a 17-year-old student with a mild intellectual

disability is likely to have more difficulty with which of the following vocational tasks?

A. Completing a two-step task while being coached by a job trainer

B. Recalling a specific sequence of job tasks that a supervisor stated a few

minutes earlier

C. Using appropriate greetings when arriving at a job site

D. Communicating with co-workers in a friendly way during an assigned task

2. A high school student with a mild intellectual disability receives instruction in daily
living skills. Which of the following related tasks would likely be most difficult this
student?

A. Recognizing everyday materials such as cups and towels

B. Generalizing previously learned skills to different environments

C. Sharing materials with other students in the class

D. Developing personal preferences such as types of food items

3. A 19-year-old student with a mild intellectual disability leaves school at noon every
day to go his afternoon job at a retail store. One day the student’s supervisor
reports to the special education teacher that the student has not been completing
assigned tasks and that his co-workers are starting to complain. The special
education teacher’s best initial response would be to:

A. Offer to meet with the student’s co-workers to explain his disability

B. Ask the supervisor to the student about the problem and remind the student
of his responsibilities

C. Suggest that the supervisor arrange for the student to be monitored more
closely

D. Arrange to visit the store to modify the student’s job responsibilities

45
4. A high school student with Spina bifida has a transition goal of living as
independently as possible after leaving school. After her transition, the student will
continue to need ongoing physical assistance in specific areas of functional living.
Which of the following would be the special education teacher’s best strategy for
addressing the student’s transition needs in this area?

A. Developing a script for the student to follow when interviewing applicants to

serve as a personal care assistant

B. Providing local sources of potential assistance with the student’s contact

information

C. Encouraging the student’s family to seek financial assistance to hire her a

home health aide

D. Helping the student research what services are provided by the various
agencies in the community

Let’s V

Let’s READ

3.1.A Cerebral Palsy

Lesson 3.1.A
Lesson 3.1.1
Cerebral Palsy

Definition
Cerebral palsy refers to a group of neurological disorders that appear in infancy or early
childhood and permanently affect body movement and muscle coordination. The term cerebral
refers to the brain; palsy refers to the loss or impairment of motor function.

Causes
Cerebral palsy (CP) is caused by damage to or abnormalities inside the developing brain
that disrupt the brain’s ability to control movement and maintain posture and balance. Cerebral
palsy affects the motor area of the brain’s outer layer (called the cerebral cortex), the part of the
brain that directs muscle movement. In some cases, the cerebral motor cortex hasn’t developed
normally during fetal growth. In others, the damage is a result of injury to the brain either before,

46
during, or after birth. In either case, the damage is not repairable and the disabilities that result
are permanent.
Symptoms
Children with CP exhibit a wide variety of symptoms, including:
• lack of muscle coordination when performing voluntary movements (ataxia);
• stiff or tight muscles and exaggerated reflexes (spasticity);
• weakness in one or more arm or leg;
• walking on the toes, a crouched gait, or a “scissored” gait;
• variations in muscle tone, either too stiff or too floppy;
• excessive drooling or difficulties swallowing or speaking;
• shaking (tremor) or random involuntary movements;
• delays in reaching motor skill milestones; and
• difficulty with precise movements such as writing or buttoning a shirt

The symptoms of CP differ in type and severity from one person to the next, and may even
change in an individual over time. Symptoms may vary greatly among individuals, depending on
which parts of the brain have been injured. All people with cerebral palsy have problems with
movement and posture, and some also have some level of intellectual disability, seizures, and
abnormal physical sensations or perceptions, as well as other medical disorders. People with
CP also may have impaired vision or hearing, and language, and speech problems.
CP is the leading cause of childhood disabilities, but it doesn’t always cause profound
disabilities. While one child with severe CP might be unable to walk and need extensive,
lifelong care, another child with mild CP might be only slightly awkward and require no special
assistance. The disorder isn’t progressive, meaning it doesn’t get worse over time. However, as
the child gets older, certain symptoms may become more or less evident.
A study by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention shows the average prevalence
of cerebral palsy is 3.3 children per 1,000 live births.
There is no cure for cerebral palsy, but supportive treatments, medications, and surgery can
help many individuals improve their motor skills and ability to communicate with the world.

Early Signs
The signs of cerebral palsy usually appear in the early months of life, although specific
diagnosis may be delayed until age two years or later. Infants with CP frequently
have developmental delay, in which they are slow to reach developmental milestones such as
learning to roll over, sit, crawl, or walk. Some infants with CP have abnormal muscle tone.
Decreased muscle tone (hypotonia) can make them appear relaxed, even floppy. Increased
muscle tone (hypertonia) can make them seem stiff or rigid. In some cases, an early period of
hypotonia will progress to hypertonia after the first 2 to 3 months of life. Children with CP may
also have unusual posture or favor one side of the body when they reach, crawl, or move. It is
important to note that some children without CP also might have some of these signs.
Some early warning signs:
In a Baby Younger Than 6 Months of Age
• His head lags when you pick him up while he’s lying on his back
• He feels stiff
• He feels floppy
• When you pick him up, his legs get stiff and they cross or scissor
In a Baby Older Than 6 Months of Age
• She doesn’t roll over in either direction
• She cannot bring her hands together
• She has difficulty bringing her hands to her mouth

47
 • She reaches out with only one hand while keeping the other fisted
In a Baby Older Than 10 Months of Age
• He crawls in a lopsided manner, pushing off with one hand and leg while dragging the
opposite hand and leg
• He cannot stand holding onto support

3.1.B. Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21)

Lesson 3.1.B
Lesson 3.1.1
Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21)

Definition
Down syndrome is a genetic condition in which a person has 47 chromosomes instead
of the usual 46.

Causes
In most cases, down syndrome occurs when there is an extra copy of chromosome 21.
This form of Down syndrome is called trisomy 21. The extra chromosome causes problems with
the way the body and brain develop.
Down syndrome is one of the most common causes of birth defects.
Symptoms
Down syndrome symptoms vary from person to person and can range from mild to
severe. No matter how severe the condition is, people with Down syndrome have a widely-
recognized appearance.
The head may be smaller than normal and abnormally shaped. For example, the head
may be round with a flat area on the back. The inner corner of the eyes may be rounded instead
of pointed.

Common physical signs include:

• Decreased muscle tone at birth
• Excess skin at the nape of the neck
• Flattened nose
• Separated joints between the bones of the skull (sutures)
• Single crease in the palm of the hand
• Small ears
• Small mouth
• Upward slanting eyes
• Wide, short hands with short fingers
• White spots on the colored part of the eye (Brushfield spots)
Physical development is often slower than normal. Most children with Down syndrome never
reach average adult height.
Children may also have delayed mental and social development. Common problems may
include:
• Impulsive behavior
• Poor judgment
• Short attention span
• Slow learning
As children with Down syndrome grow and become aware of their limitations, they may also feel
frustration and anger.

48
Many different medical conditions are seen in people with Down syndrome, including:
• Birth defects involving the heart, such as an atrial septal defect or ventricular septal
defect
• Dementia may be seen
• Eye problems, such as cataracts (most children with Down syndrome need glasses)
• Early and massive vomiting, which may be a sign of a gastrointestinal blockage, such
as esophageal atresia and duodenal atresia
• Hearing problems, probably caused by repeated ear infections
• Hip problems and risk of dislocation
• Long-term (chronic) constipation problems
• Sleep apnea (because the mouth, throat, and airway are narrowed in children with Down
syndrome)
• Teeth that appear later than normal and in a location that may cause problems with
chewing
• Underactive thyroid (hypothyroidism)

Exams and Tests

A doctor can often make a diagnosis of Down syndrome at birth based on how the baby
looks. The doctor may hear a heart murmur when listening to the baby's chest with a
stethoscope.
A blood test can be done to check for the extra chromosome and confirm the diagnosis.
Other tests that may be done include:
• Echocardiogram and ECG to check for heart defects (usually done soon after birth)
• X-rays of the chest and gastrointestinal tract
People with Down syndrome need to be closely screened for certain medical conditions.
They should have:
• An eye exam every year during infancy
• Hearing tests every 6 to 12 months, depending on age
• Dental exams every 6 months
• X-rays of the upper or cervical spine between ages 3 and 5 years
• Pap smears and pelvic exams beginning during puberty or by age 21
• Thyroid testing every 12 months

Treatment
There is no specific treatment for Down syndrome. If treatment is needed, it is usually for
associated health problems. For example, a child born with a gastrointestinal blockage may
need major surgery right after birth. Certain heart defects may also require surgery.
When breast-feeding, the baby should be well supported and fully awake. The baby may
have some leakage because of poor tongue control. But many infants with Down syndrome can
successfully breastfeed.
Obesity can become a problem for older children and adults. Getting plenty of activity
and avoiding high-calorie foods are important. Before beginning sports activities, the child's
neck and hips should be examined.
Behavioral training can help people with Down syndrome and their families deal with the
frustration, anger, and compulsive behavior that often occur. Parents and caregivers should
learn to help a person with Down syndrome deal with frustration. At the same time, it is
important to encourage independence.
Teen girls and women with Down syndrome are usually able to get pregnant. There is an
increased risk for sexual abuse and other types of abuse in both males and females. It is
important for those with Down syndrome to:
• Be taught about pregnancy and taking the proper precautions

49
 • Learn to advocate for themselves in difficult situations
• Be in a safe environment
If the person has any heart defects or other heart problems, antibiotics may need to be
prescribed to prevent a heart infection called endocarditis.
Special education and training is offered in most communities for children with delays in
mental development. Speech therapy may help improve language skills. Physical therapy may
teach movement skills. Occupational therapy may help with feeding and performing tasks.
Mental health care can help both parents and the child manage mood or behavior problems.
Special educators are also often needed.

Let’s Try This (Activity 3.1.3)

Go to your My Activity via Google Classroom. Read the following questions carefully and
choose the one best answer out of the four choices given.

1. Which of the following factors causes Down syndrome?

A. Chromosomal abnormality

B. Prenatal exposure to high amounts of alcohol

C. Oxygen deprivation during the birthing process

D. Neural tube defects

2. Lee is a first-grade student with cerebral palsy who uses a communication board with
speech output. He will soon begin receives instruction in a general education classroom
for part of each school day. Which of the following steps should Lee’s special education
teacher take first to promote his communication skills within the new classroom
environment?
A. Assigning the students in the general education class to write questions about
Lee’s communication board and having him answer the questions on his first day
in class

50
 B. Asking the general education teacher to discuss with the class different ways in
which people communicate, including using communication boards

C. Having Lee introduce himself to the general education class and explain how and
when began using the communication board

D. Ensuring that the general education teacher understands how Lee uses the
communication board before his transition into the class

3. When teaching a high school student with a moderate intellectual disability how to
engage in community-based activities that require social skills, such as eating at a
restaurant, it is most important for a special education to:
A. Determine if the student has ever participated successfully in such activities with
friends or family members

B. Observe the student in similar school-based activities to predict actions outside

of school

C. Ensure the student understands the consequences of behaving inappropriately

during activities in public situations.

D. Break down each activity into discrete steps and teach each step to the student
explicitly.

4. According to recent research, peer tutoring of secondary students with mild

intellectual disabilities is most effective when peer tutors participate in which of the
following activities before they begin tutoring?
A. Observing experiences peer tutors as they work with students

B. Discussing their expectations and concerns with a teacher

C. Receiving training from a teacher in explicit instructional strategies

D. Learning about causes and effects of mild intellectual disabilities ADH

5. Which of the following activities would likely be most difficult for an eight-year-old
student with a mild intellectual disability?

51
 A. Recognizing the letters within his or her first name

B. Following basic two-step oral direction

C. Using previously learned skill in a new setting

D. Matching two similar objects together

3.1.C Learners with Autism Spectral Disorder (ASD)

Lesson 3.1.C
Lesson 3.1.1
Ø Learners with Autism Spectral Disorder (ASD)
Autism Spectral Disorder
Definition
– ASD is a pervasive developmental disability affecting verbal and non-verbal
communication social interaction and intellectual and educational performance initially
evident between ages 2 and 3 and confirmable at 3 to 4.
– It is a complex developmental disability that typically appears during the first three years
of life. It is neurological disorder which affects the normal development and functioning
of the brain in the areas of social interaction and communication skills.
Indicators of Autism
1. Physical Health
The child:
ü is generally healthy
ü is generally good looking
ü is a peaky-eater, tends to smell food/objects and put things in the mouth
ü exhibits disturbed sleeping patterns
ü does not seek attention when hurt; has high pain threshold; unable to locate pain.
2. Gross Motor
The child:
ü walks in tiptoe especially during early years
ü is hyperactive, disinhibited
ü is fast and strong and does not tire easily
ü is well balanced, generally coordinated but lacks impulse control
ü exhibits repetitive movements; body rocking, hand wiggling, whirling, “ritual” of walking to
end from etc.
ü is either echopraxic or non-imitative of gestures

3. Fine Motor
The child:
ü may either have good or poor perceptual-motor skills depending on level of attention
span
ü is absorbed by some objects with tendency to get attracted to spin round/whirling objects

52
 ü self-stimulates by touching surfaces/edges, arranging/aligning objects
precisely/repetitively

4. Psychosocial
The child:
ü exhibits limited/fleeting eye contact
ü is aloof, passive; prefers solitary activities to group activities
ü manifests inappropriate emotional responses
ü demonstrates unusual fears
ü is socially immature and handicapped
ü is maladaptive to changes in food, clothes, routine, routes or arrangements or things
ü tends to self-injurious

5. Self-help
The child:
ü is delayed in performing eating, dressing and grooming tasks
ü is unable to assume age-appropriate responsibilities
ü Lags behind in discriminating and avoiding dangers

6. Language-Cognitive/Intellectual/Achievement
The child:
ü shows deficit in the use of language
ü under-reacts to language and visuals
ü under-reacts or overreacts to sounds
ü demonstrates role learning
ü exhibits pronouns reversals
ü is echolalic
ü exhibits inappropriate recall of experience
ü is delayed in language-conceptual abilities-reasoning, inferential thinking, problem
solving, deductive and inductive thinking, etc.
ü is delayed in overall intellectual response
Causes of Autism
ü it is a brain disorder present from the birth which affects the way the brain uses
information but the cause of autism is still unknown
ü Some researchers suggest a physiological problem affecting those parts in the brain that
process language and information coming in from the senses- prenatal and/or postnatal
infections, chromosomal disorders, CNS dysfunction, seizures, vaccines, brain injury
ü There may be some imbalance of certain chemicals in the brain
ü Genetic factors may sometimes be involved. In many families there appears to be a
pattern of autism or related disorders which suggest a genes-based cause, however, at
this time NO GENE has been directly linked to autism.
ü Autism may also result from a combination of several causes.

Assessment
– There is no single medical test for diagnosing autism

53
 – Children with Autism (CWA) must be evaluated along the development areas because
autism consists a cluster of symptoms along these areas. Autism is also known as a
spectrum disorder.

Is There a Cure for Autism?

There is no definite cure but behavior can be managed through:
Curriculum Goals
Ø Curricular contents are largely dependent on the educational goals and objectives
formulated for CWA
Ø Every school/teacher must lay out the goals and objectives that are pressing and
relevant in the education of CWA – priorities based on the needs assessment

Curricular Emphases for CWA:

ü Communication development - expressive skills through speech and/or augmentative
systems; development of receptive language; development of pragmatic skills
ü Increase understanding of the environment
ü Socialization – with emphasis on appreciating and communicating feelings, managing
frustration, impulse control and relaxation
ü Development of social skills and behaviors appropriate to a variety of contexts and
situations
ü Use academic instruction appropriate to the developmental level of the student
ü Developing and increasing self-control and self-management (self-monitoring, self-
evaluation and self-reinforcement)
ü Sensory integration
ü Vocational and community-living skills including self-help skills

Learning Problems To Be Addressed

1. Organization – when faced with complex organizational demands, CWA are frequently
immobilized and sometimes will not be able to begin their required task.
2. Distractibility – it takes many forms in the classroom: reacting to outside noises or
visually following movements instead of completing the required work.
3. Sequencing – difficulty in remembering precise order of tasks because they focus
concentrate on specific details and do not always see relationships between them.
4. Generalization – difficulty in applying what has been learned in one situation to similar
things.
5. Uneven Profiles of Skills and Deficits – some CWA can have extraordinary abilities to
see spatial relationships or understand concepts but unable to use these strengths
because of organizational and communicative limitations.
6. Receptive Language – many CWA, especially at a very young age, may not understand
language
Educational Considerations /Approaches
Ø Teachers must structure and organize the classroom life in order for students to expand
their strong areas as well as grow in their weak areas.
Ø The features of structure are physical organization, scheduling and teaching methods.

54
 Ø The key to effectively using each of these features is individualization.

Physical Organization
§ The physical layout of the classroom is an important consideration when planning
learning experiences for autistic students.
§ Structuring the environment gives them visual cues to help them understand directions
and rules.
§ Teachers need to structure the environment so it is not as distracting.
§ As students learn to function more independently, the physical structure can be lessened
bit by bit.

