COLEGIO DE LA PURISIMA CONCEPCION

The School of the Archdiocese of Capiz

INSTRUCTIONAL LEARNING KIT (ILK)

CURRICULAR PROGRAM BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN ELECTRICAL YEAR SECOND YEAR

ENGINEERING
NAME OF FACULTY ENGR. LEO P. BACTOL, M.S. MATH SEMESTER 2nd

SUBJECT/CODE EMECH 203

DESCRIPTIVE TITLE FLUID MECHANICS
COURSE DESCRIPTION This course deals with the nature and physical properties of fluids as well
as the identification and measurement of fluid properties. It emphasizes
the application of conversion, laws on mass, and energy and momentum to
fluid system either incompressible or compressible flow, inviscid or viscous
flow as well as head loss calculation on pipes and fittings.
THIRD QUARTER: PREFINAL PERIOD
After completing this course, the students must be able to:
INSTRUCTIONAL LEARNING 1. Explain the concept of dimensional analysis that includes:
GOALS (a) steady incompressible flow in pressure fluid; and
(b) fluid measurements.
ILK DELIVERY DURATION Weeks 11-14
NUMBER OF TOPICS 3 topics with 12 lessons

THIRD QUARTER (PREFINAL PERIOD)

WEEK 11: ILK - TOPIC 9/MODULE 9 ORIENTATION
LESSON 25
STEADY INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PRESSURE FLUID… continued

CIRCULAR REYNOLDS NUMBER

Reynolds Number

The Reynolds number (Re) helps predict flow patterns in different fluid flow situations.

Laminar flow
For practical purposes, if the Reynolds number is less than 2,000 (Re < 2,000), the flow is laminar. The
accepted transition Reynolds number for flow in a circular pipe is Red,crit = 2,300.

Transitional flow
At Reynolds numbers between about 2,000 and 4,000 (2,000 < Re < 4,000) the flow is unstable as a result
of the onset of turbulence. These flows are sometimes referred to as transitional flows.

Turbulent flow
If the Reynolds number is greater than 4,000 (Re > 4,000), the flow is turbulent. Most fluid systems in
nuclear facilities operate with turbulent flow.

The Reynolds number, Re is the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces and is a convenient parameter for
predicting if a flow condition will be laminar or turbulent.
It can be interpreted that when the viscous forces are dominant (slow flow, low Re) they are sufficient
enough to keep all the fluid particles in line, then the flow is laminar. Even very low Re indicates viscous
creeping motion, where inertia effects are negligible. When the inertial forces dominate over the viscous
forces (when the fluid is flowing faster and Re is larger) then the flow is turbulent.
It is a dimensionless number comprised of the physical characteristics of the flow. An increasing Reynolds
number indicates an increasing turbulence of flow.
It is defined as:

where:
V = the flow velocity,
D = characteristic linear dimension, (travelled length of the fluid; hydraulic diameter etc.)
ρ = fluid density (kg/m3),
μ = dynamic viscosity (Pa.s),
ν = kinematic viscosity (m2/s); ν = μ / ρ.
ReD = Reynolds number (non - dimensional)

Reynolds Number and Pipe Flow

The internal flow (e.g. flow in a pipe) configuration is a convenient geometry for heating and cooling fluids
used in energy conversion technologies such as nuclear power plants.
In general, this flow regime is of importance in engineering, because circular pipes can withstand high
pressures and hence are used to convey liquids. Non-circular ducts are used to transport low-pressure gases,
such as air in cooling and heating systems.
For internal flow regime an entrance region is typical. In this region a nearly inviscid upstream flow
converges and enters the tube. To characterize this region the hydrodynamic entrance length is introduced
and is approximately equal to:

The maximum hydrodynamic entrance length, at ReD,crit = 2,300 (laminar flow), is Le = 138d, where D is the
diameter of the pipe. This is the longest development length possible. In turbulent flow, the boundary layers
grow faster, and Le is relatively shorter. For any given problem, Le/D has to be checked to see if Le is negligible
when compared to the pipe length. At a finite distance from the entrance, the entrance effects may be
neglected, because the boundary layers merge and the inviscid core disappears. The tube flow is then fully
developed.
Power - Law Velocity Profile - Turbulent Velocity Profile

The velocity profile in turbulent flow is flatter in the central part of the pipe (i.e. in the turbulent core) than
in laminar flow. The flow velocity drops rapidly extremely close to the walls. This is due to the diffusivity of the
turbulent flow.
In case of turbulent pipe flow, there are many empirical velocity profiles. The simplest and the best known
is the power-law velocity profile:

where the exponent n is a constant whose value depends

on the Reynolds number. This dependency is empirical and
it is shown at the picture. In short, the value n increases with increasing Reynolds number. The one-seventh
power-law velocity profile approximates many industrial flows.

r/R

FIG. Turbulent flow – profiles.

Hydraulic Diameter

Since the characteristic dimension of a circular pipe is an ordinary diameter, D and especially reactors
contains non-circular channels, the characteristic dimension must be generalized.
For these purposes the Reynolds number is defined as:

where:
Dh = the hydraulic diameter
rh = the hydraulic radius
Thus,
Dh = 4A/P

The hydraulic diameter, Dh is a commonly used term when handling flow in non-circular tubes and channels.
The hydraulic diameter transforms non-circular ducts into pipes of equivalent diameter. Using this term, one
can calculate many things in the same way as for a round tube. In the above equation, A is the cross-sectional
area, and P is the wetted perimeter of the cross-section. The wetted perimeter for a channel is the total
perimeter of all channel walls that are in contact with the flow.

Pressurized water reactors (PWRs) are cooled and moderated by high-pressure liquid water (e.g. 16MPa). At
this pressure water boils at approximately 350°C (662°F). Inlet temperature of the water is about 290°C (⍴ ~
720 kg/m3). The water (coolant) is heated in the reactor core to approximately 325°C (⍴ ~ 654 kg/m3) as the
water flows through the core.

Illustrative Example:
1. A Newtonian fluid with a dynamic or absolute viscosity of 0.38 Ns/m2 and a specific gravity of 0.91 flows
through a 25 mm diameter pipe with a velocity of 2.6 m/s. Determine the Reynolds number. It is laminar or
turbulent flow? Why?

Solution:
To determine the Reynolds number, the formula is: Re = ρvDH/μ.
Now, we calculate first the density from the specific gravity of the fluid and the density of the specific gravity
reference for water (H2O) is 1000 kg/m3. Thus,
s.g. = ρfluid/ρH2O
ρfluid = s.g. x ρH2O
ρ = 0.91 (1,000 kg/m3)
= 910 kg/m3

Now, the Reynolds Number is:

Re = ρvDH/μ
= [(910 kg/m3)(2.6 m/s)(25 mm x 1 m/1,000 mm)]/(0.38 N-s/m2)
= 156 kg-m/N-s2) x [1 N/(1 kg-m/s2)]
= 156
* Therefore, the flow is laminar, because Re < 2,000.
HYDRAULIC RADIUS, RH

One of the parameters needed in order to make use of the Manning equation for open channel flow
calculations is the hydraulic radius of the channel cross section. Common shapes for open channel cross
section include rectangle, trapezoid, triangle, and circle.
Hydraulic radius is defined as the cross sectional area of flow divided by the wetted perimeter, so the calculation of
rectangle and trapezoid area and triangle area will be included along with the perimeter for each.
Rectangular Cross Section
The simplest open channel flow cross section for calculation of hydraulic radius is a rectangle. The depth of
flow is often represented by the symbol, y, and b is often used for the channel bottom width, as shown in the
diagram at the left. From the hydraulic radius definition: RH = A/P, where A is the cross sectional area of flow
and P is its wetted perimeter. From the diagram it is clear that A = by and P = 2y + b, so the hydraulic radius is:
RH = by/(2y + b) for an open channel flow through a rectangular cross section.

Trapezoidal Cross Section

A trapezoid shape is sometimes used for manmade channels and the cross section of natural stream
channels are often approximated by a trapezoid area. The diagram at the right shows a trapezoid and the
parameters typically used for its shape and size in open channel flow calculations. Those parameters, which
are used to calculate the trapezoid area and wetted perimeter, are y, the liquid depth; b, the bottom width; B
the width of the liquid surface; λ, the wetted length measured along the sloped side; and α, the angle of the
sloped side from vertical. The side slope is usually specified as horiz:vert = z:1.
The cross sectional area of flow is the trapezoid area:

A = y(b + B)/2
Or
A = (y/2)(b + b + 2zy)

because B = b + 2zy, as can be seen from the diagram.

Simplifying, the trapezoid area is:

A = by + zy2

The wetted perimeter is:

P = b + 2λ
but by Pythagoras Theorem:
λ2 = y2 + (yz)2
or λ = [y2 + (yz)2]1/2

so the wetted perimeter, P is:

P = b + 2y(1 + z2)1/2

and the hydraulic radius, RH for a trapezoid is:

RH = (by + zy2)/[b + 2y(1 + z2)1/2]
Triangular Cross Section

A triangular open channel cross section is shown in the diagram at the left. The diagram shows the typical
case, where the two sides are sloped at the same angle. Fewer parameters are needed for the triangular area
than for the trapezoid area. The parameters, as shown in the diagram are: B, the surface width of the liquid; λ,
the sloped length of the triangle side; y, the liquid depth measured from the vertex of the triangle; and the
side slope specification, horiz:vert = z:1.
The triangle area is:
A = By/2

but the figure shows that B = 2yz, so the triangle area becomes simply:

A = y 2z
The wetted perimeter, P is:
P = 2λ with λ2 = y2 + (yz)2

This simplifies to:

P = 2[y2(1 + z2)]1/2

The hydraulic radius, RH is thus:

RH = A/P = y2z/{2[y2(1 + z2)]1/2}
Circular Cross Section

The hydraulic radius for a circular pipe flowing full is easy to calculate. The cross-sectional area is

A = πD2/4 = πr2
and the wetted perimeter is
P = πD; D = 2r
= 2πr

Substituting into the equation RH = A/P and simplifying the expression gives:

R H = (πD2/4)/πD
= D/4

For calculation of the hydraulic radius, RH for partially full pipe flow are:
1. Full Pipe
There's nothing easier than finding the hydraulic radius of a pipe completely
filled with liquid. All you have to do is use the formulas for
the area and perimeter of a circle.
Thus, from the above relations, the hydraulic radius is

R = A/P
= πr²/2πr
= r/2
As you can see, the hydraulic radius of a full pipe is simply half of its radius.

2. Pipe (less than full)

The problem gets a bit more complicated when the pipe is only partially filled. We already calculated
this wetted perimeter in the wetted perimeter of a pipe section:

P = rθ

where the central angle θ = 2 cos-1[(r - h)/r] and for the circle segment area, we have

A = r² [θ - sin θ]/2

Combining the two, we find the hydraulic radius equation as

R = A/P
= [r²(θ - sin θ)/2]/rθ
= r(θ - sin θ)/2θ
The Manning Equation

The Manning Equation for U.S. units is:

Q = (1.49/n) AR2/3S1/2
and for S.I. units it is:
Q = (1.0/n)AR2/3S1/2
Where
Q = volumetric water flow rate passing through the stretch of channel
A = cross-sectional area of flow perpendicular to the flow direction
S = bottom slope of channel, (dimensionless),
n = Manning roughness coefficient (empirical constant), dimensionless,
R = hydraulic radius = A/P
where
A = cross-sectional area of flow as defined above,
P = wetted perimeter of cross-sectional flow area
The Manning Equation can be expressed in terms of flow velocity instead of flow rate. Using the equation,

Q = Av
or v = Q/A

as a definition for average flow velocity, the Manning Equation becomes:

v = (1.49/n)R2/3S1/2 (in ft/s)

In S.I. units this equation becomes:

v = (1.0/n)R2/3S1/2 (in m/s)

* Note that the Manning Equation is an empirical, dimensional equation. With the constant equal to 1.49 for
U.S. units (or 1.0 for S.I. units), all of the parameters must have the units given above for the chosen system
of units.