Scheduling
§ A purposeful, clear and consistent schedule - a framework that outlines who, what,
where and when – can help a student organize and predict daily and weekly events.
§ This lessens anxiety about not knowing what will happen next. It can also aid students in
transitioning independently between activities.
§ Students with low initiative may be more motivated to complete a difficult task if they see
on their schedule that it will be followed by a more enjoyable task and activity.
§ There are usually two types of schedules used simultaneously in classrooms:
1. General Overall Classroom Schedule
- Outlines the events of the day. It does not specify work activities for students but
does not show general work times, break times, etc.
2. Individual Student Schedule
- Helps the student understand what to do during activities listed in the general
schedules. It can take in a variety of forms but must be individually oriented, i.e. age-
appropriate, based on the level of comprehension or endurance

§ This facilitates a smooth running classroom and grants more time for real teaching and
learning instead of constant reorganizing and planning during student time.
§ As students learn and comprehend schedules, they develop good independent
functioning skills and direction following skills, both of which are important to have
successful functioning in future placements.

Teaching Methods
§ A teacher must systematize and organize teaching methods in order to effectively teach
CWA.
§ Give directions for tasks either verbally or non-verbally but at the student’s level of
understanding.
§ Verbal directions mean using minimum amount of language needed which are
accompanied with gestures to help students understand.
§ A most important aspect of giving directions are having the student’s attention before
the directions are given and making sure the expectations and consequences are clear
and organized for the student.
§ Nonverbal directions – mean using contextual and visual clues like systematically
presenting and positioning materials and using written instructions.

55
 § When teaching students new tasks, teachers use prompts to help students be
successful in what they are learning and doing. Prompts may be physical, verbal,
visual, gestural, modeling and situational.
§ Teachers must find out what things are motivating for students and teach students how
contingency system works for them.
§ Reinforcements and fixations of students can be used as motivations for learning.

Let’s Try This (Activity 3.1.4)

Go to your My Activity via Google Classroom and answer the following questions:

Directions: Read the following questions carefully and choose the one best answer out of the
four choices given.

1. An eighth-grade student with ASD has been struggling in the general education classroom
setting. According to Pennsylvania law, before contemplating placing the student in a more
restrictive setting, the IEP team must consider which of the following issues?

A. The projected difference in cost between educating the student in the current setting
and in other setting available in the school

B. The student’s potential to achieve mastery of eighth-grade curriculum goals the

general education classroom setting

C. The placement decisions made for the other students in the school who have
disabilities of a similar type and severity

D. The full range of research supported supplementary aids and services available for
use in the student’s general education classroom

2. A twelfth grade student has a mild autism spectrum disorder and has received special
education and speech-language services since kindergarten. Based on this information, the
student is likely to have greatest difficulty with which of the following aspects of adulthood?

A. Establishing and maintaining quality interpersonal relationships

B. Obtaining a job within a field of interest

C. Living in an apartment or house independently

D. Managing personal finances

3. A ninth-grade student with ASD and an associated intellectual disability is nonverbal and
does not spontaneously initiate communicative exchanges. Which of the following be the

56
 best First step in teaching the student to use a picture exchange communication system
(PECS) to initiate requests?

A. Identifying peers that the student is likely to want to communicate with in this way

B. Selecting the key language structures that are most relevant for the student to learn

C. Identifying objects and activities that are currently of interest to the student

D. Selecting one picture to use throughout the first session with the student

4. A special education teacher co-teaches in an eighth-grade English language arts class that
includes a student with ASD. After implementing strategies defined in the student’s IEP for
three months, the special education teacher and the general education teacher agree that
the student’s IEP should needs more effectively. Which of the following step should the
teachers take to initiate this process?

A. Requesting a meeting of the student’s IEP team to discuss the need to amend the
IEP

B. Obtaining written permission from the student’s parents to amend the IEP

C. Creating an initial draft of an amended IEP to share with the student’s entire IEP
team

D. Seeking permission from the principal to move forward in amending the student’s
IEP

Let’s VIEW (Activity 3.1.5 )

Let’s View (Activity 3.1.5)

Go to My Supplementary Materials / Required Readings Packet via Google
Classroom View the video on “Raising a Son with Autism Spectrum
Disorder and Enjoying it!” link:
[Link]

Reflect on the following issues: Family support, community involvement,

instructional support and accommodation. Write a one paragraph reflection.
Submit it to your My Reflection Journal.

57
Lesson 3.2 Learners with Learning Disability

Lesson 3.2
Ø Learners with Learning Disability
Introduction
The student’s special educational needs that teachers are most likely to come across in
their classes are students with learning difficulties. These are students who do not necessarily
have any disability but, for some reason, have difficulty with learning. Usually, these students
have difficulty in only some areas of their learning, such as literacy, mathematics, and receptive
language. The lesson discusses the types, identifications, causes and characteristics of learning
disability. It identifies the educational support and classroom management intended for learners
’with learning difficulties.

WHAT WILL YOU LEARN?

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to do the following:
Ø Explain the concepts of mental ability and the measurement of intellectual
functioning.
Ø Discuss the assessment procedures in identifying students with learning
disabilities.
Ø Identify the etiology of learning disabilities and analyze its implication to education

LET’S THINK AND

SHARE

ASYNCHRONOUS: Essential Questions

Think, analyze, and share your ideas,
lesson.
Consider the following questions:
Ø What are the learning and behav
disability?
Ø What are the definitions, identific
educational programs for learner
Ø What characteristic encompas

(Discuss and share your ideas in your c

synchronous discussion.)

58
 Let’s READ

Definition of Learning Disability

Samuel Kirk’s Definition
- A learning disability refers to retardation, disorder or delayed development in one or
more of the processes of speech, language, reading, writing, arithmetic or other
school subject resulting from a psychological handicap caused by possible cerebral
dysfunction and/or emotional or behavioral disturbances. It is not the result of mental
retardation (now called intellectual disability), sensory deprivation or cultural and
instructional function.

National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities Revised Edition (1994)

- Learning disabilities as a general term refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders
manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, writing,
reasoning or mathematical abilities. These disorders are intrinsic to the individual,
presumed to be due to central nervous system dysfunctions and may occur across
the life span. Problems in self-regulatory behaviors, social perception and social
interaction may exist with learning disabilities but do not themselves constitute a
learning disability. Although learning disabilities may occur concomitantly with other
handicapping conditions (for example, sensory impairment, mental retardation (now
intellectual disability), serious emotional disturbances) or with extrinsic influences
(such as cultural differences, insufficient or inappropriate instruction) they are not the
result of those condition.

General Characteristics of Children with Learning Disabilities

1. Intelligence – average or near average intelligence
2. Perception & Motor Skills
Ø The ability to organize and integrate sensory stimuli
Ø Poor auditory/visual discrimination
Ø Confusion in directional orientation
Ø Awkward, clumsy and uncoordinated
Ø Problems in attention, memory, metacognition, organizing, categorizing,
arranging and planning
Ø Perseverate – repeating or continuing the same response repeatedly
Ø Poor motor skills

3. Metacognition skills
Ø Consists of an awareness of the skills, strategies and resources needed to
perform a task effectively.
Ø It requires the ability to use self-regulatory mechanisms such as planning
movements, evaluating effectiveness of ongoing strategies, checking the
outcomes of efforts and mediating difficulties.
Ø It ensures the successful completion of tasks.

59
 4. Behavior & Affective Characteristics
Ø May be hyperactive (with excessive body activity) or hypoactive (lethargic)
Ø Easily distracted, have short attention spans, show memory deficits, act
impulsively, overreact with intense or surprising emotion.
Ø Have serious difficulties in social adjustment
Ø Unable to predict the consequences of their behavior and lack social
comprehension skills
Ø Provoke negative reactions from others
Ø Inability to interact effectively with others frequently results in low self-esteem.

5. Academic Learning
Ø Lag behind in reading achievement, comprehension, fluency and spelling
Ø Experience number, letter, word and sound reversals
Ø Poor handwriting, spelling, sentence structure and composition skills
Ø Poor math performance

6. Communication
Ø Difficult time learning to articulate the sounds of language
Ø Repeat sounds, stumble words and have halting speech delivery
Ø Have difficulty grasping the pragmatic or social aspects of language – taking
turns, sharing information needed for meaningful conversation
Ø Problems in language comprehension, processing and formulation (expression)

7. Memory & Thinking

Ø Difficulty memorizing words and remembering the sounds that constitute
words

Causes of Learning Disability

Speculations about the causes of learning disabilities are numerous and the cause of LD
for an individual may be unknown. There are various levels of severity, multiple problems,
influences and at-risk vulnerabilities that vary from child to child. The cause of LD may be
imbedded in the child as well as in the environment and may be complicated by organic, genetic
or biological anomalies (Haring et al., 1991).

1. Environmental/Ecological Model – poor learning environment, inappropriate school

instruction, lack of motivation, ingestion of load, drug abuse, school suspension.
2. Brain Damage Model – sustained brain damage, impairment of the CNS, minimal brain
dysfunction, complications surrounding pregnancy and birth, maternal illness.
3. Organic and Biological Model – chemicals found in specific food colorings or
flavorings, vitamin deficiencies, imbalances in neurotransmitters, malnutrition, allergies
to natural chemicals found in food; developmental or maturational lag – the child is
cognitively unprepared for certain academic task as certain times.
4. Genetic Model – inherited genetic influence.

Identification Process
• Early detection – early observation of behavioral and learning characteristics by the
classroom teacher

60
 • Detailed procedures for identifying and assessing – multidisciplinary team must
determine the degree of discrepancy between intellectual ability and age or grade-level
achievement and/or actual performances
• Areas to be tested – oral expression, listening, comprehension, linguistic processing
written expression, basic reading skills, reading comprehension, mathematics calculation
and reasoning.
• Document the student’s present level of functioning, strengths and weaknesses and
unique learning needs.
• Continuous and direct teacher measurements of achievement
• Use of inventories to assess reading and calculation and measure the child’s cognitive
abilities and intelligence.
• Uses of teacher-made tests and standardize tests on how well as task is mastered.
• Educational goals and objectives set the standards for instruction and evaluation.

Classification of Learning Disability

Dyslexia
Dysgraphia
Dyscalculia

3.2.A. Dyslexia

Lesson 3.2.A
Dys
Dyslexia

Definition
- A symbolic language disorder where there is poor ability to learn, to interpret and
retain symbols needed for reading in the absence of major mental ability defect or
perceptual aberration and where the child has been exposed to an organized
attempt to teach him to read over a minimum period of year.
- A neurological disorder that occurs when an individual’s reading achievement is
markedly below the level expected given the person’s intelligence, age and
educational opportunities. It is not due to a physical disability such as a visual
problem. It is a problem in how the brain processes information as the individual is
reading.

Types of Dyslexia
Visual – refers to the individual’s inability to process visual stimuli accurately.
Auditory – refers to the individual’s inability to prove auditory stimuli accurately.
Visio-Auditory – a combination of both visual and auditory dyslexia.

Signs and Symptoms: Strategies that Help:

61
 ü Reading ability does not ü Explicit instruction in the area of
commensurate with mental age. phonological awareness or
ü Poor ability to relate letter and letter understanding the letter-sound system.
sounds and spelling – lack of ü The teacher can provide students with
awareness of phonemes that make up an In-class writing exercise and ask
words. them question to further learning.
ü Problems with understanding what is ü Using books on tape – access to
read. literature.
ü Difficulty with spelling correctly. ü Provide reading materials on child’s
ü Visual hyperactivity. area of interest.
ü Right-left discrimination problems.
ü Visual-motor connection problems.
ü Difficulties in sequencing.
ü Spontaneous and creative writing is
poor.
ü General language deficit.
ü Audio-visual/visual-auditory integration
impaired.

3.2.B. Dysgraphia
Lesson 3.2.B
Lesson 3.1.1
Dysgraphia

Definition
- A difficulty in automatically remembering and mastering sequence of muscle motor
movements needed in writing letters and numbers.
- It is neurologically based and exists in varying degrees ranging from mild to
moderate.
- It can involve difficulties with the physical aspects of writing, spelling, or putting
thoughts on paper

Signs and Symptoms Strategies that help:

ü Cramped fingers on a writing tool; ü Explicit instruction to produce a written
awkward pencil grip word.
ü Bad or illegible handwriting ü Teachers may allow students with a
ü Problems involving the steps of putting disorder in writing expression to use
together a written document. alternative methods (ex. oral report) to
ü Avoidance of tasks that involve writing determine the student’s knowledge of
ü Inconsistence in the way letters and the subject matter instead of asking
words look – mix of upper and lower them to write a paper or take a written
case letters; mix of print and cursive test.
letters; inconsistent letter formations ü Suggest special projects that will build
and slant; irregular letters and shapes. writing skills – write letters to family and
ü Difficulty in writing within the margins or friends, keep a journal, write on a
line spacing and inconsistent spacing. subject matter that interest them.
ü Decreased speed in writing ü Use of computer
ü Inattentiveness about details when
writing.

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3.2.C Dyscalculia
Lesson 3.2.C
Lesson 3.1.1
Dyscalculia

Definition
- A learning disability wherein a child has difficulty in performing math calculations and
math difficulty.

Signs and Symptoms Strategies that help:

ü Poor mental math ability, often with ü Give a child real-life exposures to how
difficulty in common use of money, math is a part of everyday life.
making change. ü Since math is a form of language using
ü Difficulty in math processes (ex. numbers instead of words as symbols,
addition, subtraction, multiplication and communicate frequently and clearly
division) and concepts (ex. sequencing with a child as to what is needed to do
of numbers) a mathematical problem.
ü Poor sense of direction; easily ü Teachers may suggest other textbooks,
disoriented workbooks, or computer programs that
ü Difficulty with abstract concepts of time may give students more opportunities
and direction, schedules, sequence of to practice skills.
past and future events. ü Get a tutor or a learning center to
ü May have difficulty learning musical provide additional enrichment
concepts opportunities.
ü Math phobia ü Praise the child’s accomplishment and
ü Interchanging numbers pay attention to his/her strengths.

Let’s STUDY

Educational Programs for Children with Learning Disability

1. Direct Instruction – specific target learning task are identified; provides a highly structured
and organized teaching strategy; provision of structured, guided and independent demonstration
and practice of skill application with feedback, positive reinforcement, correction, examples,
illustrations, questions and answers directed to the student.

2. Cognitive Instruction – emphasis on attending, responding, rehearsal, recall, and transfer of

information; monitoring and controlling thought process; emphasis on success and
achievement, self-control, self-recording of progress and self-reinforcement; independent
learning; lesson content enhancement to better organize, understand and retain information.

63
3. Multisensory Approach – highly learning by seeing, hearing, touching and movement;
repetition of tasks; reading aloud; employ many learning modalities of senses.

4. Study Skills Training - or Metacognitive Skills training assess the child in learning how to
take notes and tests, prepare compositions, projects and reports; remember to bring necessary
materials to class for assignments; help the child to learn how to use charts, organizers,
outlines, recorders, and computers; help the child to learn to assess and plan how to approach
learning task like following oral and written instructions, skim and locate information, budgeting
time, requesting for help using library references effectively and working independently.
5. Social Skills Training – using positive reinforcement; stressing the understanding of
feelings; teach child how to get along with peers and adults in various settings and
circumstances; help the child achieve self –esteem and self-appreciation; control and mastery
over his/her feelings and events; a sense of adequateness and competency; teach the child
how to resolve conflict, manage frustration and aggression, employ conversational skills,
express feelings and learn how to make friends.

6. Inclusion Strategies – services delivery model for inclusion consists of the following: (1)
instruction in regular education settings on a full-time basis: (2) support and services from
specialist delivered in within the regular school setting; (3) highly structured responsive learning
with build-in diagnostic procedures (4) social and personal development experiences (5)
individually develop educational plans: and (6) flexibility in arranging parts of the learning
environment.

7. Providing Structure and Setting Limits – guided learning, use of reinforcement; consistent
and firm limits.

8. Peer Mediated Instruction – peer teachers, intimate feedback, peer tutoring, improving
social relations.

5. Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) – use to computer software for instruction, tutorial,
sessions, educational games, simultaneous, problem-solving experience, motivating;
attractive instructional intervention.

Let’s TRY THIS

Let’s TRY This (Activity 3.2.1)

Go to your My Activity via Google Classroom. Read the following questions carefully and
choose the one best answer out of the four choices given.

1. In the typical sequence of cognitive development, which of the following abilities would an
individual generally acquire first?
A. Logical thought

B. Classification

64
 C. Abstract reasoning

D. Self-regulation

2. A special education teacher meets twice a week with Dorothy, a ninth grader who has a
learning disability. When reviewing the notes Dorothy has taken in preparation for a geography
report, the teacher sees that they are excessively detailed and do not distinguish between major
ideas and minor points. The teacher’s best response in this situation would be to:

A. Show Dorothy how to use a more telegraphic style when she takes notes

B. Provide Dorothy with index cards to limit the amount of space available for taking notes

C. Remind Dorothy that she can use a photocopier for sections of a source that require
extensive note taking

D. Teach Dorothy how to use text headings and subheadings to focus her note taking on
key concepts
3. A high school student with a learning disability finds transitions between classes confusing. At
the beginning of each class, she has difficulty orienting to the subject and attending to the
teacher’s instructions. The student frequently misses important information and must then either
ask the teacher to repeat the instructions or seek assistance from classmate. Which of the
following would be the special education teacher’s best strategy for addressing this issue?
A. Helping the student learn how to travel between classroom quickly and efficiently so she
will have time to adjust to each new class

B. Asking each teacher to create a printout of the day’s lesson plan for the student to refer
to when entering the classroom

C. Taking steps to ensure that the student is seated next to classmate who are willing to
explain the instructions to her

D. Working with the teachers to establish a set of consistent cues to help the student
become focused when the day’s activities are being introduced
4. A high school sophomore with a reading disability hopes to attend local community college
after she graduates. The student is a shy person who dislike talking about her disability and
seldom speaks during her IEP meetings. Her team members are aware that she will need to
advocate for herself in college. Which of the following would be the IEP team’s best strategy for
helping the student begin to acquire effective self-advocacy skills?