The Manning Roughness Coefficient

The Manning roughness coefficient, n is an experimentally determined constant value.

Its value depends upon the nature of the channel and its surface. Tables giving values of n for different man-
made and natural channel types and surfaces are available are used. The table above shows Manning
roughness coefficient values for several surfaces commonly used for open channel flow. In general smoother
surfaces have lower Manning roughness coefficient values and rougher surfaces have higher Manning
roughness coefficient values.
Illustrative Examples:
1. Consider an open channel of rectangular cross-section, with bottom width of 4 ft, containing water flowing
2 ft deep. The bottom slope of the channel is 0.0004 and it is made of concrete with a Manning roughness
coefficient of 0.011. What would be the average flow velocity of the water and the volumetric water flow
rate?

Solution:
The flow velocity, v and water flow rate, Q calculation can both be made using the Manning equation in the
two forms using the relations above, that is, R = A/P; A = by; P = 2y + b. Thus, the hydraulic radius is
R = A/P
= by/(2y + b)
= [(4 ft)(2 ft)]/[2(2 ft) + 4 ft]
= 1 ft

Substituting values into the velocity form, v = (1.49/n)R2/3S1/2 of the Manning equation gives:
v = (1.49/n)R2/3S1/2
= (1.49/0.011)(1)2/3(0.0004)1/2
= 2.71 ft/s

Then, the open channel water flow rate, Q can be calculated as Q = Av and A = by, so that
Q = Av
= byv
= (4 ft)(2 ft)(2.71 ft/s)
= (8 ft2)(2.71 ft/s)
≈ 21.7 ft3/s

2. Water is flowing through 100 mm x 200 mm rectangular channel in 1:100 slope, n = by using Manning
equation with a Manning roughness coefficient of 0.013 for concrete spun, what is the self-cleaning velocity
and flow?

Solution:
The following given are:
Channel size: A = by = (100 mm)(200 mm)
Slope, S =1:100 = 0.01
n = 0.013

To calculatge the hydraulic depth, we use R = A/P → (1)

For the area of the channel, we have
A = by
= [100 mm x 1 m/1,000 mm][200 mm x 1 m/1,000 mm]
= (0.1 m)(0.2 m)
= 0.02 m²
To calculate the wetted perimeter, P of the channel, we get
P = 2y + b
= 2[200 mm x 1 m/1,000 mm] + [100 mm x 1 m/1,000 mm]
= 2(0.2 m) + 0.1 m
= 0.5 m

Substituting the values of A and P into (1), we have,

R = 0.02 m²/0.5 m
= 0.04 m

For a channel in cement, the Manning roughness coefficient is 0.013.

Now, using v = (1/n)R2/3S1/2, the hydraulic depth and roughness coefficient in Manning equation is:
v = (1/n)R2/3S1/2
= (1/0.013)(0.04)2/3(0.01)1/2
= (76.923)(0.117)(0.1)
= 0.89999 m/s
≈ 0.90 m/s

By using continuity equation, the flow is:

Q = Av
= (0.02 m²)(0.9 m/s)
= 0.018 m3/s
Or = 0.018 m3/s x (1,000 L/1 m3) x (60 s/1 min)
= 1,080 L/m
* Thus, it is concurred that while the water is flowing in the 100 mm x 200 mm channel, the self-cleaning
velocity will be 0.90 m/s and further, discharge will be 1,080 L/m.

3. Water is flowing through a diameter of 100 mm circular pipe in 1:100 slope. If the pipe has full flow, by
using manning equation, what are the self-cleaning velocity and flow? Take Manning roughness coefficient
of n = 0.13.

Solution:
The following conditions are given:
Pipe size = D = 100 mm x (1 m/1,000 mm) = 0.1 m
Slope = 1:100 = 1/100 = 0.01
Full Flow = 100%
n = 0.13

To calculate the hydraulic depth, we use R = A/P → (1)

For the cross sectional area of a pipe, we have
A = πD2/4
= [(3.1416)(0.1 m)2]/4
= 0.007854 m²

To calculate the wetted perimeter, P of the pipe, considering that the pipe has 100% flow, so the total inside
perimeter of the pipe is equal to total wetted perimeter of the pipe. Thus,
P = 2πr; D = 2r; r = D/2 = 0.1 m/2 = 0.05 m
= 2(3.1416)(0.05 m)
= 0.31416 m

Substituting the values of A and P to the formula R = A/P, we have,

R = 0.007854 m²/0.31416 m
= 0.025 m

Now, calculating the self-cleaning velocity through manning equation using v = (1/n)R2/3S1/2, we have
v = (1/n)R2/3S1/2
= (1/0.013)(0.025)2/3(0.01)1/2
= (76.923)(0.0855)(0.1)
 = 0.6576 m/s
≈ 0.66 m/s
* As a result of the above, it is not advisable self-cleaning velocity, because, the advisable self-cleaning velocity
is between 0.8 m/s to 3 m/s.
Now, by using continuity equation, the flow is:
Q = Av
= (0.007854 m²)(0.66 m/s)
= 0.005184 m3/s
Or = 0.005184 m3/s x (1,000 L/1 m3) x (60 s/1 min)
= 311.02 L/m
* To sum up, when the water flows (100% of the pipe) in the 100 mm φ ductile iron pipe, the self-cleaning
velocity shall be 0.66 m/s and discharge shall be 311 LPM.

4. Water is flowing through a 100 mm circular pipe diameter in 1:100 slope. Considering that the flow of water
in the pipe is half full, by using manning equation with manning roughness coefficient of 0.013, what is the
self-cleaning velocity and flow?

Solution:
The given are:
Pipe size = 100 mm x (1 m/1,000 mm) = 0.1 m
Slope, S =1:100 = 0.01
Flow = 50% (half full)

To calculate the hydraulic depth, we use R = A/P → (1)

For the cross sectional area of a pipe, we have
A = πD2/4
= [(3.1416)(0.1 m)2]/4
= 0.007854 m²
Since, the flow is in half of the pipe, it means that the pipe has 50% of flow, thus, wetted area of the pipe is
also half. Then,
A = 0.007854 m²/2
= 0.003927 m²

To calculate the wetted perimeter, P of the pipe, considering that the pipe has 50% flow, so the total inside
perimeter of the pipe is equal to total wetted perimeter of the pipe. Thus,
P = 2πr/2 = πr; here: D = 2r; r = D/2 = 0.1 m/2 = 0.05 m
= (3.1416)(0.05 m)
= 0.15708 m

Substituting the values of A and P into the formula R = A/P, we have,

R = 0.003927 m²/0.15708 m
= 0.025 m

Now, calculating the self-cleaning velocity through manning equation using v = (1/n)R2/3S1/2, we have
v = (1/n)R2/3S1/2
= (1/0.013)(0.025)2/3(0.01)1/2
= (76.923)(0.0855)(0.1)
= 0.6576 m/s
≈ 0.66 m/s

* As a result of the above, we can conclude that hydraulic radius of the full and half flow of the pipe is same,
therefore, the self-cleaning velocity of the both case is also same. Additionally, it is technically acceptable
value when we keep self-cleaning velocity between 0.8 m/s to 3 m/s.

Now, by using continuity equation, the flow is:

Q = Av
= (0.003927 m²)(0.66 m/s)

= 0.00259182 m3/s
Or = 0.00259182 m3/s x (1,000 L/1 m3) x (60 s/1 min)
= 155.51 L/m
* In conclusion, if the water flows (50% of the pipe) in the 100 mm φ ductile iron pipe, the self-cleaning
velocity shall be 0.66 m/s and discharge shall be 155.51 LPM, say 156 LPM.

5. If a ductile iron pipe has diameter of 100 mm and 1:100 slope, but the flow of water in the pipe is only 25%.
Calculate the self-cleaning velocity and the flow if the manning roughness coefficient is 0.013. See
illustration below.

Solution:
The following given are:
Pipe size = D = 100 mm x (1 m/1,000 mm) = 0.1 m
Slope, S = 1:100 = 0.01
Flow is 25%

Now, this calculation is not like the previous calculations, rather, it is a partial flow calculation, thus, we need
to calculate in a different way.
Hence,
r = 50 mm x (1 m/1,000 mm) = 0.05 m
h = 2r - x
= 2(0. 05 m) - 0.075 m
= 0.025 m (from the above picture)

Now, to calculate hydraulic radius, we require to use the formula, R = A/P as equation 1.
Here, the wetted cross sectional area of the pipe is:
A = r²(θ - sin θ)/2 → (2)

But, θ = 2 cos-1[(r - h)/r]. So,

θ = 2 cos-1[(r - h)/r]
= 2 cos-1[(0.05 m - 0.025 m)/0.05 m]
= 2 cos-1(0.5)
= 2 (60)
= 120 deg
or
= 120 deg x (π rad/180 deg)
= 2.0944 radians

Then, substituting into (2), we have

A = r²(θ - sin θ)/2
= (0.05 m)²[2.0944 - sin (120°)]/2
= (0.0025 m)[2.0944 - 0.866]/2
= (0.0025 m)[1.2284]/2
= 0.00154 m2

Now, for the wetted perimeter, we have

 P = rθ
= (0.05 m)(2.0944)
≈ 0.105 m

To calculate the hydraulic radius of the pipe, we use equation1. Thus,

R = A/P
= 0.00154 m2/0.105 m
= 0.01467 m

Hence, to calculate the self-cleaning velocity by using Manning equation, we hav

v = (1/n)R2/3S1/2
= (1/0.013)(0.01467)2/3(0.01)1/2
= (76.923)(0.05993)(0.1)
= 0.46099 m/s
≈ 0.461 m/s

Eventually, we need to calculate the total flow through this pipe against the above calculated self-cleaning
velocity. Thus,
Q = Av
= (0.00154 m²)(0.461 m/s)
≈ 0.00071 m3/s
Or = 0.00071 m3/s x (1,000 L/1 m3) x (60 s/1 min)
≈ 43 L/m
* In conclusion, if the water flows (25% of the pipe) in the 100 mm φ ductile iron pipe, the self-cleaning
velocity shall be 0.461 m/s and discharge shall be 43 LPM.

6. If a ductile iron pipe has diameter of 100 mm and 1:100 slope, but the flow of water in the pipe is only 75%.
Calculate the self-cleaning velocity and the flow if the manning roughness coefficient is 0.013. See
illustration below.

Solution:
The following given are:
Pipe size = D = 100 mm x (1 m/1,000 mm) = 0.1 m
Slope, S = 1:100 = 0.01
Flow is 25%

Now, this calculation is not like the previous calculations, rather, it is a partial flow calculation, thus, we need
to calculate in a different way.

Hence,
r = D/2
= 0.1 m/2
= 0.05 m
h = 2r - x
= 2(0. 05 m) - 0.075 m
= 0.025 m (see above picture)

Here,
h = Depth of water top from the top tip of the pipe.
x = Distance between the top of the water level and center of the pipe.

Now, to calculate hydraulic radius, we require to use the formula, R = A/P as equation 1.
Here, the wetted cross sectional area of the pipe is:
A = πr² - r²(θ - sin θ)/2 → (2)
But, θ = 2 cos-1[(r - h)/r]. So,
θ = 2 cos-1[(r - h)/r]
= 2 cos-1[(0.05 m - 0.025 m)/0.05 m]
= 2 cos-1(0.5)
= 2 (60)
= 120 deg
or
= 120 deg x (π rad/180 deg)
= 2.0944 radians

Then, substituting into (2), we have

A = πr² - r²(θ - sin θ)/2
= (3,1416)(0.05 m)² - (0.05 m)²[2.0944 - sin (120°)]/2
= (3,1416)(0.0025 m2) - (0.0025 m)[2.0944 - 0.866]/2
= 0.007854 m2 - (0.0025 m)[1.2284]/2
= 0.007854 m2 - 0.00154 m2
= 0.006314 m2

Now, for the wetted perimeter, we have

P = 2πr - rθ
= 2(3.1416)(0.05 m) - (0.05 m)(2.0944)
= 0.20944 m
≈ 0.21 m

To calculate the hydraulic radius of the pipe, we use equation1. Thus,

R = A/P
= 0.006314 m2/0.21 m
≈ 0.03 m

Hence, to calculate the self-cleaning velocity by using Manning equation, we hav

v = (1/n)R2/3S1/2
= (1/0.013)(0.03)2/3(0.01)1/2
= (76.923)(0.0965)(0.1)
= 0.742 m/s

Eventually, we need to calculate the total flow through this pipe against the above calculated self-cleaning
velocity. Thus,
Q = Av
= (0.006314 m²)(0.742 m/s)
≈ 0.00071 m3/s
Or = 0.004685 m3/s x (1,000 L/1 m3) x (60 s/1 min)
≈ 281 L/m
* In conclusion, if the water flows (75% of the pipe) in the 100 mm φ ductile iron pipe, the self-cleaning
velocity shall be 0.742 m/s and discharge shall be 281 LPM.
 ESSON 26
STEADY INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PRESSURE FLUID… continued

GENERAL EQUATION FOR CONDUIT FRICTION

Friction Factor Calculations

The Darcy-Weisbach equation, for calculating the friction loss in a pipe, uses a dimensionless value known
as the friction factor (also known as the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor or the Moody friction factor) and it is
four times larger than the Fanning friction factor.

Friction Factor Chart/Moody Chart

The friction factor or Moody chart is the plot of the relative roughness (e/D) of a pipe against
the Reynold's number.

FIG. In 1944, LF Moody plotted the data from the Colebrook equation and the resulting chart became known
as The Moody Chart or sometimes the Friction Factor Chart. It was this chart which first enabled the user to
obtain a reasonably accurate friction factor for turbulent flow conditions, based on the Reynolds number and
the Relative Roughness of the pipe.

The Moody Chart

The Moody Chart finally provided a method of finding an accurate friction factor and this encouraged use
of the Darcy-Weisbach equation, which quickly became the method of choice for hydraulic engineers.

Friction Factor for Laminar Flow

The friction factor for laminar flow is calculated by dividing 64 by the Reynold's number.

Friction factor (for laminar flow) = 64/Re

Critical Flow Condition

When flow occurs between the Laminar and Turbulent flow conditions (Re 2300 to Re 4000) the flow
condition is known as critical and is difficult to predict. Here the flow is neither wholly laminar nor wholly
turbulent. It is a combination of the two flow conditions.

Pipe Friction Loss Calculations

 Flow of fluid through a pipe is resisted by viscous shear stresses within the fluid and the turbulence that
occurs along the internal pipe wall, which is dependent on the roughness of the pipe material.
This resistance is termed pipe friction and is usually measured in feet or metres head of the fluid, which is
why it is also refered to as the head loss due to pipe friction.

Head Loss in a Pipe

A large amount of research has been carried out over many years to establish various formulae that can
calculate head loss in a pipe. Most of this work has been developed based on experimental data.
Overall head loss in a pipe is affected by a number of factors which include the viscosity of the fluid, the
size of the internal pipe diameter, the internal roughness of the inner surface of the pipe, the change in
elevation between the ends of the pipe and the length of the pipe along which the fluid travels.
Valves and fittings on a pipe also contribute to the overall head loss that occurs, however these must be
calculated separately to the pipe wall friction loss, using a method of modeling pipe fitting losses with k
factors.

Darcy Weisbach Formula

The Darcy formula or the Darcy-Weisbach equation as it tends to be referred to, is now accepted as the
most accurate pipe friction loss formula, and although more difficult to calculate and use than other friction
loss formula, with the introduction of computers, it has now become the standard equation for hydraulic
engineers.
Weisbach first proposed the relationship that we now know as the Darcy-Weisbach equation or the Darcy-
Weisbach formula, for calculating friction loss in a pipe. Thus, the Darcy-Weisbach equation is given by

hf = f(L/D)(v2/2g)
where:
hf = head loss
f = friction factor
L = length of pipe work
D = inner diameter of pipe work
v = velocity of fluid
g = acceleration due to gravity

The establishment of the friction factors was however still unresolved, and indeed was an issue that needed
further work to develop a solution such as that produced by the Colebrook-White formula and the data
presented in the Moody chart.

Hazen-Williams Formula

Before the advent of personal computers the Hazen-Williams formula was extremely popular with piping
engineers because of its relatively simple calculation properties.
However the Hazen-Williams results rely upon the value of the friction factor, C which is used in the
formula, and the C value can vary significantly, from around 80 up to 130 and higher, depending on the pipe
material, pipe size and the fluid velocity.
Also the Hazen-Williams equation only really gives good results when the fluid is Water and can produce
large inaccuracies when this is not the case. Thus, the imperial form of the Hazen-Williams formula is:

hf = [(0.002083L)(100/C)1.85(gpm1.85)]/d4.8655
where:
hf = head loss in feet of water
L = length of pipe in feet
C = friction coefficient
gpm = gallons per minute (USA gallons not imperial gallons)
d = inside diameter of the pipe in inches

The empirical nature of the friction factor C means that the Hazen-Williams formula is not suitable for
accurate prediction of head loss. The friction loss results are only valid for fluids with a kinematic viscosity of
1.13 centistokes, where the velocity of flow is less than 10 feet per sec, and where the pipe diameter has a size
greater than 2 inches.
* Notes: Water at 60°F(15.5°C) has a kinematic viscosity of 1.13 centistokes.

LAMINAR FLOW IN CIRCULAR PIPES

Laminar flow through circular pipe

Chagen - Poiseville Law

For this, consider or determine the velocity distribution across a section, the ratio of maximum velocity
to average velocity, and the shear stress distribution and drop of pressure for a given length.
The flow of the flow would be laminar, if (Re) is less than 2000. Use again the relation of

Re = ρVD/μ
or, Re = ρuD/μ
or, Re = ρvD/μ

Where:
ρ = the density of fluid flowing through pipe
V = u = v = average velocity of fluid
D = Diameter of pipe
μ = viscosity of fluid

Consider a horizontal pipe of radius R. The fluid is flowing from left to right in the pipe as shown.
Consider fluid element of radius r, sliding in a cylindrical fluid element of radius (r + dr). Let the length of fluid
element be dx. If P is intensity of pressure on the face AB, then the intensity of pressure on face CD will be
P + δP(dx/δx).
Forces acting on fluid elements are:
1) The pressure force, Pμr2 on face AB
2) The pressure force, (P + δPdx/δx)πr2 on face CD
3) The shear force, 2τπrdx on the surface of fluid element. As there is no acceleration, hence the summation
of all the forces in the direction of flow must be zero, i.e.,
Pμr2 - (P + δPdx/δx)πr2 - 2τπrdx = 0
Pμr2 - P πr2- (δPdx/δx)πr2 = 0
If, Pμr2 = Pπr2, then
- (δP/δx)dxπr 2 - 2τπrdx = 0
- (δP/δx)r - 2τ = 0
τ = - rδP/2δx
(a) Velocity distribution is given by equation,
u = (- 1/4μ)(δP/δx [R2 - r2]

b) Ratio of maximum velocity, Umax or vmax to average velocity u or v:

Umax/u = [(- 1/4μ)(R2δP/δx)]/[1/8μ)(- R2δP/δx ) = 2

(c) Hagen Poiseville formula: - (drop of pressure)

hf = 32μu/LρgD2; u = v = velocity
h f = 32μv/LρgD2

Illustrative Example:
1. An oil of viscosity 0.1 N-s/m2 and relative density 0.9 is flowing through a circular pipe of diameter
50 mm and of length 300 m. The rate of flow of fluid through the pipe is 3.5 litres per second. Find the
 pressure drop in a length of 300 m and also the shear stress at the pipe wall.

Solution:
The given are:
Viscosity, μ = 0.1 N-s/m2
Relative density, s.g. = 0.9
For water: ρH2O = 1,000 kg/m3 (constant)
D = 50 mm x (1 m/1,000 mm) = 0.05 m
L = 300 m
Q = 3.5 L/s x (1 m3/1,000 L)
= 0.0035 m3/s
Then,
ρ = s.g. x ρH2O
= 0.9 x 1,000 kg/m3
= 900 kg/m3

For pressure drop, P1 - P2, by the formula Δp = P1 - P2 = 32μvL/D2. Then,

P1 - P2 = 32μvL/D2 → (1)

But, Q = vA; v = Q/A; A = πD2/4

So,
v = Q/(πD2/4)
= (0.0035 m3/s)/[(3.1416)(0.05 m)2/4]
= (0.0035 m3/s)/[(3.1416)(0.0025 m2)/4]
= (0.0035 m/s)/0.0019635
= 1.782 m/s
Hence,
Re = ρvD/μ
= [(900 kg/m3)(1.782m)(0.05 m)]/(0.1 N-s/m2) x (1 N/1 kg-m/s2)
= 801.9
≈ 802
* As Re < 2000, the flow is laminar.

Therefore for the pressure drop, we have

P1 - P2 = 32μvL/D2
= [32(0.1 N-s/m2)(1.782 m/s)(300 m]/(0.05 m)2
= 684,288 N/m2
Or = 684,288 N/m2 x (1 m/100 cm)2
= 68.4288 N/cm2
≈ 68.43 N/cm2

To determine the shear stress at the pipe wall (τ0), we have

τ = - rδP/2δx, here r = R
Then,
τ = - (R/2)(δP/δx)
So,
- δP/δx = - (P2 - P1)/(x2 - x1)
- δP/δx = (P1 - P2)/(x2 - x1)
- δP/δx = (P1 - P2)/L
= (684,288 N/m2)/300 m
= 2,280.96 N/m3
Since, R = D/2, then
τ0 = [- δP/δx](R/2)
= [- δP/δx](D/2)

= [2,280.96 N/m3](0.05 m/2)/2

= 28.512 N/m2

2. A crude oil of viscosity 0.97 poise and relative density 0.9 is flowing through a horizontal circular pipe of
 diameter 100 mm and length 10 m. Calculate the difference of pressure at the two ends of the pipe, if 100
kg of the oil is collected in a tank in 30 seconds.

Solution:
Given:
D = 100 mm x (1 m/1,000 mm) = 0.1 m
L = 10 m
Mass, m = 100 kg
Time, t = 30 s
Then,
s.g. = 0.9
ρH2O = 1,000 kg/m3 (constant)
μ = 0.97 poise
μ = 0.97 poise /10 m x [(1 N-s/m)/1 poise)]
= 0.097 N-s/m2
ρ = s.g. x ρH2O
= 0.9 x 1,000 kg/m3
= 900 kg/m3

Determining the pressure difference, P1 - P2, by the formula Δp = P1 - P2 = 32μvL/D2, we have

P1 - P2 = 32μvL/D2 → (1)

But, mass flow = mass, m/time, t. Then,

mass flow = moil/t
= (100 kg/30s)
= 3.333 kg/s → (2)

And mass flow = density, ρ x volumetric flow, Q. Then,

mass flow = ρQ
= 900 kg/m3 x Q → (3)

By equating (3) and (2), we get

900 kg/m3 x Q = 3.333 kg/s
Q = (3.333 kg/s)/900 kg/m3
= 0.0037 m3/s
Hence, v = Q/A where A = πD2/4, then
v = Q/[πD2/4] → (4)

Substitute values of Q and D into (4), so that

v = (0.0037 m3/s)/[(3.1416)(0.1 m)2/4]
= 0.471 m/s

Now, using the Reynolds number, Re we have

Re = ρvD/μ
= {[(900 kg/m3)(0.471 m/s )(0.1 m)]/0.097 N-s/m2} x [1 N/1 kg-m/s)
= 436.91
* Since, Re < 2000, then, the flow is laminar.