A. Asking the student’s content-area teachers to wait for her to remind them of the
modifications she needs in regard to specific assignments

B. Having an IEP team member visit the college with the student and help her use a
campus map to find the disability support services office

C. Developing a goal specifying that the student will describe her learning needs and
express her feelings and opinions during IEP meetings

D. Having the student create a list of the IEP supports she automatically receives in high
school that she will need to request in college

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5. A seventh-grade student with a learning disability makes many spelling errors in writing.
Which of the following interventions is likely to be most effective in addressing the student’s
spelling needs?
A. Prompting the student to visualize and then spell aloud the letters in a word

B. Supporting the student’s wide reading of a variety of text written at the student’s
independent reading level

C. Giving the student detailed corrective feedback on each misspelled word

D. Providing the student with explicit instruction in phonics and syllabication skills

Lesson 3.3
Ø Learners with, Visual and Hearing Impairments, Speech Communication Disorders and Physical
Disabilities/ Severe and/or Multiple Handicaps

son 3.3 Learners with Physical Disabilities, Visual and Hearing Impairments, Speech Communication Disorders and Severe and/or Multiple Handicaps

Introduction
There are students who have health impairments and acute health problems caused by
asthma, heart diseases, rheumatic fever, and other diseases. Certain cases of health
impairments affect the child’s strength and vitality and may require hospitalization and long
absences from school.
Discussed in this lesson are crippling conditions, cerebral palsy, and epilepsy which are
only a few of the many physical disabilities, health impairments, and severe disabilities that
children and youth suffer from. These disabilities restrict their movements and activities and
their intellectual functioning as well. The children may have normal mental ability but their
conditions limit their participation in class activities: the visual and hearing impaired, speech
communication disorder and severe and/or multiple handicaps. Thus, special education services
are extended to them like the other categories of disabilities discussed in the previous lessons.

WHAT WILL YOU LEARN?

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to do the following:

Ø Define, compare, and contrast the terms physical disabilities, health impairments,
and severe disabilities.
Ø Describe the types and classifications of physical disabilities, chronic illnesses
and health-related conditions.
Ø Examine and discuss the educational programs and support services for students
with physical disabilities (visual, hearing, and speech disorders)

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LET’S THINK AND SHARE

ASYNCHRONOUS: Essential Questions

Think, analyze, and share your ideas, views, and opinions before engaging in the
lesson.
Consider the following questions:
Ø What are the learning and behavioral characteristics of learners with physical
disabilities (visual, hearing, and speech disorders, Cerebral Palsy)?
Ø What are the learning and behavioral characteristics of learners with physical
disabilities (visual, hearing, and speech disorders, Cerebral Palsy)?
Ø What are the definitions, identifications, etiologies assessments and
educational programs for learner’s physical difficulties (visual, hearing, and
speech disorders, Cerebral Palsy.
(Discuss and share your ideas in your class with your Professor during the
synchronous discussion.)

3.3.A Visual Impairment

Lesson 3.3.A
Lesson 3.1.1
q Visual Impairment
Definition
Visual impairment is the consequence of a functional less of vision. Unimpaired vision
has four components:
ü The object to be viewed.
ü The light that reflects the object to the eye.
ü The normally functioning eye to receive the reflections.
ü The occipital lobes of the brain to interpret the signals transmitted from the eye.

A visually handicapped child is one where visual impairment interferes with his/her
optimal learning and achievement unless adaptations are made in the methods of presenting
learning experiences, the nature of the materials used and/or in the learning environment
(Barriga, 1983).
A visual restriction of the visual severity that interferes with normal progress in a regular
educational program without modifications (Schott, 1986).
It is a condition that blocks children from achieving learning as much as they can from
regular schools because they lack necessary visual skill they required from normally seeing
children. They may require special equipment and their teachers need to modify their methods
to cater to the specific needs of the children.

Indicators of Visual Impairment in Children

• Rubs eyes excessively
Behavior • Shuts or covers one eye, tilts head or thrusts head forward
• Has difficulty in reading or in other work requiring close use of

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 the eyes
• Blink more than usual or is irritable when doing close work
• Holds books close to eyes
• Unable to see distant thongs clean
• Squints eyelids together or frowns
• Crossed eyes
• Red-rimmed, encrusted or swollen eyelids
Appearance
• Inflamed watery Eyes
• Recurring sties
• Eye-itch, burn or feel scratchy
• Cannot see well
• Dizziness
Complaints
• Headaches following close eye work
• Nausea
• Blurred or double vision
• Does the child exhibits:
• Clumsiness and trouble walking in unfamiliar settings?
• Holding the head in an awkward position or holding material
close to the eyes to see it?
• Lack attention to written information on blackboards or other
visual presentations?
• A constant need for explanation of what is happening at
Nine warning signs
events?
• Extreme sensitivity to glare, or loss of vision in different types
of light?
• Extreme squinting?
• Excessive eye rubbing?
• Poking the eyes with fingers or knuckles?
• Physical anomalies such as swollen eyes or strabismus?

Characteristics of Visually Impaired Children

• Does not usually seriously affect intellectual functioning
Academic Skills
• Intelligence is notably affected by cumulative experiences
• Usually do not interfere with everyday language usage or
communication abilities
• Slower than sighted children in forming hypothesis about word
meaning
Language • Restricted experiences lead to lack of linguistic experiences
that are only related to their lack of interaction with the
environment
• May indulge in verbalism – a tendency to use words which they
have no first-hand knowledge
Sensory
• If one sense of deficient, other senses are strengthened or
Compensations and
enhanced in part for greater use
Adjustment
• Restricted mobility and consequent limited experiences of
Personal and Social
visually impaired children appear to cause, in some children, a
Adjustments
state of passivity and dependency

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 • Some may become socially immature, self-conscious, isolated,
passive, withdrawn and dependent
• Appropriate smiling and facial expression are difficult for people
with visual impairments
• Presence of stereotypical behaviour - body rocking, eye rubbing
and inappropriate hand and finger movements are all
distracting to peers and interfere with attempts at social
interactions.

Causes of Visual Impairment

• Eye injuries
• Neoplasms (Tumors)
• Malnutrition (Vitamin A Deficiency)
• Substance Abuse
• Systemic Diseases (Diabetes)
• Infectious Diseases (Measles, Trachoma, AIDS, Gonorrhoea)
• Poisoning and excess oxygen

Conditions of the Eye

Refractive disorders:
1. Hyperopia – farsightedness; results from the failure of the cornea and the lens of the eye
to focus light appropriately and allows the individual to focus on objects at a distance but
not when they are close.
2. Myopia – near-sightedness; focus on objects that are close but not at a distance.
3. Astigmatism – results in blurred vision; cause by an uneven curve of the cornea or the
lens of the eye; almost always correctable with surgery or corrective glasses.
4. Cataracts – occurs when the lens becomes clouded and vision is masked.
5. Aniridia (ocular albinism) – lack of color in the iris of the eye, leads to extreme sensitivity
to light and reduced visual acuity.

Classifications of Visual Impairments

q Moderate: The impairment can be almost entirely corrected with the help of visual aids;
children can learn from regular classroom.
q Severe: Necessary use of Visual Aids.
q Profound: The child can no longer use of vision as an educational tool: touch and
hearing are predominant channels of hearing.
q Blindness: Loss of vision

Assessment Process
1. Parental concern about vision
2. Visual faculty screening test failure
3. Ophthalmologist determination of disorder
4. Optometrist and low vision expert determination of whether impairment can be corrected
5. Functional evaluation of low vision
6. Evaluation by an orientation and mobility specialist
7. Intelligence testing by a school psychologist
8. Comprehension determination of the potential effects on academic, communication,
social/emotional, sensorimotor, and orientation and mobility functioning by a teacher of

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 the visually impaired, an orientation and mobility specialist, a speech-language
pathologist and a regular education teacher.
9. Estimate of social and daily living skills needed by a teacher of the visually impaired, an
orientation and mobility specialist, daily living professionals and parents.

Visual Faculty Screening – Snellen chart (measures the child’s ability to use sight to learn to
read).

Curricular Goals
• Parallel to those sighted children: curriculum contents and subjects.
• Emphasizing on listening skills, mobility, skills of daily living, and visual efficiency training
(for low vision training).
• Instruction and proper application of educational equipment and gadget.

Educational Approaches
General Principles for Adapting Instruction to thee Educational Needs of Visually Impaired
Children (Lowenfeld, 1973)
1. Concreteness – children must work with objects they can feel and manipulate
2. Unifying experiences
3. Learning by doing – to learn about the environment, the children must be motivated to
explore the environment
Special Adaptations
For the blind
• Braille – system of reading and writing in which letters, words, numbers and other
systems are made from arranged raised dots
• Sample (A to Z)

For students with low vision

• Optical devices – includes glasses and contact lenses and others
• Reading print material – magnification, lenses and large type books (books with large
fonts)
• Classroom modifications – special lamps, chairs with wheels, clear pathways, situating
materials
For visually impaired
• Listening – recorded materials; synthetic speech equipment

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AIDS TO TEACHING AND LEARNING
ü Braille reading and writing – Braille typewriters, computers, slate and stylus, portable
recorder
ü Listening and comprehension programs
ü Audio aids
ü Calculation aids – talking calculators, abacus mental math
ü Talking/audio books
ü Optical aids
Preventive Measures
1. Increase vitamin A-rich food intake
2. Early diagnosis and treatment
3. Surgery and dedication
4. Primary eye care – protective goggles, use of seatbelts
5. Provision of low-vision care – eyeglasses, eyecups, check-upst’s READ
3.3.C Hearing Impairment

Lesson 3.3.B
Lesson 3.1.1
q Hearing Impairment

What is hearing impairment?

Hearing Impairment is a genetic term indicating hearing disability which may range in
severity from mild to profound; it includes as the subsets of deaf and hard hearing. In
education, a child who needs special services because of a hearing loss.
• Deaf - one who’s hearing disability precludes successful processing of linguistic
formation through information, through audition, with or without a hearing aid.
• Hard of Hearing - one who, generally with the use of hearing aid, has residual hearing
sufficient to enable processing of linguistic information through audition. He/she will need
some necessary special adaptations to learn.
Types of Hearing Loss
1. Conductive Hearing Loss - problem with conducting sound vibes to the inner ear due to
abnormalities and complications of the outer of middle ear.
2. Sensorineural Hearing Loss - defects in the inner ear (cochlea) or auditory nerve
3. Mixed Hearing Loss - Problems in the outer, middle and inner ear (combination of
conductive and sensorineural hearing loss); sounds are distorted.
4. Central Hearing Loss - damage in hearing receptions and pathways of the brain.
5. Congenital - present at birth
6. Adventitious - acquired later in life.
7. Prelinguistic - acquired after the child had developed speech or language.
8. Unilateral- hearing loss in one year, generally learns speech and language without
difficulties; difficulties in localizing sounds and listening in noisy places.
9. Bilateral - hearing loss in both ears.
Causes
Conductive Hearing Impairment Sensorineural hearing Impairment
q Otitis Media (Middle ear Fluid) q Congenital viral infections
q Otitis edema q Maternal Rubella
q Congenital malformation of the outer q Prematurity and Low birth weight
and middle era q Maldevelopment of the inner ear
q Genetic Syndromes q Heredity (congenital or acquired)
q Impacted Cerumen (wax) q Meningitis

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 q Blockage of the external auditory q Measles
meatus by a foreign object q Encephalitis
q Cleft Palate q Mumps
q Traumatic Head injury q Unexplained high fever
q Auditory nerve tumors

Identification of Hearing Problems

Symptoms that might indicate hearing impairment in the classroom:
q Tilting the head at an angle in order to receive a better sound
q Listless or inattentive behavior
q Failure to respond when questioned
q Defective articulation, particularly when sounding of word is important
q Peculiar voice quality, often high-pitched and flattish in nature
q Tendency to avoid association with other people
q Tendency to run words together
q Poor Oral reading ability
q Discrepancy between academic performance and IQ scores
q Louder speech than would be indicated by the situation
q Tendency to watch the face of speaker with considerably greater attention

Complaints of Children who have hearing

External/Appearance Signs
Difficulties:
q Deformation of the outer ear
q Buzzing or Ringing in the head
q Discharge from ear
q Earaches
q Undue Muscular tension
q Nausea or Dizziness
q Breathing Through the mouth
q Inability to understand directions
q Blank facial expression

Identification Process
ü Early detection
ü Audiometric testing-pure-tone audiometry
ü Educational Assessment
ü Communication and Language assessments-expressive and receptive vocabulary skills,
syntactical or grammatical skills, nonlinguistic/ language competence.
ü Intelligence and achievement testing.

Educational Needs and Programs

Degree Probable Educational Needs and Programs
• Attention to vocabulary development
Slight loss • Needs favorable seating and lighting
• May need speech reading instruction and speech correction
• Should be referred to special education evaluation for educational
follow-up
• Favorable seating and possible special education supports
Mild loss
especially for primary age children
• May need speech reading instruction
• Speech conservation and correction

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 • Likely to need a resource teacher or to be in a special class
Moderate loss • Should have special help in language skills, vocabulary
development, usage, reading, writing, grammar, etc.

• Can benefit from hearing aid through evaluation and auditory

training
Moderate loss • Speech reading instruction
• Speech conservation and speech correction

• Likely to need a SPED program with emphasis on language skills,

concept development, speech reading and speech
• Can benefit from individual hearing evaluation
Severe loss • Auditory training on individual and group aids
• Part-time regular class placement as profitable for the student

• Will need SPED

• Needs specialized program supervision and comprehensive support
services
• Continuous appraisal of needs in regard to oral manual
Profound loss
communication
• Auditory training
• Sign language
• Part-time regular class

Academic Curriculum
The academic content for children who are hearing impaired parallels the Content presented to
children who hear normally. Specially modified programs and materials are used for subject
areas such as math, science and the arts.

Five (5) Choices in the Selection and Implementation of Curriculum for Hearing Impaired
Children

1. Use a curriculum that has been specifically designed for students who are hearing
impaired or deaf.
2. Use the general education curriculum, attempting to meet the same standards as for
other students by allowing for special services and special teaching methods.
3. Use the general curriculum, but reduce the level of complexity of materials presented.
4. Use a curriculum from a lower grade level.
5. Use curricula that have been developed for student with other exceptionalities.

LANGUAGE CURRICULUM

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 Major concern is the language curriculum. They may have problems with spoken and
written English; they might need to learn about language through curricular activities that stress
structure and grammar since they do not learn them from hearing.

COMMUNICATION METHODS
A. Oral Methods
1. Oral Aural Method
o Uses SPEECH SOUND as part of the curriculum
o Use of language to transmit information
o Teachers use their voices
o Students use their residual hearing
o Amplification devices are used as hearing aid.
2. Auditory Training
o Use of residual hearing
o Emphasis on amplification of sounds
o Focus on basic sound detection
o Focus on listening sounds
3. Speechreading
o Also called as lip-reading
o Involves careful observation of the entire face
o Used of visual clues
o Required concentration
4. Cued Speech
o Using specific set of hand signals
o Different from sign language
o It must be used by oral speech
o Eight hand shapes used to indicate consonants
o Four hand positions around the mouth and chain to indicate vowels

B. Manual Methods
1. Sign Language
o Use gestures to represent words, ideas and concept
o Hand signals for objects
o Signing systems have their own grammar and syntax
o ASL (American Sign Language) & FSL (Filipino Sign Language) used as
effective sign signals
2. Finger Spelling
o Uses the Manual alphabet
o Consists of 26 special hand and finger position that represents English
letters
o Spells out each word letter by letter using one hand
o Appropriate for proper name
o Necessary to clarify specific concept
3. Simultaneous Communication
o Total communication
o Uses both speech and signing

C. Technology Methods
1. Cochlear Implants
o For sensor neural hearing loss
o An electrical stimulation

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 2. Microcomputers
o For proficiency in reading and writing
3. Assistive Communication Devices
o Teletypewriters, telephone systems, texts
4. Captioning
5. Alerting Devices

3.3.D Speech and Communication Disorder

Lesson 3.3.C.
Lesson 3.1.1
q Speech and Communication Disorder

Disorder of Speech and Language

The entire communication system depends on neurological systems from cognitive
processing of environmental experiences, disruptions in neurological system,
underdevelopment of cognitive skills, or lack of appropriate language experiences can all lead to
speech disorders, language disorders or both.
Communication disorders include both language disorders (understanding and
formulating language) and speech disorders (producing language)
Speech and language are coexisting systems. It is quite common for disruption in none
system to have negative effects upon the other.

Disorders of Speech
Ø A speech disorder is characterized by any impairment of vocal production (voice),
speech, sound production (articulation), fluency (stuttering and related disorders) or a
combination of these impairments.
Ø Speech disorders are present when a child’s speech is so different from what is
expected that it calls attention to itself, is so difficult to understand that it interferes with
communication, or causes distress to the speaker or listener (Van Ripper and Erickson,
1996)

Articulation Disorders
Children with articulation disorders have difficulty in producing speech sounds of their language.
Types of errors in producing sounds:
Error Type Definition Example
Replacing one sound with Standard: The ball is red.
Substitution
another Substitution: The ball is wed.
Producing a sound in an Standard: Give the pencil to Sally.
Distortion unfamiliar way Distortion: Give the p-hencil to Sally
(the /p/ is nalized)
Omission Omitting a sound in a word Standard: Play the piano.

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 Omission: P_ay the piano.

Inserting an extra sound in a Standard: I have a black horse.

Addition
word Addition: I have a black horse.
Common Causes: clefts of the palate, cerebral palsy, traumatic brain injury

VOICE DISORDER
Voice disorders are characterized by abnormalities of pitch, loudness, and quality of
vocal production. The vocal abnormalities may be transient in nature, lasting only a few days or
weeks, or chronic lasting until help is provided to correct them or the circumstances causing
them.
• The pitch of the voice is produced when the vocal folds open and
close as air expelled from the lungs rushes over them causing vocal
fold vibration. The more frequently the cords vibrate, the higher the
perceived pitch of the voice.
• Disorders of pitch occur when the optimal pitch of the voice and the
Pitch
habitual pitch level do not match each other fairly closely.
• Characterized by a pitch problem that sounds too high or too low to
be appropriate for the speaker’s age or sex.
• Causes: failure of the vocal folds to grow appropriately,
paralysis of the vocal cords, growths and diseases
• The loudness of the voice is produced by the amount of energy that
is used to produce vocal sounds. Loudness is related to the volume
of air passes over the vocal cords and the tension of the vocal cords.
• Disorders of voice characterized by loudness manifest themselves in
speakers with voices that are too loud or too soft for the situation in
Loudness
which communication occurs.
• Causes: (loudness) hearing loss, cannot control vocal
mechanism, reared in an environment where he or she must
habitually shout for attention, (softness) shyness, avoidance of
being on the spotlight, child abuse
• Pitch and loudness are part of quality, but the quality feature of a
person’s voice is what gives it the unique characteristics that make it
different from every other person’s voice.
• Excessive or insufficient nasal resonance – problems are caused
when too much (hypernasality) or too little (hyponasality) air passes
through the nose during speech production.
Quality • Breathiness – occurs when the vocal folds do not sufficiently hold
back enough of the breath stream for vocal fold vibration to occur.
Breathy voices have a whisper like quality.
• Harshness (stridency) – is usually the result of excessive strain or
tension.
• Hoarseness – is usually a transitory symptom that most speakers
experience as a result of too much shouting or speaking loudly.

FLUENCY DISORDER
Fluency is the smooth flow of speech that most speakers experience when talking.

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 • Normally fluent speech is not perfect speech. All speakers pause,
Normal hesitate, repeat and misspeak in a variety of ways that are well
disfluencies of within limits of normal communication.
speech • When in stressful situations that cater unfamiliar vocabulary use
most speakers may exhibit some disfluency in speech.
• As children pass through the developmental stages of language
learning, they will be more disfluent at certain times. These are
normal occurrences.
Normal
• Normally communicating children are most disfluent between the
developmental
ages of 2.5 and 4 years – characterized by repetitions of while words
deficiencies
and occasional interjections of ‘uhs” and “ahs”.
• It is a transitional stage that most children outgrow as they master
language.
• Stuttering begins with simple whole-word and sound repetitions and,
if untreated, develops into more complicated patterns characterized
blocks, forcings, substitutions of nonfeared words for feared words,
avoidance of speaking situations, eye closing, jaw tremors and other
facial and bodily contortions.
• The following characteristics need to be present to differentiate
stuttering from other types of disfluency:
1. The behaviour must have a developmental history beginning
in childhood.
Stuttering 2. There are no identifiable etiological or maintaining factors.
3. The repetition patterns differ from those of normal speakers.
4. The characteristics of stuttering can be modified in many
ways.
5. The characteristics of stuttering are not present during fluent
periods.
6. The person who stutters has internalized a belief system
about the difficulty of communication in general and specific
situations on particular.

• Neurogenic disfluency is the direct result of an identifiable

Neurogenic neuropathology in a child with no previous history of fluency
disfluency problems; disfluent behaviours may appear soon after the onset of
some neurological trauma or progressive disease.
• The most striking characteristic of this type of disfluency are its
sudden onset and its relationship to some identifiable emotional
crisis.
1. Emotionally based disfluencies – are allied to a significant
event that puts the child under psychological pressures;
characterized by high frequency or repetition of initial sounds or
Psychogenic
words in sentences or phrases
disfluency
2. Manipulative disfluency – is speech used to control others;
unusual and insistent demands of attention; disfluent, lengthy
repetition of fluent words and a variety of physical movements
and facial grimaces that do not change over time
3. Malingering disfluency – disfluency used purposefully to avoid
responsibilities of assignments
Language delay • Childhood language disorders can have an impact on the ability to

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 speak fluently.
• This form of disfluency is characterized by speeches so disorganized
that it is difficult to understand words.
• Words are spoken at an extremely fast rate, phrases are left
Cluttering uncompleted, and there are frequent repetitions and emissions of
whole words and parts of phrases.
• Speech is stirred, articulation is disorders, the flow of words is
jumbled and speech is produced in spurts.

Identification Process
1. Obtain parental permission
2. Construct case history – records, interview
3. Observations of communication behaviour
4. Evaluations – informal or formal
5. Diagnostic findings
6. Prognosis
7. recommendation
Educational Intervention/Approaches
Curricular Goals
- To prevent the progression of mild speech problems.
- To improve primary linguistic skills and enrich language to lessen isolation for social and
educational surroundings.

Instructional Methods
Early q Develop conceptual knowledge and cognitive processes
Intervention q Foster cooperative play, encourage spontaneous speech and facilitate
Programs interaction between children.
q Make aware of the sounds that they are omitting and distorting and use
this information to correctly produce the sounds.
Treatment Model:
1. Discrimination – ability to listen carefully and detect the differences
between simple sounds
Articulation
2. Phonological – seek to identify the sound’s pattern and to teach the
child to produce gradually more stable sounds
3. Sensorimotor – emphasizes on the production of sounds
4. Operant conditioning – present specific stimuli and shape articulatory
responses by providing reinforcing consequences
q Learn to produce normal sounding vocal tones
q Direct vocal rehabilitation – include exercises to increase breathing
capacity, relaxation techniques to reduce tension or procedures to
Voice increase or decrease loudness of speech
q Computer technology – to be able to monitor their own vocalization
visually as well as auditory and to develop new patterns of using their
voices more naturally and efficiently
q Symptoms modification – develop the person’s ability to control stuttering
and to behave appropriately in situations wherein communications is
Fluency
required
q Fluency reinforcement – a therapist using the methodology with regard

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 stuttering as learned response and would seek to eliminate it by
encouraging fluent speech
q Therapy for developmental disorders of language – focus on
strengthening the specific components of language that are disordered
the context of the classroom curriculum and ongoing social activities.
Language
q Therapy for acquired disorders of language – language exercises that
systematically target the components of form, content and use; activities
targeted to use the child’s strengths to compensate for the weaknesses.
q Alternative and augmentative communication – communication boards,
Technology computers, speech synthesizers
q Facilitating devices – tape recorders, videos, personal computers

Let’s View

Let’s View (Activity 3.3.1)

Let’s View (Activity 3.3.1).To enhance your understanding on children with

communication disabilities, go to My Supplementary Materials/Required Readings
Packet via Google Classroom. Let’s view the video” Documentary: Children Living
with Communication Disorder” link: [Link]
3.3.5 Severe and/or Multiple Handicaps

Lesson 3.3.D
Lesson 3.1.1
q Physical Disability/Severe and/or Multiple Handicaps

What is Physical Disability?

Physical Disability is a condition that interferes with the child’s ability to use his/her body.
A person is handicapped if he/she has a mental or physical impairment that substantially limits
participation in one or more life activities. When a physical disability or health condition
interferes with a child’s ability to take part in routine school or home activities, the child has a
physical handicap.

Classification and Characteristics

• Orthopedic Impairment

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 - Involves the skeletal system; bones, joints, limbs and associated muscles.
• Neurological Impairment
- Involves the nervous system affecting the ability to move, use, feel or control
certain parts of the body.
Whatever the cause, both impairments are frequently described in terms of the affected parts of
the body.
• Plegia
- Derived from the Greek word “to strike”; often used in combination to indicate
the location of limb involvement.
• Quadriplegia – all four limbs are affected: movement of the trunk and
face may also be impaired.
• Paraplegia – motor impairment of the legs only.
• Hemoplegia – one side of the body.
• Diplegia – major involvement of legs, with less severe involvement of
the arms.
• Monoplegia – only one limb is affected.
• Triplegia – three limbs are affected.
• Double hemiplegia – major involvement of the arms with less severe
involvement of the legs.

ü Children with severe and multiple disabilities may have an extensive range of physical
problems and co-existing intellectual challenges. These children experience more than
one disability. Some of these children’s disabilities are so severe that they need
intensive assistance or support for their entire lives. Many may also be profoundly
mentally retarded.
ü Severely handicapped children are those who because of the intensity of their physical,
mental or emotional problems, or a combination of such problems, need educational,
social, psychological and medical services beyond those which are traditionally offered
by regular and special education programs in order to maximize their potential for useful
and meaningful participation in society and self-fulfillment.
ü Person with sever handicaps include individuals of all ages who require extensive
ongoing support in more than one life activity in order to participate in integrated
community settings and to enjoy quality of life that is available to citizens with fewer or
no disabilities. Support may be required for life activities such as mobility,
communication, self-care, and learning as necessary for independent living employment
and self-sufficiency.

CHARACTERISTICS
General Characteristics:
q Learn much more slowly than any other group of children
q Have of both obvious and not-so-obvious disabilities which require special additions or
adaptation in their education.
q Exhibit extreme deficits in intellectual functioning and may also need special services.
q Encompasses students with severe and profound education autism and/or
physical/sensory impairments combined with marked development delay
q Have more than one disability
q Manifest poor ability in multiple life-skill or developmental areas
q Limited speech or communication
q Difficulty in basic physical mobility
q Inability to care for themselves

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 q Failure to relate or to attend to others
q A tendency toward self-injury or abuse
q Long term medical needs

Intellectual Functioning
q Many bit not all individual with severe and multiple abilities have impairments in
intellectual functioning as determined by intelligence test score

Academic Skills
q Most cannot perform traditional academic task
q Some students can benefit from functional, educational and academic skills programs
with sufficient alternative abilities they can succeed in general education classes.

Self-care skills
q Many individuals, with appropriate support can learn to take care of their own needs
such as dressing, personal hygiene, toileting and feeding and may successfully master
some household chores.

Social skills
q Majority of them do not have typical social skills nor the opportunities for social
interaction that might enable them to develop social skills
q Some are withdrawn, or reciprocal interpersonal relationships with teachers and family
q Provision of enriching opportunities for participation in the community, with appropriate
employment and living situations

Delayed motor development

q Exhibit a significant delay in motor development
q Can learn to walk with assistance
Health care needs
q Some may need assistance- tube feeding, respiratory ventilation, administration of
medication

Communication skills
q Majority display serious communication problems or even failure to acquire speech and
language.

Sensory impairment- combination of impairments are common to many individuals with severe
and multiple disabilities

Major Categories
• Defined in terms of the retardation rather than the handicapped
Moderately
• Affects both cognitive abilities (intelligence) and adaptive skills
Handicapped
• IQ score of 54 and below
• Has an intense or severe handicapped
• Will need an educational program that is high individualized
Severely
• May need auxiliary services like therapies
Handicapped
• Programs focus on necessary skills for greater dependent
functioning and self-fulfillment
Major Categories • Autism

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 • Deaf and blindness
• Behavior Disturbance and Hearing Impairment
• Mental Retardation with another disability
• Mental Retardation and Cerebral Palsy

Educational Intervention/Approaches
Curricular Goals
• Contemporary Curriculum content for students with severe handicaps is characterized
by its focus on functional skills that can be used in immediate and future domestic,
vocational community and recreational/leisure environments.
• Educational programs are future-oriented in their effects to teach skills and behavior that
will enable students with severe handicaps to be as independent to be as independent
and productive as possible after they leave school.
• Mastery of communication skills is usually the major aim of the curriculum. The teacher
does not teach isolated skills-activities and routines are combined with functional
communication as well as physical and social skills.
• Personnel such as physical, occupational, occupational and speech therapists will assist
providing appropriate therapies.

Included in the curriculum are:

Functionality Skills that are immediately useful to the students and is frequently
demanded in the child’s natural environments.
Chronological-age Participate in activities that are also appropriate for non-
appropriateness handicapped students of their own chronological age.
Partial participation Some individuals with severe disabilities are not able to
independently perform all the steps of a given task or activity that
can often be taught to do selected components or an adapted
version of the task.
Making choices Efforts are being made to help students with severe handicaps learn
to function more independently and make decisions about matters
that will affect them.
Communication skills Many students with severe handicaps are able to learn to
understand and produce spoken language; speech is always a
desirable goal for those who can attain it.
Vocational training Persons with the most severe disabilities may also have potential for
productive work it given the right training and support
Recreational Skills Teaching appropriate leisure skills to severely handicapped students
interact socially, maintain their physical skills and became more
involved in community activities.

Educational Considerations
Environmental Modifications
• Alignment and proximal support of the body.
• Stability positively affects the use of the upper body
Positioning
• Good positioning can reduce deformity
• Positions must be changed frequently

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 • Pelvic positioning- weight distributed in both sides of the buttocks.
Proper Seating • Foot support
• Shoulder and upper trunk support
• Physical strength and endurance
Mobility • Therapy
• Use of devices
• Changes in location of materials and equipment
• Work surface modification
Modifications
• Object modification
• Manipulation aids

Instructional Priorities
Instructional time must be spent teaching skills that are frequently in children’s everyday
lives at home or in the community. These skills are critical for successful integration and
personal survival.

Technology

ü Foster the development and use of computer technology for people with
disabilities in education, assessment, vocational training and transition from
school to employment.
ü Communication boards, typewriters and other electronic devices can be adapted
electronically or mechanically through the use of indigenously designed switches
that enable people with disabilities to enhance their motor skills and compensate
for poor coordination.
ü Video game technology and videotaping can be used with students to teach
social skills and communication and to stimulate community-based instruction
and behavior management.

Let’s Try This (Activity 3.3.2)

Go to your My Activity via Google Classroom and answer the following questions:
Directions: Read the following questions carefully and choose the one best answer out of the
four choices given.

1. Teaching a student to use manual signs or sign language to communicate wants and needs
is most appropriate when the student’s disability primarily affects his or her ability to:
A. Control gross-motor movements

B. Understand basic concepts of symbolism

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 C. Produce oral language

D. Process auditory signals correctly

2. A special education teacher works with a student who has epilepsy involving generalized
tonic-clonic seizures. If the student has a seizure in class, the teacher should first.
A. Attempt to gently restrain the student to minimize muscle jerks

B. Removed objects located around or near the student that could possibly cause injury

C. Call or locate the school nurse to attend to the student

D. Place an object such as belt or wallet in the student’s mouth to keep the airway open

3. An elementary school student with severe physical disabilities requires adult assistance with
feedings. Which of the following information would be most important for the student’s special
education teacher to know in this situation?

A. Whether the student is able to partially hold eating utensils or cups

B. How much food and liquid the student commonly consumes at home

C. Whether the student has demonstrated preferences for certain foods

D. What type of consistency the student’s foods and liquids should be

4. A twelfth grade student with physical disability has experienced two serve episodes of
depression within the past year and is currently taking an antidepressant medication. As the
student approaches graduation and the transition from high school to college, it would be most
important for the student to:

A. Reconsider whether going to college is a realistic goal

B. Develop friendships with peers who have similar disabilities

C. Rely more on family members regarding important decisions

D. Learn how to access counseling services as needed

5. Compared to a young child with normal vision, a young child with a visual impairment is likely
to find it significantly more challenging to:

A. Develop a sense of identity

B. Acquire incidental information from the environment

C. Maintain positive peer relationships

D. Comprehend concrete concepts through direct instruction

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Lesson 3.4 Learners who are Gifted and talented

Lesson 3.4
Ø Learners who are Gifted and Talented
INTRODUCTION
The nature of human intellect has fascinated scholars and became subjects of debates,
studies, and propositions, as early as during the time of the Greek philosophers Plato and
Aristotle. When the field of psychology become to emerge in the 17th and 18th centuries as a
discipline separate from philosophy, mathematics, and biology, individuals such as John Locke,
Charles Darwin, Francis Galton, and Charcot continued to influence the study of intelligence.
In the latter part of the 20th century, new statistical designs and modern experimental
strategies were developed that made psychological testing popular in most Western countries.
The theory of multiple intelligences began to appear in the work of Thunderstone and Guilford.
While a big number of definitions of intelligence have been published, there seems to be
no consensus or agreement on what intelligence actually is. Cattell (1971) defines intelligence
as a composite or combination of human traits which include the capacity for insight into
complex, all of the processes involved in abstract thinking, and a capacity to acquire new
capacity.
This lesson covers the central concepts on giftedness and talent, the theories and
definitions of human intelligence with expanded presentations on the multiple intelligences
theory by Howard Gardner. The emerging paradigms and various definitions of giftedness and
talent, the characteristics of gifted and talented persons, assessment procedures, and
instructional accommodations are presented as well.