Therefore, the pressure difference using (1), we have

P1 - P2 = 32μvL/D2
= [32(0.097 N-s/m2)(0.471 m/s )(10 m)/(0.1 m)2]
= 1,462.28 N-s/m2

LESSON 27
STEADY INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PRESSURE FLUID… continued
TURBULENCE FLOW IN CIRCULAR PIPES

Turbulence is one of the most unpredictable of all the weather phenomena that are of significance to
pilots. Turbulence is an irregular motion of the air resulting from eddies and vertical currents. It may be as
insignificant as a few annoying bumps or severe enough to momentarily throw an airplane out of control or to
cause structural damage. Turbulence is associated with fronts, wind shear, thunderstorms, etc.
Turbulent flow, type of fluid (gas or liquid) flow in which the fluid undergoes irregular fluctuations, or
mixing, in contrast to laminar flow, in which the fluid moves in smooth paths or layers. In turbulent flow the
speed of the fluid at a point is continuously undergoing changes in both magnitude and direction.
The Reynolds equations of motion of turbulent flow of an incompressible fluid have been studied for
turbulent flow in circular pipe. The number of these equations is finally reduced to two. One of these consists
of mean velocity and correlation between radial and axial turbulent velocity fluctuations only. The other
consists of the mean pressure, the radial and the circumferential turbulent velocity intensity only.
When the flow is turbulent, the flow contains eddying motions of all sizes, and a large part of the
mechanical energy in the flow goes into the formation of these eddies which eventually dissipate their energy
as heat. As a result, at a given Reynolds number, the drag of a turbulent flow is higher than the drag of a
laminar flow. Also, turbulent flow is affected by surface roughness, so that increasing roughness increases the
drag.
Transition to turbulence can occur over a range of Reynolds numbers, depending on many factors,
including the level surface roughness, heat transfer, vibration, noise, and other disturbances.
Turbulent flow is characterized by unsteady eddying motions that are in constant motion with respect to
each other. At any point in the flow, eddies produce fluctuations in the flow velocity and pressure.
Turbulence is caused by excessive kinetic energy in parts of a fluid flow, which overcomes the damping
effect of the fluid's viscosity. In general terms, in turbulent flow, unsteady vortices appear of many sizes which
interact with each other, consequently drag due to friction effects increases.

Friction Factor for Turbulent Flow

Between the Laminar and Turbulent flow conditions (Re 2300 to Re 4000) the flow condition is known as
critical. The flow is neither wholly laminar nor wholly turbulent. It may be considered as a combination of the
two flow.
The friction factor for turbulent flow is calculated using the Colebrook-White equation:

The Colebrook-White Equation

Due to the implicit formation of the Colebrook-White equation, calculation of the friction factor requires
an iterative solution via numerical methods.
The friction factor is then used in the Darcy-Weisbach formula to calculate the fluid frictional loss in a
pipe.
TABLE. A - A. Internal roughness (e) of common pipe materials
Cast iron (Asphalt dipped) 0.1220 mm 0.004800 in
Cast iron 0.4000 mm 0.001575 in
Concrete 0.3000 mm 0.011811 in
Copper 0.0015 mm 0.000059 in
PVC 0.0050 mm 0.000197 in
Steel 0.0450 mm 0.001811 in
Steel (Galvanised) 0.1500 mm 0.005906 in

Equivalent roughness values for new commercial pipes*.

 TABLE. A-B

The friction factor is minimum for a smooth pipe and increases with roughness.

TABLE.A - C

Illustrative Examples:
1. The primary circuit of typical PWRs is divided into 4 independent loops (piping diameter ~ 700 mm), each
loop comprises a steam generator and one main coolant pump. Inside the reactor pressure vessel (RPV),
the coolant first flows down outside the reactor core (through the downcomer). From the bottom of the
pressure vessel, the flow is reversed up through the core, where the coolant temperature increases as it
passes through the fuel rods and the assemblies formed by them.
Assume:
the primary piping flow velocity is constant and equal to 17 m/s,
the core flow velocity is constant and equal to 5 m/s,
the hydraulic diameter of the fuel channel, DH, is equal to 1 cm
the kinematic viscosity of the water at 290°C is equal to 0.12 x 10 -6 m2/s
Determine:
(a) the flow regime and the Reynolds number inside the primary piping
(b) the flow regime and the Reynolds number inside the fuel channel

Solution:
(a) The Reynolds number inside the primary piping is equal to:
ReD = vDH/ѵ
= [(17 m/s)(700 mm x 1 m/1,000 mm)] /(0.12 x 10 -6 m2/s)
= 99,000,000 Ans.
* This fully satisfies the turbulent conditions, because Re > 4,000.

(b) The Reynolds number inside the fuel channel is equal to:
ReDH = vDH/ѵ

= [(5 m/s) x (1 cm x 1 m/100 cm)]/(0.12 x 10 -6 m2/s)

= 416, 600 Ans.
* This fully satisfies the turbulent conditions, because Re > 4,000.

2. Water at 60°F (ρ = 62.36 lbm/ft3 and μ = 7.536 x 10-4 lbm/ft-s) is flowing steadily in a 2 inches diameter
horizontal pipe with friction factor of 0.0119 at a rate of 0.2 ft 3/s (see Figure). Determine the pressure drop,
the head loss, and the required pumping power input for flow over a 200 ft long section of the pipe.

Solution:
Given:
L = 200 ft
D = 2 in x 1 ft/12 in = 0.16667 ft
g = 32.2 ft/s2 (constant)
f = 0.0119
ρ = 62.36 lbm/ft3
μ = 7.536 x 10-4 lbm/ft-s
A = πD2/4
1 Watt = 0.737 lbm-ft/s (constant - conversion)
To calculate the average velocity, v and the Reynolds number in order to determine the flow regime, we have
v = Q/Ac = Q/(πD2/4)
= (0.2 ft3/s)/[3.1416(0.16667 ft)2/4
= (0.2 ft/s)/0.021817538
≈ 9.17 ft/s
For Re
Re = ρvD/μ
= (62.36 lbm/ft3)(9.17 ft/s)[ 0.16667 ft]/7.536 x 10-4 lbm/ft · s
= 126,471.3
* Since, Re > 4,000. Therefore, the flow is turbulent.

Now, for the pressure drop (which is equivalent to pressure loss in this case), we have
Δp = ΔpL = f[(L/D)(ρv2/2g)] → (recalled)
= (0.0119)[(200 ft/0.16667 ft)(62.36 lb m/ft3 x (9.17 ft/s)2/2(32.2 ft/s2]
= (14.2797)[571.8412 lbm/ft2]/64.4
= 126.8 lbm/ft2
Or ΔpL = 126.8 lbm/ft2 x (1ft2/144 in2)
= 0.881 psi

For the head loss, we have

hL = ΔpL/ρg = f[(L/D)(v2/2g)] → (recalled)
= f[(L/D)(v2/2g)]
= (0.0119)[(200 ft/0.16667 ft)(9.17 ft/s) 2/2(32.2 ft/s2]
= (14.2797)(1.3057 ft)
= 18.65 ft

And for the required power input, we have

W = QΔp
= (0.2 ft3/s)(126.8 lbm/ft2) x (1 Watt/0.737 lbm-ft/s)
= 34.41 Watts
* Therefore, power input in the amount of 34.41 W is needed to overcome the frictional losses in the pipe.

FRICTION FACTOR

The friction factor, f is the ratio of the shear stress τ on the bounding walls of the channel to the dynamic.
 Friction factor, in general, was found to be a function of the Reynolds number and pipe relative roughness.
Relative roughness, k is defined here as the ratio of the absolute roughness ε of the pipe inside wall to the
pipe inside diameter:
k = ε/D
where:
k = pipe relative roughness
ε = pipe absolute roughness
D = pipe diameter
Typical absolute roughness values are ε = 0.0006 in for new and ε = 0.009 in for used well tubing.
There are several formulae describing friction factors for different flow conditions. Most of them are
included in the Moody diagram, which is a graphical presentation of Darcy - Weisbach type f - values.

As seen in the Moody diagram (above), the friction factor is a different function of the variables Re and k in
different ranges. In laminar flow (i.e., Reynolds numbers lower than 2,000 - 2,300) f varies with the Reynolds
number only. Thus,
f = 64/Re → laminar flow
Fanning Equation

For a single phase, fully developed flow in a pipe, the shear stress at the fluid-solid boundary is balanced
by the pressure drop (see Figure 1). A one-dimensional force balance equation of this flow can be written as:

SΔp = τWA
Where:
S = pipe cross-sectional area
A = pipe surface area.
τw = wall shear stress which is dependent upon the parameters
Δp = P1 - P2 = pressure difference or pressure drop
The following parameters are:
 fluid velocity
 fluid properties, namely, density and viscosity
 pipe diameter
 surface roughness of the interior pipe wall

The first two parameters are due to the nature and the flow characteristics of the fluid itself. The last two
depend on the physical geometry of the pipe. The stress can be expressed as

τ = fρv2/2
where: f is the Fanning friction factor.

Friction Factor, f

The friction factor, f is a dimensionless factor that depends primarily on the velocity, v or u, diameter, D
density, ρ and viscosity, μ. It is also a function of wall roughness which depends on the size ε, spacing ε' and
shape of the roughness elements characterized by ε''. ε and ε' have the dimension of length whereas ε'' is
dimensionless. Since the friction factor is dimensionless, the quantities that it depends upon should appear in
the dimensionless form. In this case, the terms v or u, D, ρ and μ can be rearranged as vDμ/μ which is
the Reynolds Number, Re. For the characteristic roughness factors (ε and ε'), it may be made dimensionless by
dividing these terms by D (the term ε/D is called the relative roughness). Hence, the friction factor can be
written in a general form as:
f = α [Re, ε/D, ε’/D, ε”]

From this we see that the friction factor of pipes will be the same of their Reynolds number, roughness
patterns, and relative roughness are the same. For a smooth pipe, the roughness term is neglected and the
magnitude of the friction factor is determined by fluid Reynolds number alone.

FIG 1. Forces acting on the fluid during single phase steady flow in a pipe.
* Note: u = v

Fanning Friction Factor

The friction factor is found to be a function of the Reynolds number and the relative roughness.
Experimental results of Nikuradse (1933) who carried out experiments on fluid flow in smooth and rough pipes
showed that the characteristics of the friction factor were different for laminar and turbulent flow. For laminar
flow (Re < 2100), the friction factor was independent of the surface roughness and it varied linearly with the
inverse of Reynolds number. In this case, the friction factor of the Fanning equation can be calculated using
the Hagen-Poiseuille equation (see Poiseuille Flow).

f = 16/Re; Re < 2,100

For turbulent flow, both Reynolds number and the wall roughness influence the friction factor. At high
Reynolds number, the friction factor of rough pipes becomes constant, dependent only on the pipe roughness.
For smooth pipes, Blasius (1913) has shown that the friction factor (in a range of 3,000 < Re < 100,000) may be
approximated by:
f = 0.079/Re0.25; 3,000 < Re < 100,000

However, for Re > 105, the following equation is found to be more accurate:

f = 0.046/Re 0.2

and this was used by Taitel and Dukler (1976).