WHAT WILL YOU LEARN?

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to do the following:

Ø Examine and discuss theories supporting the nature of human intelligences
Ø Compare and contrast the various definitions of giftedness and talent
Ø Describe the assessment procedures, curricular program, and instructional
systems for gifted and talented students.

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 ASYNCHRONOUS: Essential Questions
Think, analyze, and share your ideas, views, and opinions before engaging in the
lesson.
Consider the following questions:
Ø What are the learning and behavioral characteristics of learners who are
gifted and talented?
Ø What are the definitions, identifications, etiologies assessments and
educational programs for learners who are gifted?
(Discuss and share your ideas in your class with your Professor during the
synchronous discussion.)

Gifted and Talented

• Those who score in the top 2% on standardized tests of intelligence. (Lewis Terman,
1925)
• Children capable of high performance include those with demonstrated achievement
and/or potential abilities in any of the following areas singly or in combination:
1. General intellectual aptitude
2. Specific academic aptitude
3. Creative or productive
4. Leadership ability
5. Visual and performing arts (Martland, 1972)
• Children and youth with outstanding talent perform or show the potential for performing
at remarkably high levels of accomplishment when compared with others of their age
experience or environment.
• Those possessing or are capable of developing an interaction of three basic cluster of
human traits above average general abilities, high levels of task commitment & high
levels of creativity – apply them to any potentially valuable area of human performance.
Characteristics of Gifted and Talented Students
Cognitive Domain

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 • Extraordinary quantity of information
• Advanced comprehension
• Unusually varied interests and curiosity
• High level of verbal, visual and spatial ability
• Unusual capacity for processing information
• Flexible and accelerated pace of thought processes
• Comprehensive synthesis
• Ability to generate original ideas and solutions
• Early differential patterns of thought processing
• Persistent goal-directed behavior
Affective domain
• Unusual sensitivity to the expectations and feelings for others
• Keen sense of humor – may be gentle or hostile
• Heightened self-awareness accompanied by feeling of being “different”
• Earlier development of an inner locus of control and satisfaction
• Advanced level of moral judgment
• High expectations of self and others which lead to high levels of frustration of self, other
situations
• Unusual emotional depth and intensity
• Physical Domain
• Unusual discrepancy between physical and intellectual development
• Low tolerance for the lag between their standards and their physical capacity
• Cartesian split – can include neglect of physical well-being and avoidance of
physical active.
Intuitive Domain
• Early involvement and concern for intuitive knowing psychic and metaphysical
ideas and phenomena
• Creativity apparent in all areas of endeavor
• Open to experiences in this area
• Acceptance and expression of a high level of intuitive ability, especially with the
highly gifted
Social Domain
• Strongly motivated by self-actualization needs
• Advanced cognitive and affective capacity for conceptualizing and solving
societal problems

Ways of Identifying Gifted Children:

Any program for identifying children in a school system should include both subjective
and objective methods of evaluation such as intelligence scores, creativity measures,
achievement measures, and teacher motivation.
The Intelligence Scores are data gathered from the group intelligence test that can be
used to identify exceptional students.
The Creativity Measures focus on the potential by extracting originality and other
important elements from the creative process and using them to create a test that focuses on

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fluency, flexibility, and originality. On the other hand, Achievement Measures, which is widely
used in the visual and performing arts, determine the talents by the consensus of expert judges
Educational Considerations/ Approaches
Curricular Goals:
1. The fullest possible development of every child’s actual potential and skills.
2. Educational objectives focuses on knowledge, content, and abilities to use and develop that
knowledge effectively.
3. To develop affective, cognitive, and generative skills to the fullest.
4. Enrichment – experiences that make youngsters investigative topics of interest in much
greater details.
5. Administrative placement options.
Learning Models:
1. Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Cognitive Domain)
2. Renzulli’s Enrichment Triad Model
3. Bett’s Autonomous Learner Model
4. Clark’s Integrative Education Model
5. Maker’s Integrated Curriculum Model
Placement Options for Educating Students Who Are Gifted and Talented
1. Flexible Placing
- any provision that places students at an appropriate instructional level and allows them
to move forward in the curriculum as they achieve mastery of content and skills.
2. Early Entrance
- students enter elementary or high school earlier that age mates.
3. Continuous Progress
- allows students to progress at their own rate. Requires higher level of individualization
4. Course Acceleration
(subject skipping) students are needed to “test out” and bypass specific subjects or skill levels.
They might receive instruction at a higher level with another group of student yet remain with an
advanced group for most of their instruction

ASSYNCHRONOUS Activity 3.4.1

ASYNCHRONOUS (Activity 3.4.1)
Go to My Supplementary Materials / Required Readings Packet via Google
Classroom .Let us read vignettes on children who are gifted and talented:
Emil Justin Cebrian
Omar Parrenas Rizwan
Karel
Link:
Should gifted students like them be educated with their same-age peers (in general
education classes) or in heterogeneous groups of students who share similar
intellectual
Source: and T.
Inciong, academic talentsIntroduction
G, [Link], (2007). and interests? In a five
to Special sentence
Education. (Edparagraph, explain
2007). Rex Book Stor
your answer. Submit it to your My Activity.

88
Lesson 3.5 Learners with Socio-Emotional Disorder

Lesson 3.5
Ø Learners with Socio-Emotional Disorder
INTRODUCTION
There are students who make an incredible mark in school not for their performance in
academic work but for their undesirable and unacceptable behavior that violates the school
rules and regulations. These are the boys and girls who are often “sent to the guidance office”
for various reasons: bad conduct behavior that disrupts class activities, aggressive behavior,
and physical attack on their classmates, stealing, lack of manners, and respect towards old
people as well as peers and similar behavior problems. These children and youth are referred to
as emotionally disturbed, socially maladjusted, with emotional and behavioral disorders or
simply with behavioral problems.
The aforementioned labels are found in the area of emotional and behavioral disorders
(EBD).

WHAT WILL YOU LEARN?

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to do the following:

Ø Explain the concepts on personality development, adaptive, and maladaptive
behavior.
Ø Enumerate and explain the characteristics, classification, and potential causes of
socio-emotional disorders.
Ø Describe the assessment tools and educational approaches for this type of
learners.

Let’s Thinkd and Share

ASYNCHRONOUS: Essential Questions
Think, analyze, and share your ideas, views, and opinions before engaging in the lesson.
Ø Consider the following questions:
Ø What are socio-emotional disorders?
Ø When may a child be described as with emotional and behavioral disorders?
Ø What are the characteristics, types, and potential causes of socio-emotional
disorders?
Ø What educational interventions can help these children?
(Discuss and share your ideas in your class with your Professor during the
synchronous discussion.)

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 Social/Emotional disabilities in students can present some of the most difficult
challenges to teachers. Like some disabilities, these impairments may be hidden or latent, with
little or no effect on learning. Unlike students with other kinds of disabilities, emotional
disabilities may manifest themselves in behavior ranging from indifference to
disruptiveness. Such conduct may make it difficult to remember that students with emotional
and social impairments have little control over their disabilities.

Children should be identified under this category if they have demonstrated one or more of the
following characteristics over a period of time, to a marked degree that adversely impacts their
educational performance:

• An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors;

• An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and
teachers;
• Inappropriate types of behaviors or feelings under normal circumstances;
• A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression; or
• A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school
problems.
Some common examples for children who would have Social/Emotional disability as the
categorized disability on the NCCD include:

• Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) – where adjustments are made primarily for social-
emotional support
• Anxiety disorders
• Obsessive Compulsive disorders
• Oppositional Defiant Disorder
• Depression
• Eating Disorders
• Reactive Attachment Disorder
• Bipolar Disorder

3.5.1 Emotional and Behavioral Disorders

Lesson 3.5.1
Lesson 3.1.1
q Emotional and Behavioral Disorders
The definitions used for emotional and behavioral disorders vary. However, accepted
definitions propose that the presenting problem behavior have the following characteristics:

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 1. They exist to a marked extent and are notably serious.
2. They are chronic or exist over a long period of time (three to six months)
3. There is a high rate or frequency of exhibited behavior.
4. There is an intense, dramatic, or overwhelming behavioral response.
5. Unacceptable behavioral episodes last far beyond expected duration.
6. Personal difficulties adversely affect school performances.

Emotional and Behavioral Disorders (EBD)

refer(s) to a condition which:
I. Behavioral or emotional responses of an individual in school are so different from his/her
generally accepted age-appropriate, ethnic or cultural norms that they adversely affect
educational performance in such areas as self-care, social relationships, personal
adjustment, academic progress, classroom behavior or work adjustment. Such a disability is:
a. More than a temporary expected response to stressful events in the environment;
b. Consistently exhibited in two different settings, at least one which is school
related; and
c. Unresponsive to direct intervention in general education of the child’s condition is
such that general education in general education interventions would be
insufficient.

II. Emotional and behavioral disorders can co-exist with other disabilities.
III. This category may include children or youth with schizophrenic disorders or other
sustained disturbances of conduct or adjustment when they adversely affect educational
performance.
Some common school related behaviors:
1. High rate of absenteeism and tardiness.
2. Failing most subjects.
3. Not completing assignments.
4. Returning assignments late, soiled, messy sometimes with written profanity
directed toward the teacher.
5. Difficulty in following directions and maintaining attention.

.
Children with EBD have potential to succeed in school but lack the secondary skills such as
attending, following directions and using tools appropriately, which lead to school failure (Trippe,
1966).

Characteristics of Learners with EBD:

q Avoidance of contact with others q Exaggerated or bizarre mannerisms
q Avoidance of eye contact with others q Fails in tests and quizzes
q Ritualistic behavior q Few or no friends
q Chronic disobedience q Frequent or persistent verbalization
q Covert or overt hostility about suicide
q Disorganization in routine tasks or q Frequent unexplained illnesses
spatial orientation q Frequent unexplained crying
q Temper tantrums q Low frustration level
q Disturbances of sleep or eating habits q Hyperactivity
q Emotional isolation q Inability to complete tasks

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q Inability to concentrate q Need for constant assurance
q Inappropriate noises and verbalizations q Repetitive behavior
q Poor attention q Self-mutilation
q Inconsistency in academic performance q Self-stimulation
q Inconsistent in friendships q Severe reactions to changes in
q Lethargy routine
q Lack of contact with reality q Sexual deviation
q Pessimistic q Truancy
q Extreme mood changes q Unexplained “accidents”
q Phobic-type reactions q Unexplained academic decline
q Physical withdrawal from touch q Lack of motivation
q Physical aggressiveness toward q Unreasonable fears
others or property q Verbal aggression
q Rapid or severe changes in mood q Verbal disruptiveness
q Dental of responsibility of actions

Learning Competence
1. Attention level – making contact with the environment
2. Response level – active motor and verbal participation
3. Order level – following instructions, rules and routines
4. Exploratory level – accurately and thoroughly investigate the environment
5. Social level – interactions with others
6. Mastery level – involved skills related to self-care, academics and vocational interest.

Degree of Severity has 2 levels:

1. Mild – could respond to interventions provided in regular classrooms by regular teachers
with support from guidance counselors.
2. Severe – need intense treatment programs and residential treatment.
Causes of Emotional Behavioral Disorder
Biological Influence
: Biological influence occurring before birth.
Prenatal
: Genetically transmitted problems and predispositions
: Biological influence occurring after birth –diseases _____ that may cause
neurological impairment or mental disorder.
Post-natal
: Brain damage cause by diseases or exposure to toxic substances.
: Nutritional deprivation

Environmental Influence
§ Shapes how we perceive and respond to the world around us,
Cultural
expectations.
Home § Parenting styles, discipline patterns
§ Curriculum factors may influence classroom behavior, failure,
School
stress, school’s physical; environment
§ Significant influence on sexual attitudes, sexual behavior
Peers
management of aggression, moral standards, emotional security.

Educational Intervention/Approaches
Identification Process
1. Behavior rating or inventory skills
2. Interviews (teacher, parents, peers, child)

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 3. Ecological assessments – observations conducted in the home and classroom isolating
factors that appear to affect or exacerbate the child’s behavior problem. Social workers
often perform evaluations.
4. Self-reports/self-concept measures – level of anxiety, impulsivity or aggression.
5. Projective test- are developed to help individuals reveal inner wishes, conflicts, feelings
and fantasies (ex. Rorschach , sentence or word completion test)
6. Achievement and IQ test
“The most effective approach in conducting, screening and diagnosing procedures is a
systematic, comprehensive and multidisciplinary approach.”

Let’s Try This (Activity 3.5.1)

Go to your My Activity via Google Classroom and answer the following questions:
Directions: Read the following questions carefully and choose the one best answer out of the
four choices given.

1. According to research, the most favorable classroom environment for students with
emotional disturbances is characterized by frequent:

A. Reminders about the consequences of inappropriate behavior

B. Opportunities for independent, self-directed learning

C. Praise and positive reinforcement of desired behavior

D. Re-evaluation of class rules and expectations based on student input

2. A student with special needs who attends a fourth-grade general education class
has been having difficulty during quiet work times. The student often disturbs peers
by engaging in behaviors such as tapping his pencil loudly on his desk, humming, or
stomping his feet on the floor. The teacher has discussed these behaviors with
student. Which of the following strategies should the teacher use next to increase
the student’s self-management skills during quiet work times?

A. Creating a behavior chart to tally how often the student engages in distracting
behaviors and providing a reward as he reduces these behaviors

B. Developing a visual cue to use with the student to help increase his
awareness of when he is engaging in distracting behaviors

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 C. Having the student move his desks to work in a separate area of the
classroom when he becomes distracting to others

D. Meeting with the student each morning to review the behaviors he needs to
reduce and providing him with feedback about his progress at the end of
each day

3. A 14-year-old student with a moderate intellectual disability attends general

education classes part-time. The student has a limited number of social interactions
with peers in this setting. She has trouble initiating such interactions, and her
classmates, while friendly toward her, tend not to involve her in their conversation or
activities. Which of the following strategies would likely be most effective in fostering
the student’s ability to engage in social interaction with her fellow students?

A. Arranging for selected peers to participate regularly with the student in leisure
activities, such as board games and art projects

B. Asking the student’s family to plan regular outings to environments, such as

school athletic events, that provide opportunities for spontaneous social
interaction

C. Identifying qualified classmates who can work with the student as one-on-one
tutors in various subject areas

D. Assigning the student, a full-time para educator to provide her with

individualized instruction in discrete social skills

4. Which of the following behavior patterns in an eighth-grade student most clearly

indicates a delay in the area of social emotional development?

A. Expressing uncertainty with regard to personal life goals

B. Choosing to interact primarily with same-gender peers

C. Exhibiting moodiness and sensitivity in interactions with adults

D. Tantruming, tearing papers, or blaming others when frustrated

5. Signs of depression in a high school student would most typically include:

A. Irritability

B. Pervasive feelings of sadness

C. Rapid weight gain

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 D. absenteeism

3.5.2 Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder (AD/HD)

Lesson 3.5.2
Lesson 3.1.1
q Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder (AD/HD)
Definition
It is a neurologically- based developmental disability which revolves around inattentiveness,
impulsivity and hyperactivity

Types of AD/HD
Children with AD/HD that have little or no trouble
AD/HD Predominantly Inattentive sitting still or inhibiting behavior but may be
Type predominantly inattentive and have great difficulty
getting or staying focused on a task or activity
Children who may be able to pay attention to task
AD/HD Predominantly Hyperactive – but lose focus because they may be predominantly
Impulsive Type hyperactive – impulsive thus having trouble
controlling impulse and activity
AD/HD Predominantly Combined These children have significant symptoms of all of
Type the three characteristics

Characteristics, Indicators, and Symptoms of AD/HD

1. Inattention
q Attention is a process that has different parts – focus, select, sustain and resist shift
q Having short attention and distractible (refers to the short attention span and the
ease with which some children can pull off a task)
q Difficulty on concentrating on tasks
q Get lost in the directions along the way
Symptoms of that Inattention as listed in the DSM-IV
(Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorder)
- Often fails to give close attention to details or makes careless mistakes in
schoolwork, works or in other activities
- Often does not seem to listen when spoken to directly
- Often does not follow through an instruction and fails to finish schoolwork, chores or
duties in a workplace (not due to oppositional behavior or failure to understand
instructions.
- Often does not seem to listen when spoken to directly
- Often have difficulty organizing tasks and activities
- Often avoids, dislikes or is reluctant to engage in tasks that required sustained
mental effort (such as schoolwork or homework)
- Often loses things necessary for tasks or activities (ex. Toys, school assignments,
pencils, books, etc.)
- Is often distracted by extraneous stimuli

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 - Is often forgetful of daily activities

2. Hyperactivity
Symptoms of Hyperactivity as listed in the DSM-IV
(Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders)
- Often fidgets with hands or feet or squirms in seat
- Often leaves eat in a classroom or in other situations in which remaining to be seated
is expected
- Often runs about or climbs excessively in situations in which it is inappropriate (in
adults or adolescents may be subjected to feelings of relentlessness)
- Often has difficulty playing or engaging in leisure activities quietly
- Is often “on the go” or acts as if “driven by a motor”
- Often talks excessively

3. Impulsivity
q It is NOT acting without thinking – cognitive impulsivity
q Act before thinking because they have difficulty waiting or delaying gratification
q Displays behavior that is risky but the child just has difficulty controlling impulse and
will often be surprised to discover that he or she has gotten into a dangerous
situation and has no idea how to get out of it.
Causes of ADHD
q Exact causes till remains unknown
q Parent and teachers do not cause AD/HD
q Heredity – early research has shown that children with AD/HD are four times as likely to
have family members with AD/HD as normal children
q Brain Physiology – causes of the disorder involves a dysfunction of the brain though it is
unclear whether the dysfunction is a cause or a symptom of a disorder
q Neurobiological-based developmental disability
q Sometimes AD/HD symptoms develop as a result of unrelated medical illnesses that
affect brain functioning.
q Environmental factors – most research does not support environmental causes with the
exception of lead exposure
q Allergic reactions
q Fluorescent lighting that flickers at a low rate was also a suggested cause
q Diet – refined sugar or food additives, artificial colorings or preservations

Assessment
q No simple test such as a blood test exist to determine if a child has this disorder
q Diagnosing AD/HD is complicated – like putting together a puzzle
q Assessment should be conducted by a well – trained professional (developmental
pediatrician, psychologist, psychiatrist, neurologist, SPED diagnostician) who knows
about AD/HD and all other symptoms similar to those of AD/HD
q Diagnosis is based on observable behavior symptoms in multiple settings.

An assessment must include the following:

• Thorough medical and family history

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 • Physical examination
• Interviews with parents, the child and the child’s teacher
• Behavior rating scales, completed by parents and teachers
• Observation of the child
• A variety of psychological tests to measure IQ, social and emotional adjustment as
well as to indicate presence of the specific learning disabilities

Treatment
• No cure or “Quick Fix”
• Symptoms can be managed through a combination of effects – multi-management
approach

Let’s Try This (Activity 3.5.2)

Go to your My Activity via Google Classroom and answer the following questions:
Directions: Read the following questions carefully and choose the one best answer out of the
four choices given.
1. Which of the following factors is likely to have the most significant positive impact on the
quality of the adult life of a student with ADHD?

A. The extent to which the student develops compensatory strategies for functioning in
a variety of environments

B. The number of years the students spends receiving special education services

C. The degree to which the student is aware of the legal rights to full participation and
access to academic and nonacademic services

D. The age at which the student begins to receive training in career or vocational skills

2. A ninth-grade student with ADHD generally comprehends content while reading his content-
area textbooks but has significant difficulty retaining and retrieving information after reading.
The student would likely benefit most from instructions in which of the following strategies?

A. Recognizing the organized structure of a text

B. Asking himself questions about what he has read

C. Using context clues to determine word meaning

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 D. Pausing frequently to paraphrase what he has read

3. An eighth-grade student has recently begun taking a prescribed stimulant medication for
ADHD. The student’s teachers should be aware that common side effects of taking such
medication include:

A. Low blood pressure and feeling faint

B. Insomnia and loss of appetite

C. Fidgeting and inability to concentrate

D. Poor circulation and chills

4. A teacher wishes to use positive reinforcement to address the frequent out-of-seat behavior
of a seventh-grade student with ADHD. Which of the following teacher actions would best
serve this purpose?

A. Smiling at the student when he is working at his desk

B. Moving toward the student when he starts to get up from his desk

C. Ignoring the student when he leaves his desk

D. Praising the student’s classmates for remaining at their desks

5. A tenth-grade student with ADHD has difficulty organizing her ideas in writing. Which of the
following interventions is likely to be most effective in improving the student’s writing skills?

A. Providing the student with opportunities to discuss her ideas with a teacher or
peers to help her clarify and elaborate her thoughts

B. Engaging the student in prewriting activities in which she brainstorms lists of words
and phrases related to the topic of a writing assignment

C. Teaching the student how to use concept mapping that allows her to visually
represent and manipulate her ideas

D. Having the student free write in a journal about her ides on the topic of a writing
assignment before beginning to write

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Let’s Apply What You’ve Learned

ASYNCHRONOUS
Let’s Apply What You Have Learned Activity 3.5.3
PROJECT-BASED Collaborative Work : Infographic
In group of 10,make an Infographic on the different Types, identifications, Etiologies,
Causes, Characteristics of Children with Special Needs. Submit your output in your My
Project via Google Classroom
You can either publish your output in your own website or on one of a number of
infographic hosting sites. Provide the link to your Google Classroom.
Note: You can customize your infographic using Google Docs and Google Slides, etc.

3.6 Learners in Difficult Circumstances

Lesson 3.6
Ø Learners in Difficult Circumstances
INTRODUCTION
Some students come from a range of socioeconomic and cultural backgrounds. Many of
our students have behavioral and disciplinary challenges that result from issues such as
poverty, living in remote places, victims of war, products of broken family, street
children/children from impoverished family, and homelessness. Students and teachers are often
faced with dire situations far outside their control especially in difficult and problematic
circumstances. This can be very challenging on the part of the teachers. This lesson tackles
these students with issues that are far outside of the classroom, yet impact learning. Students
who face trauma certainly require special accommodations. These students are being forced to
deal with significant, difficult, and interrelated challenges outside of the classroom that inevitably
impact academic performance.

WHAT WILL YOU LEARN

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to do the following:
Ø Discuss the importance of the relationship between the teacher and the
student living in difficult circumstances
Ø Identify children living in stressful and dysfunctional situations
. Ø Examine the impact of conflicts, violence on children; how to support children
and adolescents living in difficult circumstances

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 ASYNCHRONOUS: Essential Questions
Think, analyze, and share your ideas, views, and opinions before engaging in the
lesson.
Ø Who are children in difficult circumstances
Ø How can you support learners living under difficult circumstances?
Ø How will you handle children in difficult circumstances?
Ø What educational support and services can be given to children in difficult
circumstances?
(Discuss and share your ideas in your class with your Professor during your
Synchronous discussion.)

There are children who are not fortunate enough to receive an environment which is
conducive to provide appropriate development opportunities. The need to protect some children
is certainly greater than others due to their specific socio-economic and political circumstances
and geographical location. They are more vulnerable in terms of the risk to their right to survival,
development, protection and participation. These are the children in especially difficult
circumstances. Over the years, based on the social conditions, economic involvement, familial
situation and conditions of living, children have been categorized as those in difficult
circumstances. This category of children with special needs is presented in more details in the
following articles Let us learn more about this group of children in the next activity.

ASYNCHRONOUS (Activity3.6.1 )
Go to My Supplementary Materials / Required Readings Packet via Google
Classroom.: Read the following articles and100
answer the questions that follow.
Children In ‘Especially Difficult Circumstances’: Children Living On The Street
Link:
[Link]
 ASYNCHRONOUS
Let’s view Activity (3.6.2 ).To enhance our understanding on children living in difficult
circumstances, go to My Supplementary Materials / Required Readings Packet
via Google Classroom. Let’s view the movie “Freedom Writers” Link:
[Link]

(Share your reflection in your class with your professor during the synchronous
discussion.)

3.7 Learners from Multicultural/Indigenous Groups

Lesson 3.7
Ø Learners from Multicultural/Indigenous Groups

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INTRODUCTION
Special Education is the design and delivery of teaching and learning strategies for
individuals with disabilities or learning difficulties who may or may not be enrolled in regular
schools. Students who need special education may include students who have hearing
impairment or are deaf, students who have vision impairment or are blind, students with
physical disabilities, students with intellectual disability, students with learning difficulties,
students with behavior disorders or emotional disturbance, and students with speech or
language difficulties. Some students have a number of disabilities and learning difficulties.

WHAT WILL YOU LEARN?

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to do the following:
Ø Demonstrate understanding of concepts related to inclusive and special
education that promote supportive learning environment to diverse learners.
Ø Discuss the components in indigenous education
Ø Define the goals and objectives of indigenous education
Ø Enumerate the support and services given to indigenous peoples
Ø Examine the legal bases for indigenous education

Let’s Think and Share

ASYNCHRONOUS: Essential Questions

Think, analyze, and share your ideas, views, and opinions before engaging in the
lesson.
Ø What does the disproportionate representation of students from diverse cultural
and linguistic groups in special education say about the field?
Ø What is indigenous education?
Ø What are the benefits of indigenous education?
(Discuss and share your ideas in your class with your Professor during your
Synchronous discussion.)

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Let’s Read
Guided by the new UNESCO Policy on Engaging with Indigenous Peoples, UNESCO is
committed to promote lifelong learning for indigenous peoples and ensure their full inclusion in
education. Children and young people of indigenous families remain less likely to be enrolled in
school or in training programs ad more likely to underperform than non-indigenous children.
Indigenous peoples are entitled to the right to education - both individually and
collectively - as stipulated in the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (link is
external) (2007) and in the ILO Convention Number 169 on the Rights of Indigenous and Tribal
Peoples (link is external) (1989).
UNESCO supports its Member States and collaborates with partners to ensure that the
right to education for indigenous peoples is respected, protected and fulfilled. This includes
monitoring the right to education for all, including indigenous peoples and ensuring equitable
access to lifelong learning and quality and relevance of teaching and learning. Through an
inclusive approach, UNESCO calls on countries to remove the barriers that limit the presence,
participation and achievement in education of indigenous peoples.
UNESCO advocates for the education of indigenous peoples through, for example, the
celebration of the International Day of the World’s Indigenous Peoples.
UNESCO manages knowledge and promotes effective practices, such as the Effective Literacy
Practices for Indigenous Peoples Platform developed by the UNESCO Institute for Lifelong
Learning.

Let’s Study
National Indigenous Peoples (IPs) Education Policy Framework (D.O. 62, s. 2011)
The education policy framework for IPs seeks to ensure that the provision of quality
basic education for all IPs will lead to functional literacy. The DepEd will work with the National
Commission on Indigenous Peoples (NCIP), National Commission for Culture and the Arts
(NCCA), local government units (LGUs), and other government agencies to provide IPs with
culture-responsive basic education through formal school and alternative learning systems.
It also calls for the adoption of appropriate basic education pedagogy, content, and
assessment through the integration of Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Practices (IKSPs) in
all learning areas and processes. The DepEd will adopt the mother tongue-based multilingual
education for IPs learners.
The policy framework also aims to provide adequate and culturally-appropriate learning
resources and environment to IPs learners including the development of textbooks and other
supplementary learning materials specifically for IPs learners.

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 Part of the IPs education framework is to strengthen the hiring, deployment, and
continuous development of teachers and learning facilitators implementing the IP Education
Program. The DepEd shall review, harmonize, and align its teacher education and development
policies – consistent with the National Competency-Based Teacher Standards (NCBTS) .
Moreover, the DepEd will establish and strengthen appropriate multi-level units within
the department responsible for planning, implementing, and monitoring IP education
interventions. It shall likewise ensure that adequate financial support from various sources such
as the agency’s regular annual budget and the LGUs’ Special Education Fund (SEF), among
others, are readily available to implementing units to ensure smooth implementation and
sustainability of education services.
An important part of these education policies for IPs is the implementation of stronger
affirmative action to eradicate all forms of discrimination against IPs in the entire Philippine
educational system. In line with this policy, all concerned DepEd offices and units shall also
ensure textbooks, supplementary learning materials, and other learning resources are free from
discriminatory content and erroneous accounts, descriptions, and visual depictions, which
misrepresent the history and culture of IPs or do not adequately acknowledge them.

Source: [Link]

Let’s TRY This (Activity 3.7.1)

Go to your My Activity via Google Classroom. Read carefully the question and in a five
sentence paragraph, answer the question.
1. Why is it important to embed indigenous perspectives in education?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________.

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Module 4: Types of Assessment, Learning Resources, and Instructional
Accommodation

What is this Module About?

In this module, you will learn variety of assessment tools and information
sources to gather data on student progress. Some of these assessment
instruments and techniques are the following: Norm- Referenced and Criterion-
Referenced/Curriculum-Based Assessments, Performance and Portfolio
Assessments, Observation Checklist and Anecdotal Report, and all other types
of assessment tools. All students eligible for special education and related
services receive an individualized education program, or IEP, as discussed in
this Module. The IEP serves many purposes: instruction, communication,
management, accountability, monitoring, and evaluation. IEP Teams must
consider the existing data, including data supplied by parents, in making the
determinations of disability an in designing educational plans and instructional
accommodations.
This module covers the principles on designing, adapting, and
implementing curriculum based on the learning characteristics on children with
special needs. It also deals comprehensive discussions in the preparation and
implementation of IEP.

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Lesson 4.1Types of Assessment, Testing, and Measurement

Lesson 4.1
Ø Types of Assessment, Testing, and Measurement
Lesson 3.1.1

Introduction
Assessment is the process of using tests and other measures of student
performance and behavior to make educational decisions. It consists of assortment of
techniques and procedures for evaluating, estimating, appraising, and drawing
conclusions about students with special needs
In SPED, it takes into account the unique needs of the students and it becomes
different for every student. The types of assessment adapt process or procedure to
meet the child’s needs as opposed to the student adapting to the assessment
procedure. It also focuses on getting to know the child in every aspect or every area of
development, determine the child’s strengths and weaknesses.
Assessments are important because it takes a crucial role in identifying student’s
learning problems or difficulties and to gain essential information about the child –
conditions, abilities, interests and problems. Some types of assessments are required or
mandated by the law and some schools utilize assessments for curriculum planning, for

WHAT WILL YOU LEARN?

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to do the following:

Ø Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the different types of
assessments tools used in special and inclusive education
Ø Examine the different types of assessment decisions and other types
of assessment utilized in special education

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Let’s Think and Share

ASYNCHRONOUS (Essential Questions)

Think analyze, and share your ideas, views, and opinions before engaging in the
lesson. Consider the following questions:
Ø How do you assess learners with special needs?
Ø What types of assessment are used for special education identification?
Ø What are the various types of assessments, instructional resources,
accommodations and placement programs for special education?
Ø Why must the planning and provision of special education be so carefully
sequenced and evaluated?
(Discuss and share your ideas in your class with your Professor during your
Synchronous discussion.)

Let’s READ

Assessment
- Is the process of using tests and other measures of student performance and behavior
to make educational decisions
- Consists of assortment of techniques and procedures for evaluating, estimating,
appraising, and drawing conclusions about students with special needs
- In SPED, it takes into account the unique needs of the students and it becomes different
for every student
- Adapt process or procedure to meet the child’s needs as opposed to the student
adapting to the assessment procedure
- Focuses on getting to know the child in every aspect or every area of development,
determine the child’s strengths and weaknesses

Testing
- Contains a standard set of questions that produce a score, a set of scores or other
numerical result
- Given in a prescribed manner and in a structured setting
- Types: standardized, commercial, classroom-based, teacher-made test, and informal
skills survey

Measurement
- Refers to the process of determining the ability or performance level of students
- Purpose is to produce objective information such as numbers, scores or other
quantitative data
- Encompasses contributions from many disciplines including psychology, medicine and
educational measurement
- It has also been shaped by federal laws and court decisions

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 - Evaluates language and cultural differences as an integral part of the assessment
process and attempts to minimize racial and cultural bias in measuring learning ability
- Ethical obligations and professional standards are considered
- Types – testing, observing behavior, conducting interviews, completing rating scales,
filing out checklist, performing clinical evaluations

Importance of an assessment:
ü Identifying a student’s learning problems or difficulties
ü To gain essential information about the child – conditions, abilities, interests and problems
ü Required or mandated by the law; required by some schools for curriculum planning
ü Selecting intervention strategies that respond to specific problems
ü Essential in developing IEPs

4.1 Types of Assessment and Assessment Decisions

Lesson 4.1
Lesson 3.1.1
q Types of Assessment and Assessment Decisions
q
Types of Assessment Decisions
Type of
Types of Decision(s) usually When is information
Information
Assessment Made usually gathered
Gathered
Screening Potential for Whether or not a Prior to entry into a
A procedure designed developmental child should be program
to identify the children disability or delay, referred for more in
who need to be vision, hearing, depth assessment
referred for more in- health and physical
depth assessment.
Diagnosis Evidence that a Whether or not the Prior to entry into a
The process of developmental delay child has program
confirming the or disability exists developmental delay
presence or absence and the nature and or disability
of a delay or disability extent
Eligibility Comprehensive Whether or not a Prior to entry into a
A comprehensive diagnostic child is eligible for a program
diagnostic process to information that is program or services
determine if a child standardized, norm- specified in the
meets the criteria to preference, and criteria for eligibility
be eligible for special comparative
services
Program Planning Evidences of the What type of Intensively in the
A procedure used to child’s routines, activities, beginning of a
identify desired developmental skills materials, and program; during the
goals/outcomes for and behaviors , equipment to use first weeks a child in
the Individualized family preferences with the individual programs during and
Family Service Plan and priorities for the child. What style(s) of immediately after any

108
(IFSP)/IEP and how child, family learning to use with major changes in a
to design instruction resources and the child. What adult child’s life. This is an
strengths setting in and peer interactions ongoing process
which the child may work best with
spends time and the the child.
demands of those
settings
Progress monitoring Evidence of the To determine the Periodically as
and evaluation child’s effectiveness of needed to determine
A process of developmental skills programming for an whether or not
collecting information and behaviors in individual child or intervention is
about a child’s comparison to those group of children , to effective at the end a
progress, the family’s skills of the determine the program year or
satisfaction with beginning of the change in a child’s cycle; when dictated
services, and the child’s play into the skill and behaviors, to by administrative
program’s program. determine family policy and ongoing
effectiveness satisfaction, to sources.
evaluation program’s
overall effectiveness