Karman-Nikuradze Equation

Nikuradse (1933) measured the velocity profile and pressure drop in smooth and rough pipes where
inner surfaces of rough pipes were roughened by sand grains of known sizes. He showed that the velocity
profile in a smooth pipe is given by: (Note: u = v for velocity and u* or v* for friction velocity)

u/u* = (1/k)[ln(u*y/ѵ) + B]
or, v/v* = (1/k)[ln(v*y/ѵ) + B]

where:
k = Von Karman constant and B are 0.4 and 5.5.
u* = v* = friction velocity
u* = v* = √τw/ρ
ѵ = μ/ρ = kinematic viscosity
The friction factor can be related to mean flow velocity and Reynolds number

f = 2τw/ρu2
or, f = 2τw/ρv2

The friction factor for smooth pipe is then expressed as:

1/f1/2 = 0.86[Ɩn(Ref1/2)] - 0.8 → called the Karman-Nikuradse equation

For the rough pipes, the velocity distribution is defined as:

u/u* = (1/k)[ln(y/ε) + B’]

or, v/v* = (1/k)[ln(y/ε) + B’]

Here the constant Β' depends on the geometric characteristic of the roughness elements. Nikuradse classified
the characteristics of the rough surface into three regimes based on the value of the dimensionless
characteristic roughness, u*ε/ν or v*ε/ν, where ε is the equivalent roughness height. The three roughness
regimes are as follows:
 Dynamically smooth: 0 ≤ u*ε/ν ≤ 5 or, 0 ≤ v*ε/ν ≤ 5
 Transition: 5 < u*ε/ν ≤ 70 or, 5 < v*ε/ν ≤ 70
 Completely rough: u*ε/ν > 70 or, v*ε/ν > 70
For the completely rough regime, the value of Β' is equal a constant of 8.48. The friction factor for rough pipes
can be expressed in a form similar to that for smooth pipe as:

1/f1/2 = 1.14 - 0.86[Ɩn(ε/D)]

Colebrook-White Formula

Friction factor of commercial pipes can be calculated using equation (5) if the pipe roughness is in the
completely rough region. In the transition region where the friction factor depends on both Reynolds number
and the relative roughness (ε/D), the friction factor of the commercial pipe is found to be different from those
obtained from the sand roughness used by Nikuradse (see Figure A - 1). This may be because the roughness
patterns of commercial pipes are entirely different from, and vary greatly in uniformity compared to the
artificial roughness. However, the friction factor of the commercial pipe in this zone can be calculated using an
empiricism equation which is known as the Colebrook-White formula:

1/f1/2 = - 0.86Ɩn[(ε/D)/3.7 + 2.51/Ref1/2]]

FIG. A - 1. The difference between the Nikuradse sand roughness and the commercial roughness.

The formula can also be used for the smooth or rough pipes where it gets similar values to the Karman-
Nikuradse equation when ε → 0 or Re → ∞.
 Table 1. Average roughness of commercial pipes, Streeter and Wylie (1983)
Material ε (mm)
Cast iron 0.26
Galvanised iron 0.15
Asphalt cast iron 0.12
Commercial steel or wrought iron 0.046
Drawn tubing 0.0015
Glass Smooth

Moody Chart

In engineering applications there is a wide range of pipe wall roughness due to the different materials and
methods of manufacture used to produce commercial pipes. Although the Colebrook-White formula can be
used to calculate the value of the friction factor accurately from given value of the relative pipe roughness, the
use of the formula is not practicable because of the complicated structure of the equation itself. Moody (1944)
used the Colebrook-White formula to compute the friction factor of commercial pipes of different materials
and summarised the data in the graph showing the relationship between friction factor, Reynolds number and
relative roughness. Typical values of the roughness size of different pipe material are given in Table 1.
It is important to note that the value of friction factor obtained from the Moody Chart is equal four times
of the Fanning friction factor.
fMoody = 4fFanning

A useful explicit equation that applies to turbulent flow (104 > Re > 4 × 108) in both smooth and rough pipes

Illustrative Examples:
1. Heated air at 1 atm and 35°C is to be transported in a 150 m long circular plastic duct at a rate of 0.35 m 3/s
(see Figure). The average velocity is 6.24 m/s, determine (a) the minimum diameter of the duct. (b) What is
the Reynolds number with a viscous of 1.655 x 10-5 m2/s, and what is the flow regime? (c) If the roughness is
approximately zero for a plastic pipe (see Table A - B), and the friction factor is 0.0119, calculate the head
loss in the pipe.

Given:
Pressure, P = 1 atm
Temperature, t = 35°C
Length, L = 150 m
Flow, Q = 0.35 m3/s
Average Velocity, v = 6.24 m/s
Viscous, ѵ = 1.655 x 10-5 m2/s
g = 9.81 m/s2 (constant acceleration due to gravity)
f = 0.0119

Required:
(a) minimum diameter, D
(b) Reynolds number, Re and the flow regime, if ѵ = 1.655 x 10-5 m2/s
(c) friction factor, f if ε = 0 (Table A-B, for plastic) and the head loss, hL

Solution:
(a) The diameter can be obtained using the relation of the formula below. That is,Q = Av, but A = πD2/4
Q = πvD2/4
D2 = 4Q/πv
D = [4(0.35 m3/s)/(3.1416)(6.24 m/s)]1/2
= 0.267 m
(b) The Reynolds number, Re and the flow regine is
Re = vD/ѵ
= [(6.24 m/s)(0.267 m)]/1.655 x 10-5 m2/s
= 100,669.5, say 100,670
* Since, Re > 4,000 (turbulence flow)

(c) For the headloss, hL, if f = 0.0119, we have,

hL = f[(L/D)(v2/2g)]
= (0.0119){(150 m/0.267 m)[(6.24 m/s)2/2(9.81 m/s2)]}
= (0.0119){(561.79775)[1.98459]}
≈ 13.27 m

2. Water at 40°F where ρ is 62.42 lbm/ft3 and μ = 1.038 10-3 lbm/ft-s is flowing through a 0.12 in. (= 0.010 ft)
diameter 30 ft long horizontal pipe steadily at an average velocity of 3.0 ft/s (Fig. below). Determine (a) the
Reynolds number and the flow regime, (b) the friction factor, (c) the head loss, (e) the pressure drop, (f) the
volume flow rate, and (g) the pumping power requirement to overcome this pressure drop.

Given:
Temperature, t = 40°F
ρ = 62.42 lbm/ft3
μ = 1.038 x 10-3 lbm/ft-s
D = 0.010 ft
L = 30 ft
v = 3.0 ft/s (average)
g = 32.2 ft/s2 (constant gravitational acceleration)

Required:
(a) Re and the flow regime
(b) friction factor, f
(c) head loss, hL
(d) pressure drop, Δp
(e) volume flow rate, Q
(f) pumping power, W

Solution:
(a) Re and the flow regime, we have
Re = ρvavgD/μ
= [(62.42 lbm/ft3)(3 ft/s)(0.01 ft)]/(1.038 x 10-3 lbm/ft-s)
≈ 1,804
* Since Re < 2300, herefore, the flow is laminar

(b) Thus, the friction factor, f can be calculated as

f = 64/Re
= 64/1,804
= 0.05904

(c) For the head loss, hL,

hL = f[(L/D)(vavg2/2g]
= (0.05904){[(30 ft/0.01 ft)(3 ft/s)2]/2(32.2 ft/s2)}
= 24.753 ft

(d) Noting that the pipe is horizontal and its diameter is constant, the pressure drop in the pipe is due entirely
to the frictional losses and is equivalent to the pressure loss. So,
Δp = ΔpL = f[(L/D)ρvavg2/2]
= (0.05904){(30 ft/0.01 ft)[(62.42 lb m/ft3)(3 ft/s)2/2]}[1 lbf/32.2 lbm-ft/s2]
= (0.05904){(3,000)[280.89]}[1/32.2 lb f/ft2]
≈ 1,545 lbf/ft2
 or ΔpL = 1,545 lbf/ft2 x (1 ft2/144 in2)
≈ 10.73 lbf/in2 (say 10.73 psi)

(e) For the cross section, A = πD2/4. Then, the volume flow rate, Q is
Q = Avave
= πD2vave/4
= [(3.1416)(0.01 ft)2(3 ft/s)]/4
= 0.00023562 ft3/s

(f) Finally, the pumping power, W requirements is

Wpump = QΔp
= (0.00023562 ft3/s)(1,545 lbf/ft2) x (1 Watt/0.737 lbf -ft/s)
≈ 0.494 Watt

LESSON 28
STEADY INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PRESSURE FLUID… continued

FLUID FRICTION IN NONCIRCULAR CONDUITS

Non-Circular Pipe Friction

The frictional head loss in circular pipes is usually calculated by using the Darcy-Weisbach formula with a
Darcy Friction factor. For circular pipes the inner pipe diameter is used is used to calculate the Reynolds
number and to calculate the relative roughness of the pipe, which are both used to calculate the Darcy
Friction factor. To calculate the frictional head loss non-circular pipes the method must be adapted to use the
hydraulic diameter instead of the internal dimensions of the pipe.

Hydraulic Diameter, DH = 4 x cross sectional area of flow, A/wetted perimeter, P

DH = 4A/P
For a round pipe, the hydraulic diameter is
DH = 4(πd2/4)/(πd)
DH = d
For a rectangular duct, the hydraulic diameter is

DH = 4(wh)/2(w + h)
Where:
w = width
h = height

For an elliptical duct, the hydraulic diameter is

DH = 4(πab)/π[2(a2 + b2) - (a - b)2/2]1/2

Where:
a = major diameter/2
b = minor diameter/2
* Note: the formula uses an approximation for the circumference of an elliptical duct.

For an annulus formed by placing a smaller diameter pipe inside a larger diameter pipe the cross sectional
area of flow will be the cross sectional area of the larger pipe calculated using the inner pipe diameter minus
the cross sectional area of the smaller pipe calculated using the outer pipe diameter. The wetted perimeter
will be the inner circumference of the larger pipe plus the outer circumference of the smaller pipe.

DH = 4[π(d12 - d22)/4]/[π(d1 + d2)]

Or, DH = d1 - d2
Where:
d1 = inner diameter of larger pipe
d2 = outer diameter of smaller pipe
Illustrative Examples:
1. A round steel pipe 0.4 m internal diameter x 10.0 m long carries a water flow rate of 349.1 litres per second
(or, 20.946 m3/min). The temperature of the water is 10°C (50°F). Determine the following: (a) Pipe cross
sectional area (b) Flow velocity, (c) Relative roughness, (d) Reynolds number and the flow regime, and
(e) the frictional head loss. Take ε = 0.000046 m for round steel pipe and kinematic
viscosity, ѵ = 0.000001307 m2/s, and the friction factor is 0.014 (plotted from Moody chart).

Given:
L = length of pipe work = 10 m
DH = D = hydraulic diameter = internal diameter of pipe = 0.4 m
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s²
Q = flow rate = 20.946 m3/min x (1 min/60 s) = 0.3491 m3/s
For round steel pipe, ε = 0.000046 m
Kinematic viscosity, ѵ = 0.000001307 m2/s
Friction factor, f = 0.014
ε = 0.000046 m

Required:
(a) Pipe cross sectional area, A
(b) Flow velocity, v
(c) Relative roughness, ε/D
(d) Reynolds number, Re and flow regimes
(e) Frictional head loss, hf

Solution:
(a) For pipe cross sectional area, A
A = πD2/4
= (3.1216)(0.4 m)2/4
= 0.1257 m2

(b) For the flow velocity, v, we have

Q = Av
v = Q/A
= 20.94/0.1256/60
= 2.778 m/s

(c) For the relative roughness, ε/D, we have

ε/D = 0.000046 m/0.4 m
= 0.000115

(d) For the Reynolds number, Re, we have

Re = vDH /ѵ
= [(2.778 m/s)(0.4 m)]/0.000001307 m 2/s
≈ 850,191
* Since Re > 4,000, the the flow regimes is turbulence

(e) For frictional head loss, hf

hf = f(L/DH)(v2/2g)
= (0.014)[(10 m/0.4 m)(2.778 m/s)2/(2 x 9.81 m/s²)]
= 0.138 m

2. A rectangular steel duct 0.6 m wide x 0.3 m high x 10.0 m long carries a water flow rate of 500 litres/sec
(or, 30 m3/min). The temperature of the water is 10 °C (50 °F). Determine the following: (a) Hydraulic
diameter, (b) Duct cross sectional area (c) Flow velocity, (d) Relative roughness, (e) Reynolds number and
the flow regime, and (f) the frictional head loss. Take ε = 0.000046 m for rectangular steel duck and
kinematic viscosity, ѵ = 0.000001307 m2/s, and the friction factor is 0.014 (plotted from Moody chart).

Given:
 w = 0.6 m
h = 0.3 m
L = 10 m
Q = 500 litres/sec (or, 30 m3/min)
f = 0.014
g = 9.81 m/s²
ѵ = 0.000001307 m2/s
ε = 0.000046 m

Required:
(a) Hydraulic diameter, DH
(b) Duct cross sectional area, A
(c) Flow velocity, v
(d) Relative roughness, ε/D
(e) Reynolds number, Re and the flow regime
(f) Frictional head loss, hf

Solution:
(a) To determine the hydraulic diameter, DH
DH = 4(wh)/2(w + h)
= 4(0.6 m x 0.3 m)/2(0.6 m + 0.3 m)
= 0.4 m

(b) For duct cross sectional area, A

A = wh
= 0.6 m x 0.3 m
= 0.18 m2

(c) For the flow velocity, v, we have

Q = Av
v = Q/A
= [(30 m3/min) x (1 min/60 s)]/0.18 m2
= 2.778 m/s

(d) For the relative roughness, ε/D

k = ε/D
= 0.000046 m/0.4 m
= 0.000115

(e) For the Reynolds number, Re and the flow regimes, we have
Re = vDH/ѵ
= [(2.778 m/s)(0.4 m)]/0.000001307 m 2/s
= 850,191
* Since Re > 4,000, then the flow regimes is tubulence

(f) For the friction head loss, hf, we get

hf = f[(L/Dh)(v2/2g)]
= (0.014){(10 m/0.4 m)[(2.778 m/s)2/(2 x 9.81 m/s²)]}
≈ 0.1377 m

3. An elliptical duct made from aluminium has internal dimensions of 0.8 m at its widest point and 0.3 m at its
highest point. The duct is 15 m long and carries a water flow rate of 400 litres/sec (or, 24 m 3/min). The
temperature of the water is 10 °C (50 °F). Determine the following: (a) the values of a and b, (b) the duct
cross sectional area, (c) the duct circumference, (d) the hydraulic diameter, (e) the flow velocity, (f) the
relative roughness, (g) the Reynolds number, and the flow regime, and (h) the frictional head loss. Use,
ε = 0.0000015 m (for aluminum), kinematic viscosity, ѵ = 0.000001307 m2/s, and the friction factor is 0.0123
(plotted from Moody chart).
Given:
major diameter, d1= 0.8 m
minor diameter, d2 = 0.3 m
L = 15 m
Q = 400 litres/sec (or, 24 m3/min x 1 min/60 s = 0.4 m3/s)
For aluminum roughness, ε = 0.0000015
ѵ = 0.000001307 m2/s
f = 0.0123

Required:
(a) major diameter and minor diameter
(b) duct cross sectional area, A
(c) duct circumference, C
(d) hydraulic diameter, DH
(d) flow velocity, v
(e) relative roughness, k
(f) Reynolds number, Re and the flow regime
(g) frictional head loss, hf

Solution:
(a) To calculate the major diameter and minor diameter, we have
a = major diameter/2 b = minor diameter/2
= d1/2 = d2/2
= 0.8 m/2 = 0.3 m/2
= 0.4 m = 0.15 m

(b) To determine the duct cross sectional area, A, for elliptical, we have
A = abπ
= (0.4 m)(0.15 m) (3.1416)
= 0.1885 m2

(c) To determine the duct circumference or perimeter, P for elliptical, we have

= π [2(a2 + b2) - (a - b)2/2]1/2

= (3.1416)[2{(0.4 m)2 + (0.15 m)2} - (0.4 m - 0.15 m)2/2] 1/2

= (3.1416 m)[0.365 - 0.03125] 1/2
= 1.8149 m

(d) To determine the hydraulic diameter, DH, we have

DH = 4A/P
= 4(0.1885 m2)/ 1.8149
= 0.415 m

(e) To determine the flow velocity, v, we get

Q = Av
v = Q/A
= (0.4 m3/s)/0.1885 m2
= 2.1220 m/s

(f) For the relative roughness, k, we have

k = ε/D; D = DH
= ε/DH
= 0.0000015 m/0.415 m
= 0.000003615

(g) To determine the Reynolds numbe and its regime of flow, we have
Re = vDH/ѵ
= [(2.1220 m/s)(0.415 m)]/0.000001307 m 2/s
= 673,780
* Hence, Re > 4,000, the turbulent is justified

(h) Finally, to determine the frictional head loss, hf, we have

hf = f[(L/DH)(v2/2g)
= (0.0123)(15 m/0.415 m)(2.122 m/s) 2/(2 x 9.81 m/s2)
= 0.102 m

4. An annulus section is formed by placing a stainless steel pipe with an outer diameter of 350 mm inside a
stainless steel pipe with an inner diameter of 600. The annulus section is 10 m long and carries a water flow
rate of 600 litres/sec (or, 36.00 m3/min). The water temperature is 20 o C (68 o F). Use,
ε = 0.000045 m (for stainless steel), kinematic viscosity, ѵ = 0.000001004 m2/s, and the friction factor is
0.0146 (plotted from Moody chart). Determine the following:
(a) Inner cross sectional area of the larger pipe. (g) Hydraulic diameter.
(b) Outer cross sectional area of the smaller pipe. (h) Flow velocity.
(c) Cross sectional area of the annulus. (i) Relative roughness.
(d) Inner circumference of the larger pipe. (j) Reynolds number and the flow regime.
(e) Outer circumference of the smaller pipe. (k) Friction head loss.
(f) Wetted perimeter of the pipe.

Given:
inner diameter, D1 = (600 mm) x (1 m/1,000 mm) = 0.6 m
outer diameter, D2 = (350 mm) x (1 m/1,000 mm) = 0.35 m
For stainless steel: ε = 0.000045 m
L = 10 m
Q = 600 litres/sec (or, 36 m3/min x 1 min/60 s = 0.6 m3/s)
ѵ = 0.000001004 m2/s
f = 0.0146 (plotted from Moody chart)
g = 9.81 m/s2

Required:
(a) inner cross sectional area of the larger pipe, A1
(b) outer cross sectional area of the smaller pipe, A2
(c) cross sectional area of the annulus, A
(d) inner circumference of the larger pipe, P1
(e) outer circumference of the smaller pipe, P2
(f) wetted perimeter of the pipe, P
(g) hydraulic diameter, DH
(h) flow velocity, v
(i) relative roughness, k
(j) Reynolds number, Re and the flow regime
(k) friction head loss, hf

Solution:
(a) The inner cross sectional area of the larger pipe, A1 is
A1 = πD12/4
= [3.1416(0.6 m)2]/4
= 0.2827 m2

(b) The outer cross sectional area of the smaller pipe, A2 is

A2 = πD22/4
= [3.1416(0.35 m)2]/4
= 0.0962 m2

(c) The cross sectional area of the annulus, A is

A = A 1 - A2
= 0.2827 m2 - 0.0962 m2
= 0.1865 m2

(d) The inner circumference of the larger pipe, or perimeter P1 is

 P1 = πD1
= (3.1416)(0.6 m)
= 1.885 m

(e) The outer circumference of the smaller pipe, or perimeter, P2 is

P2 = πD2
= (3.1416)(0.35 m)
= 1.0995 m

(f) The wetted perimeter, P is

P = P 1 + P2
= 1.885 m + 1.0995 m
= 2.9845 m

(g) The hydraulic diameter, DH is

DH = 4A/P
= 4(0.1865 m2)/2.9845 m
= 0.25 m

(h) To determine the flow velocity, v, we have

Q = Av
v = Q/A
= (0.6 m3/s)/0.1865 m2
= 3.217 m/s

(i) For the relative roughness, k, we have

k = ε/D
= 0.000045 m/0.25 m
= 0.00018

(j) To determine the Reynolds number and its regime flow, we have
Re = vDH/ѵ
= [(3.217 m/s )(0.25 m)/0.000001004 m 2/s
≈ 801,046
* Thus, Re > 4,000, therefore the regime flow for turbulent was justified

(k) For the friction head loss, hf, we finally have

hf = f[(L/DH)(v2/2g)]
= (0.0146)(10 m/0.25 m)(3.217 m/s)2/(2 x 9.81 m/s2)
= 0.308 m

DIFFERENT TYPES OF LOSSES

Minor Losses

The fluid in a typical piping system passes through various fittings, valves, bends, elbows, tees, inlets, exits,
enlargements, and contractions in addition to the pipes. These components interrupt the smooth flow of the
fluid and cause additional losses because of the flow separation and mixing they induce. In a typical system
with long pipes, these losses are minor compared to the total head loss in the pipes (the major losses) and are
called minor losses. Although this is generally true, in some cases the minor losses may be greater than the
major losses. This is the case, for example, in systems with several turns and valves in a short distance. The
head loss introduced by a completely open valve, for example, may be negligible. But a partially closed valve
may cause the largest head loss in the system, as evidenced by the drop in the flow rate. Flow through valves
and fittings is very complex, and a theoretical analysis is generally not plausible. Therefore, minor losses are
determined experimentally, usually by the manufacturers of the components.
Minor losses are usually expressed in terms of the loss coefficient, KL (also called the resistance
coefficient), defined as (Figure A - 2)
FIGURE A - 2: For a constant-diameter section of a pipe with a minor loss component, the loss coefficient of
the component (such as the gate valve shown) is determined by measuring the additional
pressure loss it causes and dividing it by the dynamic pressure in the pipe.

The loss coefficient, KL is given by

KL = hL/(v2/(2g)
= 2gh L/v2

where hL is the additional irreversible head loss in the piping system caused by insertion of the component,
and is defined as
h L = ΔpL/ρg

When the pipe diameter downstream of the component changes, determination of the minor loss is even
more complicated. In all cases, however, it is based on the additional irreversible loss of mechanical energy
that would otherwise not exist if the minor loss component were not there.
When the inlet diameter equals outlet diameter, the loss coefficient of a component can also be
determined by measuring the pressure loss across the component and dividing it by the dynamic pressure,
KL = ΔpL/(ρv2).
When the loss coefficient for a component is available, the head loss for that component is determined
from
hL = KLv2/2g

The loss coefficient, in general, depends on the geometry of the component and the Reynolds number, just
like the friction factor. However, it is usually assumed to be independent of the Reynolds number. This is a
reasonable approximation since most flows in practice have large Reynolds numbers and the loss coefficients
(including the friction factor) tend to be independent of the Reynolds number at large Reynolds numbers.
Minor losses are also expressed in terms of the equivalent length Lequiv, defined as (Fig. A - 3).

Δp = p1 - p2 = p3 - p4

FIGURE A - 3: The head loss caused by a component (such as the angle valve shown) is equivalent to the
head loss caused by a section of the pipe whose length is the equivalent length.