Types of Assessments
q Measure intelligence (IQ); the concept of the mental age as a
way of reporting a test result
Intelligence Testing
q Identify children who would benefit from educational
(Norm- Referenced
instruction
Assessment )
q Intelligence tests focus on mental abilities
q Achievement tests focus on academic abilities
Assessing Large q Testing groups of children
Groups q Proficiency tests, entrance tests, achievement tests
q Adaptive behavior is the ability to adapt to the environment
by developing independent personal and social behavior and
Assessing Adaptive
by adjusting to changes in the environment
Behaviors
q Focuses on functional and practical abilities such as
communication, activities of daily living and social interaction
q Developmental patterns of young children – predictable
Assessing sequence skills development and learning
Developmental Skills q Measures motor, language &communication, personal-
social, cognitive and adaptive skills
q Diagnosing disabilities that may cause intellectual disability
on physical handicaps and health impairments
q Important aspect in SPED – resembles the procedures that
Individual Diagnosis
physicians following in diagnosing and medical conditions
and Prescription
q Observe symptoms
q Conducts tests to diagnose the cause
q Writes a prescription for treatment - IEP
q Individualized yet standardized
Individual Achieving q Tools are used to assess learning needs of individual
Testing students and for developing specific teaching and

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 intervention activities
q Provide specific data and information for diagnosing
remediation needs and for prescribing explicit intervention
q Assessing student performance over time using direct
observation and continuous data collection – in a structured
and systematic manner
Behavioral Assessment
q Evaluation techniques are based on behavioral principles
More realistic, practical measure
q Use of audio- or video-tapes
q Measures performance based on progress in the school
curriculum
q Relies on teacher-made tests, class work, homework
Curriculum-Based assignments and teacher impressions to formulate
Assessment assessment decisions
(Criterion- Referenced q Offer high accuracy and validity
Assessment) q Used to make instructional decisions
q Evaluate student performance in direct relation to what has
been taught
q Provides direct link between evaluation and instruction

Ethical Considerations

§ Obtaining permission before testing

ü Written consent, testing is voluntary and can be revoked
ü Understand relevant information about the test
ü Purpose, type, application of results
§ Ensuring privacy of test results – protection from inappropriate disclosure of test
results
§ Following standardized test procedures – follow standardized procedures, obtaining
scores, testing time limits, presenting test items, test materials
§ New professional standards – guidelines for testing students with disabilities, focus
on accommodations, modifications and adaptions in testing
§ Careful notes must be made and changes be commented for possible effects on the
validity of the test

Let’s STUDY

Anecdotal Record
Anecdotal Reports (also called anecdotal notes) are used to record specific
observations of individual student behaviours, skills and attitudes as they relate to the outcomes
in the program of studies. Such notes provide cumulative information on student learning and
direction for further instruction. These reports are often written as the result of ongoing
observations during the lessons but may also be written in response to a product or
performance the student has completed. They are brief, objective and focused on specific

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outcomes. Reports taken during or immediately following an activity are generally the most
accurate. Anecdotal notes for a particular student can be periodically shared with that student or
be shared at the student’s request. They can also be shared with students and parents at
parent–teacher–student conferences.

The Purpose of Anecdotal Report

The purpose of anecdotal report is to:

q provide information regarding a student's development over a period of time
q provide ongoing records about individual instructional needs
q capture observations of significant behaviours that might otherwise be lost
q provide ongoing documentation of learning that may be shared with students, parents
and teachers.

Tips for Establishing and Maintaining Anecdotal Report

1. Keep a binder with a separate page for each student. Record observations using a
clipboard and sticky notes. Write the date and the student’s name on each sticky note.
Following the note taking, place individual sticky notes on the page reserved for that
student in the binder.
2. Keep a binder with dividers for each student and blank pages to jot down notes. The
pages may be divided into three columns: Date, Observation and Action Plan.
3. Keep a class list in the front of the binder and check off each student's name as
anecdotal notes are added to their section of the binder. This provides a quick reference
of the students you have observed and how frequently you have observed them.
4. Keep notes brief and focused (usually no more than a few sentences or phrases).
5. Note the context and any comments or questions for follow-up.
6. Keep comments objective. Make specific comments about student strengths, especially
after several observations have been recorded and a pattern has been observed.
7. Record as the observations are being made, or as soon after as possible, so
recollections will be accurate.
8. Record comments regularly, if possible.
9. Record at different times and during different activities to develop a balanced profile of
students’ learning.
10. Review records frequently to ensure that notes are being made on each student
regularly and summarize information related to trends in students' learning.
11. Share anecdotal notes with students and parents at conferences.

Source: [Link]

Some special education programs, especially those for children with autism spectrum
disorders (ASD), multiple handicaps or behavioral and emotional disabilities, need to be ready
to manage and improve problem behaviors. As we begin the school year, we need to be sure
that we have the resources and the “infrastructure” in place to deal with problems pre-emptively.
That includes having the tools we need to collect data and inform the interventions that will be
the most successful.

We need to be sure that we have these forms at hand:

Anecdotal Record: I will explore this at length below.

111
 Frequency Record: For a behavior that you quickly identify as a problem, you can start
collecting data right away. Examples: calling out, dropping pencils,
or other disruptive behaviors.
Interval Observation Record: For behaviors which last for more than a few seconds.
Examples: dropping to the floor, tantrums, and noncompliance.
Example 1
• Antecedent: Johnny is given a vocational bin and asked to assemble the parts.
• Behavior: Johnny sweeps the bin with all the parts onto the floor.
• Consequence: Johnny is taken to time out and the classroom aide picks up the pieces.
Johnny has avoided the task, so the function of the behavior is avoidance.

Example 2
• Antecedent: The teacher asks a student to come to the board to move a magnetic
marker.
• Behavior: Angelina bangs her head on the tray of her wheelchair.
• Consequence: The teacher goes to Angelina and attempts to redirect and soothe her
with a preferred item (a Pretty Pony doll.) The function of the behavior is attention since
it takes the teacher's attention away from the other child.

Clearly, successful teachers have positive behavior supports in place to avoid or

manage many of these problems, but when they are not successful, it’s far better to prepare to
do a Functional Behavior Analysis and a Behavior Improvement Plan early in the year before
those behaviors become seriously problematic.

Observation Checklists, Rating Scales and Rubrics

Checklists, rating scales and rubrics are tools that state specific criteria and allow teachers
and students to gather information and to make judgements about what students know and can
do in relation to the outcomes. They offer systematic ways of collecting data about specific
behaviors, knowledge and skills.

The quality of information acquired through the use of checklists, rating scales and rubrics is
highly dependent on the quality of the descriptors chosen for assessment. Their benefit is also
dependent on students’ direct involvement in the assessment and understanding of the
feedback provided.

Portfolio Assessment

A portfolio is a purposeful collection of student work samples, student self-assessments

and goal statements that reflect student progress. Students generally choose the work samples
to place in the portfolio, but the teacher may also recommend that specific work samples be
included. Portfolios are powerful tools that allow students to see their academic progress from
grade to grade.

Work samples from all curricular areas can be selected and placed in a portfolio.
Portfolios can include stories, tests and reflections about work samples. Effective portfolios are

112
updated regularly to keep them as current and complete as possible. Portfolios help students
examine their progress and develop a positive self-concept as learners. Portfolios can be
shared to parents or guardians.

Portfolios are a planned, organized collection of student-selected work. tell detailed

stories about a variety of student outcomes that would otherwise be difficult to document These
include self-assessments that describe the student as both a learner and an individual and
serve as a guide for future learning by illustrating a student's present level of achievement. It
includes a selection of items that are representative of curriculum outcomes, and what the
student knows and can do.

Work samples not only provide reliable information about student achievement of the
curriculum, but also provide students with context for assessing their own work and setting
meaningful goals for learning. Displaying concrete samples of student work and sharing
assessments that illustrate grade level expectations of the outcomes are key to winning the
confidence and support of parents.

An essential requirement of portfolios is that students include written reflections that

explain why each sample was selected. The power of the portfolio is derived from the
descriptions, reactions and metacognitive reflections that help students achieve their goals.
Conferencing with parents, peers and/or teachers helps synthesize learning and celebrate
successes. Some students become adept at writing descriptions and personal reflections of
their work without any prompts. For students who have difficulty deciding what to write,
sentence starters might be useful.

Let’s try this (Activity 4.1.1

Go to your My Activity via Google Classroom. Read the following questions carefully and
choose the one best answer out of the four choices given.

1. A high school English language arts teacher has a class that includes several
students with disabilities. The teacher consults with the special education teacher
about the most effective ways to assess students’ effort, progress, and
achievement. Which of the following types of assessment is most appropriate for
the special education teacher to recommend?
A. Criterion-referenced

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 B. Task analysis

C. Working portfolio

D. Constructed response
2. A special education teacher works in a self-contained classroom with high school
students who have moderate intellectual disabilities. At the close of an
instructional unit on nutrition, the teacher would like to evaluate the students’
newly acquired knowledge. Which of the following methods would be most
effective for the teacher to use?
A. An authentic assessment requiring the students to perform a real-life
activity

B. A diagnostic instrument determining the students’ individual progress

C. A benchmark assessment measuring the students’ mastery of the

concrete concepts

D. An informal interview engaging the students in a one-on-one dialogue

3. A special education teacher provides reading instruction to a small group of
second-grade students. Each student has Individualized Education Program
(IEP) goals related to increasing their sight word vocabulary and fluency. Which
of the following assessment procedures should the teacher use to monitor the
students’ progress toward these goals?
A. Administering an informal reading inventory to each student on a monthly
basis

B. Developing individual portfolios in which each student collects a list of

mastered sight words every week

C. Conducting an error analysis of each student’s oral reading on a monthly

basis

D. Reviewing data on each student’s reading accuracy and speed on a graph

every week

4. A special education teacher will be evaluating the academic achievement of a

student who is also an English language leaner. Which of the following
procedures should the teacher follow to ensure nonbiased assessment results?

114
 A. Using a variety of formal and informal assessment instruments to collect
information

B. Administering assessment instruments beginning at a lower grade level

C. Administering informal assessment instruments to the student in familiar

location

D. Relying primarily on standardized nonverbal assessment instruments

5. A curriculum based assessment provides information primarily about a student’s:

A. Eligibility for special education services

B. Progress in acquiring specific academic skills

C. Aptitude for future academic success

D. Ability to use assistive technology to perform academically

Lesson 4.2 Placement, Instructional Services and Accommodation

Programs in Special Education

Lesson 4.2
Ø Placement , Instructional Services and Accommodation
Programs in Special Education
Introduction
Special education was defined in Module 1 as individually planned, specialized,
intensive, goal-directed instruction. But how do teachers know what kinds of modifications to
curriculum and instruction an individual child needs? And toward what goals should that
specialized instruction be directed? In this lesson placement programs instructional services,
learning accommodation in special education are presented.

Placement refers to the amount of time in each school day that a student spends in the
resource or in a general education classroom. This is educational setting in which the child can
receive an appropriate education. The Department of Education is required to have a range
of placements where children with special needs can be taught, including in the
general education classroom. In order to accommodate students with disabilities,
regular classroom teachers can plan appropriate instructional programs, modify existing
curriculum materials, evaluate student progress. Accommodations refer to how a student learns.

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Related instructional services may be provided when needed so that students can benefit from
special education.

WHAT WILL YOU LEARN?

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to do the following:

Ø Discuss types of placements, accommodations and instructional services in
special education?
Ø Describe the principles of placement, accommodation and instructional
services of learners with disabilities in the classroom?
Ø Identify common educational placement for students with disabilities?

Let’s THINK and SHARE

ASYNCHRONOUS (Essential Questions)
Think analyze, and share your ideas, views, and opinions before engaging in the
lesson. Consider the following questions:
Ø Why must the planning and provision of special education be so carefully
sequenced and evaluated?
Ø What specialized methods of instruction, accommodations, curricular
modifications, related services, and/or supplementary supports are necessary
to meet those needs so the student can achieve increased levels of academic
achievement and functional performance and participate in the life of the
school?
(Discuss and share your ideas in your class with your Professor during the
Synchronous discussion.)

116
LETS READ
Placement Programs in SPED
Program – refers to the structure, administrative organizations and plans used to deliver special
education needs to particular types of Children and Youth with Special Needs (CYSEN).
Services – include the use of special equipment, facilities and services, educational resources,
the physical environment, school organization and attendance and transport to support the
educational program of the CYSEN.

Special education provides for the service of:

1. Specially trained personnel – teachers, consultants, teacher educators and
administrators who possess competencies for serving a certain type or types of
exceptional children.
2. Special curricular content
3. Use of special methodology for teaching special learners
4. Application of special educational materials.

The provision of services to meet the special needs of CYSEN are expressed in terms of:
1. Special equipment
2. Special facilities and services
3. Special educational resources
4. Special physical environment
5. School organization and attendance
6. Transport

FACTORS/PROGRAMMING CONSIDERATIONS THAT INFLUENCE DECISION FOR

PLACEMENT:
Pupil Variable
q Type and degree of the CYSEN’s learning ability and disability
q Number of exceptionalities and special needs
q Age at onset of condition
q Present age
q Scholastic attitudes, interests and achievements
q Behavioral characteristics
q Social maturity
q Present wishes and goals

School-Related Factors
q Adequacy of school program (if has one)
q Proficiencies of available SPED educators
q Alternate SPED options
q Types of special curriculum and instructional materials at hand
q Related services available
q Distance services available
q Effect of the CYSEN on other children

Home and Community Variables

q Parent attitudes, interests and wishes
q Home conditions
q Neighborhood conditions
q Pressures on child and his family
q Other factors peculiar to the case

117
 Let’s STUDY

Criteria for Placement

q Enrolled in the regular program

q Special supplementary instructional materials and equipment
Type I special learners
are made available
q SPED consultative services

q Receive direct instruction from one or more special educators

q Continue to receive part of academic instruction in the regular
Type II special learners
school program
q May be enrolled either in a regular or special class

q Receive no academic instruction in a regular program

Type III special learners
q Separate self-contained programs

q Unable to attend any type of school program

Type IV special learners
q Hospital or home bound instruction

• There is a wide array of placement possibilities available for special learners – it is best
to know what programs and services are available in a certain area before deciding on
where to place the special child.
• The Inverted Pyramid Model present the most segregated to the most integrated
placement programs.
• Special learners should be moved away from the most segregated plans – goals of
SPED.

118
 Traditional Placement for Students Receiving Special Education
Placement Description Students Served Educator Role
Total integration of Students with mild Regular teacher
students with learning, behavioral assumes full
Full – time Regular disabilities in regular and physical instructional
Class classes disabilities responsibilities with
requiring specialist
assistance
Students remain in Students with mild Specialists assist the
Regular – Class with
the regular class full- to moderate regular teacher in
Consultation
time with occasional learning and program design and

119
 support behavioral implementation by
disorders meeting at scheduled
intervals to discuss
academic/behavioral
modifications
Students receives Students with Specialist meet with
primary instruction in disabilities in students to provide
the regular class with behavior, training therapy.
additional therapy communication, Specialists meet with
Itinerant Teacher
and specialized vision, hearing, and regular teachers to
support as required mobility design or improve
instructional materials
and teaching strategies
Students remain in Students with mild Regular teacher
the regular class until to moderate provides lesson plans to
requiring additional learning problems specialists; additional
support to complete requiring immediate explanations, resources
Content Mastery
assignments; support to complete or instructional
students attend for regular class techniques are provided
curricular activities
modifications
Students Students with mild Specialist meet with
spend/majority of the to moderate small groups of students
day to the regular learning and/or for direct intervention,
class leaving for behavioral specialists consists with
scheduled classes disabilities requiring regular teacher or
Resource Class
with the specialist for academic or additional teaching
academic or support in strategies to support
behavioral communication, student’s success.
intervention behavioral or
organizational skills
Students spend Students with Specialist is the full-day
majority of the day moderate to severe teacher, collaboration
segregated; they may learning behavioral with regular teachers
Self – Contained interact with regular or physical and school
Class students in disabilities administrators for
unstructured curriculum content and
activities or specified activities for integration
classes.
Students attend all Students with Team of specialist
day classes in a severe learning provides complete
Special School special school; in a behavioral or instruction
totally separate physical disabilities
campus or facility
Students receive Students with Multidisciplinary team –
one-on-one severe learning SPED teachers and
Center Based/ instruction or behavioral or therapist
Intervention Center intervention; clinical physical disabilities;
set up ex early children from 0 to 6
intervention clinics years for early

120
 intervention
Students receive Students Specialist contact
instruction from the undergoing medical teachers of regular or
specialist at home or treatment, special schools for
in the hospital recovering from an records and continuity of
Hospital/Home Bound accident or trauma instruction; teachers
or from a physically consult on student
or emotionally progress and optimal
disabling condition means of student
reentry.
Students live away Students with Specialist and residential
from home and severe to profound teams create total
receive total cognitive programs for self-help,
schooling and disabilities, language, behavioral,
therapy in a special behavior disorders cognitive and physical
Residential Care
facility, students may or multi-disabling needs, and provision of
be integrated into conditions non-academic
community activities curriculum to meet
personal and social
goals.

Let’s READ

The SPED Team

® Different types of services are coordinated under one umbrella organization to single
service programs with multidisciplinary staff.
® The IEP team includes the caregivers/family of the child, a representative of the public
agency who is supervisory capacity the child’s teacher, and a member of the evaluation
team.
® The team provides the “especially designed instruction” the child requires.