For Equivalent Length, we have

hL = KLv2/2g → (1)
hL = f[(Lequiv/D)(v2/2g)] → (2)
Equating (1) and (2)
KLv2/2g = f[(Lequiv/D)(v2/2g)]
Then, Lequiv = DKL/f
where f is the friction factor and D is the diameter of the pipe that contains the component. The head loss, hL
caused by the component is equivalent to the head loss caused by a section of the pipe whose length is Lequiv.
Therefore, the contribution of a component to the head loss can be accounted for by simply adding Lequiv to the
total pipe length.
Thus, the total head loss in a piping system is determined from

hL,total = hL,major + hL,minor

= f i[(Li)(Di)(vi2/2g) + KL,j(vj2/2g)

where i represents each pipe section with constant diameter and j represents each component that causes a
minor loss. If the entire piping system being analyzed has a constant diameter, then, the equation for the total
head loss (D = constant) will lead to:
hL,total = (fL/D + Sum of KL)(v2/2g)

where v is the average flow velocity through the entire system (note that v = constant since D = constant).

FIGURE A - 4: The head loss at the inlet of a pipe is almost negligible for well-rounded
inlets (KL = 0.03 for r/D > 0.2) but increases to about 0.50 for sharp-edged inlet.

Representative loss coefficients, KL are given in Table A - 4 for inlets, exits, bends, sudden and gradual area
changes, and valves. There is considerable uncertainty in these values since the loss coefficients, in general,

vary with the pipe diameter, the surface roughness, the Reynolds number, and the details of the design. The
loss coefficients of two seemingly identical valves by two different manufacturers.
Piping systems often involve sudden or gradual expansion or contraction sections to accommodate
changes in flow rates or properties such as density and velocity. The losses are usually much greater in the
case of sudden expansion and contraction (or wide-angle expansion) because of flow separation. By combining
the conservation of mass, momentum, and energy equations, the loss coefficient for the case of sudden
expansion is approximated as
KL = [1 - Asmall/Alarge]2

where Asmall and Alarge are the cross-sectional areas of the small and large pipes, respectively. Note that KL = 0
when there is no area change (Asmall = Alarge) and KL = 1 when a pipe discharges into a reservoir (Alarge >> Asmall).
Piping systems also involve changes in direction without a change in diameter, and such flow sections are
called bends or elbows.
Valves are commonly used in piping systems to control the flow rates by simply altering the head loss
until the desired flow rate is achieved.
The gate valve slides up and down like a gate, the globe valve closes a hole placed in the valve, the angle
valve is a globe valve with a 90° turn, and the check valve allows the fluid to flow only in one direction like a
diode in an electric circuit.

Illustrative Examples:
1. A 6 cm diameter horizontal water pipe expands gradually to a 9 cm diameter pipe (see Figure). The walls of
the expansion section are angled 30° from the horizontal. The average velocity and pressure of water before
the expansion section are 7 m/s and 150 kPa, respectively. Take the following assumption: The flow is
steady and incompressible. The flow at sections 1 and 2 is fully developed and turbulent with α1 = α2 = 1.06.
The density of water to be 1,000 kg/m3. The loss coefficient for gradual expansion of θ = 60° total included
 angle is KL = 0.07.

Given:
Entrance diameter, D1 = 6 cm x (1 m/100 cm) = 0.06 m
Exit diameter, D2 = 9 cm x (1 m/100 cm) = 0.09 m
Velocity at the entrance, v1 = 7 m/s
Pressure at the entrance, p1 = 150 kPa
For turbulent: α1 = α2 = 1.06
Density of water, ρ = 1,000 kg/m3
Angle, θ = 60°
KL = 0.07
Entrance elevation, z1 = Entrance elevation z2 (horizontal pipe)
g = 9.81 m/s2

Minor requirement:
Exit velocity, v2 = ?

Major requirements:
Head loss, hL = ?
Pressure at the exit, p2 = ?

Solution:
Noting that the density of water remains constant, that is ρ1 = ρ2 = ρ and the downstream velocity of water is
determined from conservation of mass to be
mass flow rate at the entrance = mass flow rate at the exit
ρv1A1 = ρv2A2; where A1 = πD12/4 and A2 = πD22/4
v2 = v1[A1/A2]
= v1[(πD12/4)/(πD22/4)]
= v1[D12/D22]
= (7 m/s)[(0.06 m)2/(0.09 m)2]
= 3.11 m/s
Then the irreversible head loss in the expansion section becomes
hL = KLv12/2g
= (0.07)(7 m/s)2/2(9.81 m/s2)
= 0.175 m
Noting that z1 = z2 and there are no pumps or turbines involved, the energy equation for the expansion section
can be expressed in terms of heads as
0 0 0 0
p1/ρg + α1v12/2g + z1 + hpump, u = p2/ρg + α2v22/2g + z2 + hturbine, e + hL
Then,
p1/ρg + α1v12/2g = p2/ρg + α2v22/2g + hL
Multiply both sides by ρg, so,
p1 + ρ(α1v12)/2 = p2 + ρ(α2v22)/2 + ρghL
Solving for p2, we obtain simultaneously
p2 = p1 + ρ(α1v12)/2 - ρ(α2v22)/2 - ρghL
= p1 + ρ[(α1v12)/2 - (α2v22)/2 - ghL]
= 150 kPa + (1,000 kg/m3)[(1.06(7 m/s)2)/2 - (1.06(3.11 m/s)2)/2 - (9.81 m/s2)(0.175 m)]
= 150 kPa + (1,000)[25.97 - 5.126213 - 1.71675] (kg-m/m2-s2) x (1 N/1 kg-m/s2)
= 150 kPa + (1,000)(19.13) N/m2 x (1 Pa/1 N/m2) x (1 kPa/1,000 Pa)
= 169.13 kPa

SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS
I - MULTIPLE CHOICE: Read the questions carefully and answer. Write the capital letter of your answer
from the choices in the space provided before the number.