121
 SPED Team Models
q Utilizes the expertise of professionals from several disciplines each
of whom usually perform their assessments and other task
independent of one another.
q Each individual contributes according to their own specially area
with little regard for the actions of their professionals
q There is a high degree of professional autonomy and minimal
Multidisciplinary integration.
q It is viewed as a team only in the sense that each person shares a
common goal.
q There is very little coordination of collaboration across discipline
areas.
q Members perform their evaluation independently however, program
development and recommendation are the result of sharing
information and joint planning.
q Significant cooperation exists among team members leading to an
integrated plan of services.
q Coordination and collaboration – direct services are usually
Interdisciplinary
provided in isolation form one another.
q Typically, one member is assigned to coordinate services.
q Information generally flows in one direction - from various
professionals involved in the assessment to the service provider.
q Integrate the expertise of team member so that more efficient and
comprehensive assessment and intervention may be provided.
Transdisciplinary
q Commitment to sharing information and ideals among team
members.

122
1. Coordinating Assessments
ü Contact with a family member.
ü Families should know that the program staff will be there for them - they will be
welcomed when they decide they want the services and support.
ü Ensure that child assessments are done in a variety of settings and over as many
sessions as needed for accuracy
ü Makes sure that assessments are done in a relaxed and comfortable manner using a
variety of approaches - interviews, questionnaires, observations and instruments.

2. Developing the IEP and Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP)

3. Identifying Services
ü Identifying sources of support and resources.
ü Develop effective ways to access the needed resources.
ü Support – emotional, physical, informational, instrumental resources.

4. Monitoring Services
ü Knowing the degree to which actions to certain resources result in actually obtaining the
resources and attaining goals.
ü Knowing whether the family is satisfied with the process outcomes.
ü Information is recorded as progress data which are used as a basis for making changes
in the plan.

5. Transition Planning
ü Thinking difference and thinking about life after high school can be daunting.
ü Preparing to be a young adult
ü Formal process for helping kids with IEPs figure out what they want to do after high
school and how to get there

Let’s Try This (Activity 2.2.1)

Go to your My Activity via Google Classroom. Read the following questions carefully and
choose the one best answer out of the four choices given.

1. Which of the following strategies by a special education teacher would bet

facilitate effective communication during conferences with secondary students
with disabilities and their parents/guardians?
A. Asking permission to record discussions for later reflection

B. Having resources on hand to research questions or concerns that arise

123
 C. Sharing humorous anecdote to open discussions on a positive note

D. Using straightforward language that is free of educational jargon

2. A special education teacher has recently heard about the new instructional
method for teaching problem-solving skills to students with learning disabilities in
mathematics reasoning. Which of the following resources would contain the most
reliable research-based information on this instructional method?
A. A mission statement posted by the web site of a company that publishes
materials based on the new instructional method

B. A peer-reviewed article about the new instructional method published in a

special education journal

C. Testimonials by teachers at a state wide conference who have used the

new instructional method in their classroom

D. Posting about the new instructional method on an listserv for special

education teachers
3. A high school history teacher consults with the school’s special education
teacher about strategies for addressing the readers’ needs of several students
with learning disabilities in her history classes. The special education teacher
suggests that she teach the students a particular note-taking strategy to use with
class reading assignments. The special education teacher then explains the
note-taking strategy and models it for her. Which of the following additional steps
would best promote the history teacher’s success in teaching the strategy to
students?
A. Recommending that she reflect daily in a teaching journal on the
effectiveness of the strategy

B. Providing her with support and feedback as she implements the strategy
in the classroom

C. Encouraging her to apply the strategy to her own independent reading

before implementing it with students

D. Giving her articles that provide research-based documentation on the

validity of the strategy
4. A special education teacher who works in a high school resource room overhears
student making disparaging remarks about themselves and their ability to obtain

124
 jobs in the future. The teacher wishes to increase students’ self-confidence so
that they will be more likely to experience successful transitions from high school
into the workplace. Which of the following strategies would most effectively meet
the teacher’s goal?
A. Pairing each student with a successful mentor who has a similar disability
who can serve as a positive role model

B. Assigning each student to research a particular career and present an oral

report about it

C. Having each student interview several adult to obtain information about

the positive and negative aspects of each person’s job

D. Encouraging students to obtain a part-time job while still in high school

5. A special education teacher works with several students with specific learning
disabilities in reading who have very little motivation to read for pleasure. Which
of the following strategies is likely to be most effective in promoting students’
interest in independent reading activities?
A. Giving public recognition to other students who demonstrate good reading
habits

B. Providing students with a wide range of interactive and print materials at

their independent reading levels

C. Arranging for the students to spend time in the school library on a regular
basis

D. Establishing a reward system through which students receive special

privileges when they engage in independent reading

Lesson 4.3 Identification, Referral, Placement Process and IEP

Lesson 4.3
Ø Identification, Referral, Placement Process and IEP

Introduction
All students begin their educational careers with needs. Each student brings a different
level of knowledge and skills to his or her first class. This need must be recognized and

125
identified by highly-qualified educator. However, there are children who have unique needs that
are atypical for children of their age and may not be within the expertise of the general
education classroom teacher. It is during this time that the teacher (or parent, administrator, or
counselor) recognizes a consistent need or problem exhibited by the student. The recognition or
identification of a discrepancy in the student’s academic, social/emotional, behavioral, and/or
physical ability and his or her age may signal the need for additional academic or behavioral
supports.
A Pre-referral interventions then may be provided. Pre-referral intervention is to identify,
develop, and implement alternative education strategies for students who have recognized
problems in the classroom before the student is referred to special education. The pre-referral
team usually consists of the teacher, the parents/guardians, an administrator, other general
education teachers, nurse, guidance counselor, and any other adult involved in the education of
the student.
If, after interventions in the general education classroom, the student continues to experience
difficulty, school personnel may refer the child for a special education evaluation. The official
referral begins the formal process of determining eligibility for special education services. If the
evaluation team determines that a child has a disability that is adversely affecting his or
her educational performance, an individualized education program (IEP) is formed.
After the IEP team determines the child’s educational needs and the special
education and related services necessary to meet those needs, the team then
determines an educational setting or placement in which the child can receive an
appropriate education in the least restrictive environment (LRE).

WHAT WILL YOU LEARN?

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to do the following:

Ø Describe the identification referral screening and assessment, evaluation
and placement process in special education?
Ø Who does a special education referral typically begin with?
Ø What is an initial evaluation for special education?

LET’S THINK AND SHARE

ASYNCHRONOUS (Essential Questions)
Think analyze, and share your ideas, views, and opinions before engaging in the
lesson. Consider the following questions:
Ø What are the intended functions of Prereferral intervention?
Ø How do collaboration and teaming impact that identifies the major
steps in the sequence of planning, implementing, and evaluating
special education and highlights some of the key procedures,
elements, and requirements of each step. Effectiveness of special
education?
126 with your Professor during your
(Discuss and share your ideas in your class
Synchronous discussion.)
 LETS READ
Lesson 4.3.A Referral Process

Lesson 4.3.A
Lesson 3.1.1
q Referral Process
What is a referral?
A referral is a written request for an evaluation that is given to the school district when a
child is suspected of having a disability and might need special education services.
Interventions in general education have been attempted and documented; the interventions do
not alleviate educational difficulties.
Who can make a referral?
• Parents
• School Personnel
• Agencies concerned with the welfare of students
The Referral Process:
1. Child find – for all children, deviations noticed in children, suspicion that there is something
wrong with the child, initially observed through delays (ex. Speech or motor development) and
difficulties in fulfilling age-appropriate tasks, as seen and observed by the parents and/or the
teacher.
2. Observation – done to confirm the problem; observation results should be documented;
observation techniques should be used
3. Confirm the problem:
• Parents - usually go to the pediatrician or any doctor recommended
• Teacher - inform parents about the observed problems; inform school principal or
administrator and guidance counselor
4. Completion of Basic Sensory Screenings – auditory, oral-motor, visual and physical
screenings done by therapists or experts
5. Psychological and educational testing, assessment and diagnosis
6. Analysis of completed data or assessment results:

127
 • A case conference is conducted – includes parents, teachers, doctors, therapists;
discussion of test results and scheduling for IEP planning
• A “case manager” is assigned - usually a teacher or a parent
7. Identification – labeling the child’s diagnosed disability, eligibility for placement or program is
decided upon; needs are also discussed
8. IEP meeting convened – establish educational goals and objectives, curriculum plans,
teaching strategies, staffing, and placement.
9. Implementation of the IEP
10. IEP is updated annually – child is reevaluated at least every three (3) years.

Let’s TRY This (Activity 4.3.1)

Go to your My Activity via Google Classroom. Read the following questions carefully and
choose the one best answer out of the four choices given.

1. An elementary special education teacher holds monthly group meetings for

students’ parents/ guardians to share information and discuss their concerns.
Several parents/guardians have asked the teacher to speak to the group about
ways they can support their children’s learning at home. Which of the following
guidelines would be most important for the teacher to keep in mind when
developing suggestions for the parents/guardians?
A. Each task should be accompanied by a simple way to measure and
document progress

B. Activities should provide remedial practice in skills that students are

learning at school

C. Each task should be designed so that families will need to works together
for together for several weeks to complete it

D. Activities should be meaningful and should fit easily into the family’s daily
schedule
2. A special education teacher has notices that the student with a cognitive
impairment regularly shows considerable academic regression during breaks in
the school schedule. The teacher is becoming increasingly concerned that the

128
 student may experience significant setbacks over summer vacation. Under these
circumstances, the teacher could best advocate for the student by:
A. Referring the student’s parents or guardians to tutors they could engage to
work with their child in the summer

B. Meeting with the student’s assigned teacher for the next year to
recommend ways to help the student make up for lost ground

C. Providing the student’s family with materials and activities designed to

help the student maintain the skills learned in the current year

D. Making a recommendation that the student receive extended educational

services during the upcoming summer
3. A special education teacher is collaborating with a fifth-grade general education
teacher. Four of the students in the class have disabilities. Several times in the
past month, the general education teacher does not actively involve the students
with disabilities in the class activities. Which of the following steps should the
special educator take first in addressing this situation?
A. Discuss the concerns with the general education teacher

B. Convene the students’ Individualized Education Program (IEP) teams to

discuss a change in placement

C. Ask the school psychologist to observe in the classroom

D. Report the general education teacher’s behavior to the administrator

4. A fourth grade teacher is concerned that an English language learner‘s academic
achievement is significantly below grade level. The Prereferral team decides to
try providing the student with an aide to translate assignments. The teacher is
also asked to keep anecdotal records regarding the student’s informal verbal
interactions with classmates. The Prereferral team’s actions are likely to be most
useful for providing information about:
A. Whether the student’s academic difficulties are related to language
differences

B. Whether the student is motivated to achieve in school

C. Whether the student’s learning style is compatible with the teacher’s

instructional style

129
 D. Whether the student is exhibiting a delay in social-emotional development
5. Which of the following instructional interventions for high school students with
disabilities is most of characteristic of a Tier 2 invention in Response to
Instruction and Intervention program?
A. A general education teacher helps the student with a mathematics
assignment during class seatwork

B. A special education teacher teaches functional living skills to students in a

self-contained class

C. A reading specialist works with struggling readers on comprehension

strategies several times a week

D. A dedicated par educator provides a student with full-time support in

general education classes

4.3.B The Individualized Education Program (IEP)

Lesson 4.3.B
Ø The Individualized Education Program (IEP)
IEP provides the central focus for program planning and placement for students with
disabilities.

Purpose of the IEP

q Legal
• Mechanism for ensuring accountability in program planning and service delivery
for students with disabilities
• An unprecedented and tangible statement of a student’s educational program
• Placement eligibility must be determined and stated after a comprehensive
evaluation
q Administrative
• A management tool to document a student’s SPED program
• Useful for program monitoring and evaluation and school-wide program planning
• Provide quantitative information on the types of curricula included in the SPED
programs
q Instructional

130
 • A common focal point for those involved in the process of providing services to
students with disabilities
• A mechanism for interdisciplinary communication and cooperative planning to
ensure that services provided are coordinated and result in a cohesive and
unified program for the student
q Parent involvement
• Opportunity to participate in the development of their child’s program
• Obtain a written definition of the specially designed vocational program provided
to their child
• A mechanism of ensuring that the services specified in the IEP are provided
• Parents are expected to assume an active and participatory role in educational
decision making advocacy, teaching, case management and program evaluation
• Family characteristics are considered-income, less educated, language and
cultural differences, attitudes towards the problems

Participants of the IEP

1. Local Education Agency (LEA) Representatives
• Local education agency, school principal or administrator
• Provides data about available programs and services in schools
• Discuss service delivery options and procedures of program implementation
2. Evaluation Team
• Knowledgeable about psychological and educational testing- must be able to
discuss, interpret and explain all test results
3. Teacher
• May be a regular and/or a SPED teacher
• Knowledgeable about SPED programs to be provided to the student
• Guides in writing of goals and objectives on the written documents
4. Parents
• Create goals and objectives for skills the child need to be able to function
independently in the home
• Approval of the IEP
5. Other participants
• Therapists, physicians or other advocates to provide input and feedback on goals
and objective proposed for the IEP

Participants should be given the opportunity to:

ü Provide information on the student
ü Suggest IEP goals and objectives
ü Question interpretations and explanations
ü Examine educational objectives
ü Disagree with proposed actions

Let’s STUDY

Role of SPED Teachers in IEP Planning (Meeting)

131
 q Observe confidentially
q Report objectively; qualify subjective judgments whenever possible
PRIOR
q Be sensitive to the attitudes of other professionals involved with the student
q Try to anticipate potential problems that could arise during the meeting
q Be sure the team leader is present during the meeting
q Determine in advance the length of the meeting
q Encourage to keep the number of participants to the fewest possible
q Avoid the use of teacher jargon
q Ensure that the evaluators summarizes all testing done and that parents are
provided with a copy of the evaluation
q Specify disagreements in writing in case it arises, copies be provided to
team members
DURING
q Ensure that the placement delivery system is the most appropriate
q Develop and write the IEP during the meeting
q Develop complete IEPs before asking the participants’ signature and dates
that are appropriate based on the student’s strengths and weaknesses
q Link interventions to assessments
q Solicit input from parents and other participants during the meeting
q Summarize the meeting
q Discuss the tentative data for next IEP
q Implement all goals and objectives devised at the meeting
q Strive to match the written plan to actual programming for the student
q Monitor goals and objectives consistently if changes need to be mad, hold
another IEP meeting to revise
AFTER
q Continue to solicit input and loopback from all participants including parents
and regular school teachers
q Continue to keep written records and report affecting students, parents and
other professionals and all the educational decisions made about the student

Contents of an IEP (Required)

q Statement of strengths and weakness of present levels of functioning
Present q May be derived from teachers’ formal or informal observations; classroom
educational assessments; pre referral strategy analysis or case studies; formal
level assessments
q Present levels are the bases for annual goals
q Broad statements of the students’ anticipated educational outcomes and
behavioral outcomes of the year
Annual q May include generic statements of subject or performance areas that
goals students will encounter during the year
q Should be linked to both the present educational levels and short term
objectives
q Very specific statements of student’s educational areas and behavioral
programs anticipated for the year
Short –
q Should be written concisely and clearly in concrete terminology
term
q Specify conditions (circumstances under which the objectives are presented
objectives
to students) and behavior (what students must do or how students are to act
or behave)
Statement q Written in the form of the category assigned to the student – specific
of special disability, physical impairment, SPED program, counselling, etc.
services q Specific equipment, learning materials and environment modifications

132
 needed.
q Based on the results of the assessment reports and data collected from
cases studies during pre-referral or referral
q Participants of the IEP meeting must agree to all educational programs
Programs
provided to the students
to be
q Specify the amount of general education, special education or vocational
followed
education as well as transition plans.
Initiation
date and
q Specify when programs are to take place and how long they will last
expected
q IEPs can be updated and rewritten anytime during the school year
date
duration
q Every short-term objective should be assessed continually to monitor
progress toward goals and objectives.
q Specification is done usually in terms of:
Criteria to
ü Duration – ex. Staying 5 minutes on a task
access
ü Trials to criterion – ex. 4 out 5 correct responses
objectives
ü Percentage – ex. Can do 80% mastery level
q All materials, evaluation procedures and schedules used to monitor should
be specified

Let’s TRY this

Let’s TRY This (Activity 4.3.2)
Go to your My Activity via Google Classroom. Read and answer the following questions :

1. What are the educational programs, placement, and management for children with special
needs?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

2. What are the educational support services, classroom management, and facilities for children
with special needs?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

133
Let’s Apply What
Let’s what you have learned
Let’s Apply What You Have Learned

ASYNCHRONOUS
PROJECT-BASED Collaborative Activity ( 4.3.3): IEP

In groups of five, design an individualized educational program (IEP) for a student in the
assigned group chosen exceptionality/disability. Submit your output to your My ACTIVITY
via Google Classroom
Go to your My Supplementary Materials / Required Readings Packet and see IEP
sample of a student with special needs and IEP sample formats for your reference

.
Link :

Checks on how much you have

gained from the lesson. It helps you
How Much have You Learned?
see for yourself whether you have
acquired the skills developed in the
activities or not. It is the module
L
Post-Test

134
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