_____ 1. It helps predict flow patterns in different fluid flow situations.

A. Reynolds number B. Manning equation C. Manning roughness coefficient D. Fanning factor
_____ 2. In the flow regime as laminar, what is the Reynolds number?
A. Re < 2,000 B. 2,000 < Re < 4,000 C. Re > 4,000 D. Re < 2,100
_____ 3. If the flow regime is turbulent, what is the Reynolds number?
A. Re < 2,000 B. 2,000 < Re < 4,000 C. Re > 4,000 D. Re < 2,100
_____ 4. If the flow regime is transitional, what is the Reynolds number?
A. Re < 2,100 B. Re < 2,000 C. 2,000 < Re < 4,000 D. Re > 4,000
_____ 5. In Fanning friction factor, what is the Reynolds number if the regime of flow is laminar?
A. Re > 4,000 B. Re < 2,100 C. Re < 2,000 D. 2,000 < Re < 4,000
_____ 6. It is the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces and is a convenient parameter for predicting if a flow
condition will be laminar or turbulent.
A. Manning roughness coefficient B. Reynolds number C. Manning equation D. Fanning factor
_____ 7. What is the regime of flow when the viscous forces are dominant (slow flow, low Re) and they are
sufficient enough to keep all the fluid particles in line, called?
A. transitional B. turbulent C. laminar D. influential
_____ 8. What is the regime of flow when the inertial forces dominate over the viscous forces (when the fluid
is flowing faster and Re is larger), called?
A. internal flow configuration B. transitional C. turbulent D. laminar
_____ 9. This is a convenient geometry for heating and cooling fluids used in energy conversion technologies
such as nuclear power plants.
A. laminar B. internal flow configuration C. transitional D. turbulent
____ 10. In turbulent flow, it is flatter in the central part of the pipe (i.e. in the turbulent core) than in laminar
flow.
A. hydraulic diameter B. configuration C. velocity profile D. characteristic dimension
____ 11. It is a commonly used term when handling flow in non-circular tubes and channels.
A. hydraulic diameter B. hydraulic radius C. velocity profile D. characteristic dimension
____ 12. It is a commonly used term when handling flow in non-circular tubes and channels.
A. hydraulic diameter B. hydraulic radius C. velocity profile D. characteristic dimension
____ 13. These are cooled and moderated by high-pressure liquid water.
A. pressurized water reactors C. power - law velocity profiles
B. hot spot temperature D. temperature rise
____ 14. One of the parameters needed in order to make use of the Manning equation for open channel flow
calculations is called.
A. frictional head loss B. hydraulic diameter C. hydraulic radius D. head loss
____ 15. This is defined as the cross sectional area of flow divided by the wetted perimeter, so the calculation
of rectangle and trapezoid area and triangle area will be included along with the perimeter for each.
A. frictional head loss B. hydraulic diameter C. hydraulic radius D. head loss
____ 16. This is the simplest open channel flow cross section for calculation of hydraulic radius.
A. rectangular channel B. trapezoid shape C. triangular open channel D. circular shape
____ 17. This is sometimes used for manmade channels and the cross section of natural stream channels are
often approximated by a trapezoid area.
A. elliptical channel A. rectangular channel B. trapezoid shape C. triangular open channel
____ 18. This is where the two sides are sloped at the same angle.
A. rectangular channel B. trapezoid shape C. triangular open channel D. circular shape
____ 19. This is where the cross sectional area is determined in terms of its radius or diameter.
A. rectangular channel B. trapezoid shape C. triangular open channel D. circular shape
____ 20. This equation can be expressed in terms of flow velocity instead of flow rate.
A. Manning equation C. Fanning friction factor
B. Darcy-Weisbach equation D. Colebrook-White formula
____ 21. This equation can be expressed in terms of flow velocity instead of flow rate.
A. Manning equation C. Fanning friction factor
B. Darcy-Weisbach equation D. Colebrook-White formula
____ 22. These values for several surfaces commonly used for open channel flow.
A. Manning Roughness Coefficient C. Darcy-Weisbach friction factor
 B. Moody friction factor D. Colebrook-White formula
____ 23. For calculating the friction loss in a pipe, uses a dimensionless value known as the friction factor and
it is four times larger than the Fanning friction factor.
A. Manning equation C. Hazen-Williams equation
B. Darcy-Weisbach equation D. Colebrook-White formula
____ 24. It represens the plot of the relative roughness of a pipe against the Reynold's number.
A. Manning chart B. Moody chart C. Fanning chart D. Colebrook chart
____ 25. This provide a method of finding an accurate friction factor and this encouraged use of the Darcy-
Weisbach equation, which quickly became the method of choice for hydraulic engineers.
A. Colebrook chart B. Darcy-Weisbach chart C. Moody chart D. Fanning chart
____ 26. This provide a method of finding an accurate friction factor and this encouraged use of the Darcy-
Weisbach equation, which quickly became the method of choice for hydraulic engineers.
A. Colebrook chart B. Darcy-Weisbach chart C. Moody chart D. Fanning chart
____ 27. When flow occurs between the laminar and turbulent flow conditions (Re > 2300 to Re > 4000) and is
difficult to predict, the flow condition is known.
A. critical B. normal C. tangible D. transitional
____ 28. It is where the flow of fluid through a pipe is resisted by viscous shear stresses within the fluid and
the turbulence that occurs along the internal pipe wall, which is dependent on the roughness of the
pipe material. This resistance is termed?
A. pipe head loss B. pipe fitting C. pipe friction D. pipe contriction
____ 29. In a pipe, it is affected by a number of factors which include the viscosity of the fluid, the size of the
internal pipe diameter, the internal roughness of the inner surface of the pipe, the change in
elevation between the ends of the pipe and the length of the pipe along which the fluid travels.
A. oveall head loss B. pipe fitting C. pipe friction D. pipe contriction
____ 30. It is the most accurate pipe friction loss formula and became the standard equation for hydraulic
engineers.
A. Manning equation C. Hazen-Williams equation
B. Darcy-Weisbach equation D. Colebrook-White formula
____ 31. On a pipe, these also contribute to the overall head loss that occurs, however these must be
calculated separately to the pipe wall friction loss, using a method of modeling pipe fitting losses with
k factors.
A. valves and fittings B. jets and contractions C. pipe networks D. shearing stress in pipes
____ 32. This formula was extremely popular with piping engineers because of its relatively simple calculation
properties and only really gives good results when the fluid is water and can produce large
inaccuracies when this is not the case.
A. Manning equation C. Hazen-Williams equation
B. Darcy-Weisbach equation D. Colebrook-White formula
____ 33. In Hazen-Williams formula, the friction loss results are only valid for fluids with a kinematic viscosity
of how many centistokes if water is at 60°F or 15.5°C?
A. 1.15 B. 1.33 C. 1.13 D. 3.31
____ 34. It is one of the most unpredictable of all the weather phenomena that are of significance to pilots.
A. transitional B. laminar C. turbulence D. contraction
____ 35. It is an irregular motion of the air resulting from eddies and vertical currents.
A. contraction B. transitional C. laminar D. turbulence
____ 36. This is affected by surface roughness, so that increasing roughness increases the drag.
A. reversible flow B. transition flow C. laminar flow D. turbulent flow
____ 37. What is the drag of a turbulent flow compared to the drag of a laminar flow?
A. higher B. lower C. constant D. zero
____ 38. It is the ratio of the shear stress τ on the bounding walls of the channel to the dynamic.
A. friction factor B. roughness coefficient C. relative roughness D. absolute roughness
____ 39. It is the ratio of the absolute roughness of the pipe inside wall to the pipe inside diameter.
A. friction factor B. roughness coefficient C. relative roughness D. absolute roughness
____ 40. This equation is use only for a single phase, fully developed flow in a pipe, wherein the shear stress at
the fluid-solid boundary is balanced by the pressure drop.
A. Manning B. Darcy-Weisbach C. Fanning D. Hazen-Williams
____ 41. It is a dimensionless factor that depends primarily on the velocity, diameter, density, and viscosity.
A. Fanning friction factor C. Manning friction factor
B. Darcy-Weisbach friction factor D. Colebrook-White friction factor
____ 42. This is found to be a function of the Reynolds number and the relative roughness.
A. Fanning friction factor C. Manning friction factor
B. Darcy-Weisbach friction factor D. Colebrook-White friction factor
____ 43. This equation measured the velocity profile and pressure drop in smooth and rough pipes where
inner surfaces of rough pipes were roughened by sand grains of known sizes.
A. Hazen-Williams B. Darcy-Weisbach C. Karman-Nikuradze D. Colebrook-White
____ 44. The frictional head loss in circular pipes is usually calculated with a Darcy Friction factor by using
what formula?
A. Hazen-Williams B. Darcy-Weisbach D. Colebrook-White C. Karman-Nikuradze
____ 45. To calculate the frictional head loss in non-circular pipes, instead of the internal dimensions of the
pipe, what method must be adapted to use?
A. hydraulic diameter B. hydraulic radius C. hydraulic height D. hydraulic distance
____ 46. It is formed by placing a smaller diameter pipe inside a larger diameter pipe the cross sectional area
of flow will be the cross sectional area of the larger pipe calculated using the inner pipe diameter
minus the cross sectional area of the smaller pipe calculated using the outer pipe diameter.
A. segment B. annulus C. sector D. circumference
____ 47. This will be the inner circumference of the larger pipe plus the outer circumference of the smaller
pipe.
A. segment B. annulus C. sector D. wetted perimeter
____ 48. In a typical system with long pipes, these components interrupt the smooth flow of the fluid and
cause additional losses because of the flow separation and mixing they induce.
A. valve losses B. fittinglosses C. minor losses D. major losses
____ 49. These are usually expressed in terms of the loss coefficient.
A. valve losses B. fittinglosses C. minor losses D. major losses
____ 50. In general, depends on the geometry of the component and the Reynolds number, just like the
friction factor, and this is termed.
A. loss coefficient B. friction factor coefficient C. minor losses D. major losses
____ 51. If the head loss at the inlet of a pipe is almost negligible for well-rounded inlets r/D > 0.2, what is the
loss coefficient, KL?
A. KL = 1 B. KL = 0.50 C. KL = 0 D. KL = 0.03
____ 52. If the head loss at the inlet of a pipe but increases for sharp-edged inlet for r/D > 0.2, what is the
loss coefficient, KL?
A. KL = 0.03 B. KL = 0 C. KL = 1 D. KL = 0.50
____ 53. The small area and large area are the cross-sectional areas of the small and large pipes, respectively,
when there is no area change, what is the loss coefficient, K L equal to?
A. KL = 0 B. KL = 0.3 C. KL = 0.5 D. KL = 1
____ 54. To accommodate changes in flow rates or properties such as density and velocity, the piping systems
often involved?
A. enlargement or increasing sections C. sudden or gradual expansion or contraction sections
B. compression or decreasing sections D. both expansion or compression sections
____ 55. Piping systems also involve changes in direction without a change in diameter, and such flow sections
are called.
A. gate valves B. angle valves C. valves D. bends or elbows
____ 56. It is a globe valve with a 90° turn.
A. gate valve B. angle valve C. valve D. bends or elbow
____ 57. These are commonly used in piping systems to control the flow rates by simply altering the head loss
until the desired flow rate is achieved.
A. gate valves B. globe valves C. valves D. bends or elbows
____ 58. This valve slides up and down like a gate.
A. gate valve B. check valve C. angle valve D. globe valve
____ 59. This closes a hole placed in the valve.
A. angle valve B. gate valve C. check valve D. globe valve
____ 60. This valve allows the fluid to flow only in one direction like a diode in an electric circuit.
A. check valve B. globe valve C. angle valve D. gate valve

II - ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS: Solve the following problems.

1. A Newtonian fluid with a dynamic or absolute viscosity of 0.47 Ns/m2 and a specific gravity of 0.98 flows
through a 32 mm diameter pipe with a velocity of 3.2 m/s. Determine the Reynolds number. It is laminar or
 turbulent flow? Why?

2. Consider an open channel of rectangular cross-section, with bottom

width of 6 ft, containing water flowing 3.5 ft deep. The bottom slope
of the channel is 0.0004 and it is made of concrete with a Manning
roughness coefficient of 0.011. (a) Determine the hydraulic radius.
(b) What would be the average flow velocity of the water and the
volumetric water flow rate (right figure)?

3. Water is flowing through 110 mm x 250 mm rectangular channel

with a slope of 1:100, by using Manning equation with a Manning
roughness coefficient of 0.013 for concrete spun, determine the
following: (a) area of the channel, (b) wetted perimeter, (c)
hydraulic radius, (d) self-cleaning velocity, and (e) discharge flow
(right figure).

4. Water is flowing through a diameter of 150 mm circular pipe in 1:100 slope. If the pipe has full flow, by
using manning equation, determine the following: (a) area of the channel, (b) wetted perimeter,
(c) hydraulic radius, (d) self-cleaning velocity, and (e) discharge flow. Take Manning roughness coefficient
of 0.13.

5. Water is flowing through a 120 mm circular pipe diameter in 1:100 slope. Considering that the flow of water
in the pipe is half full, by using manning equation with manning roughness coefficient of 0.013, , determine
the following: (a) area of the channel, (b) wetted perimeter, (c) hydraulic radius, (d) self-cleaning velocity,
and (e) discharge flow.

6. If a ductile iron pipe has diameter of 110 mm and 1:100

slope, but the flow of water in the pipe is only 25%.
Calculate the self-cleaning velocity and the flow if the
manning roughness coefficient is 0.013. Determine the
following: (a) height, (b) angle, (c) area of the channel, (d)
wetted perimeter, (e) hydraulic radius, (f) self-cleaning
velocity, and (g) discharge flow. See illustration (right).

7. If a ductile iron pipe has diameter of 120 mm and 1:100

slope, but the flow of water in the pipe is only 75%.
Calculate the self-cleaning velocity and the flow if the
manning roughness coefficient is 0.013. Determine the
following: (a) height, (b) angle, (c) area of the channel, (d)
wetted perimeter, (e) hydraulic radius, (f) self-cleaning
velocity, and (g) discharge flow. See figure (right).

8. An oil of viscosity 0.4 N-s/m2 and relative density 0.92 is

flowing through a circular pipe of diameter 60 mm and of
length 380 m. The rate of flow of fluid through the pipe is
3.75 litres per second. Find the following: (a) flow velocity, (b) Reynolds number and the regime of flow, (c)
pressure drop in a length of 380 m, and (d) shear stress at the pipe wall.

9. A crude oil of viscosity 0.99 poise and relative density 0.9 is flowing through a horizontal circular pipe of
diameter 200 mm and length 20 m. Calculate the following: (a) viscosity in N-s/m 2, (b) density in kg/m3, (c)
mass flow in kg/s, if 200 kg of the oil is collected in a tank in 30 seconds, (d) discharge flow in m 3/s,
(e) flow velocity in m/s, (f) Reynolds number and the regime of flow, and (g) difference of pressure at the
two ends of the pipe.

10. The primary circuit of typical PWRs is divided into 4 independent loops (piping diameter ≈ 700 mm), each
loop comprises a steam generator and one main coolant pump. Inside the reactor pressure vessel (RPV),
the coolant first flows down outside the reactor core (through the downcomer). From the bottom of the
pressure vessel, the flow is reversed up through the core, where the coolant temperature increases as it
passes through the fuel rods and the assemblies formed by them. Assume that: the primary piping flow
 velocity is constant and equal to 22 m/s, the core flow velocity is constant and equal to 8 m/s, the
hydraulic diameter of the fuel channel, DH, is equal to 2.75 cm, and the kinematic viscosity of the water at
290°C is equal to 0.12 x 10-6 m2/s. Determine: (a) the Reynolds number inside the primary piping and its
the flow regime, and (b) the Reynolds number inside the fuel channel and its flow regime.

11. Water at 60°F (ρ = 62.36 lbm/ft3 and μ = 7.873 x 10-4 lbm/ft-s) is flowing steadily in a 3 inches diameter
horizontal pipe with friction factor of 0.0119 at a rate of 0.37 ft 3/s (see Figure). Determine the (a) average
velocity, (b) Reynolds number and the flow regime, (c) pressure
drop, (d) head loss, and (e) pumping power input for flow over a 450 ft long section of the pipe. Take:
g = 32.2 ft/s2 (constant); 1 Watt = 0.737 lbm-ft/s (constant - conversion)

12. Heated air at 1 atm and 35°C is to be transported in a 180 m long circular plastic duct at a rate of 0.43 m 3/s
(see Figure). The average velocity is 7.32 m/s, determine (a) the minimum diameter of the duct. (b) What is
the Reynolds number with a viscous of 1.767 x 10-5 m2/s, and what is the flow regime? (c) If the roughness
is approximately zero for a plastic pipe (see Table A - B), and the friction factor is 0.0119, compute the head
loss in the pipe.

13. Water at 40°F where ρ is 62.42 lbm/ft3 and μ = 1.452 10-3 lbm/ft-s is flowing through a 0.18 in. (= 0.015 ft)
diameter 37 ft long horizontal pipe steadily at an average velocity of 3.784 ft/s (Fig. below). Determine (a)
the Reynolds number and the flow regime, (b) the friction factor, (c) the head loss, (d) the pressure drop,
(e) the volume flow rate, and (f) the pumping power requirement to overcome this pressure drop.

14. A round steel pipe 0.4 m internal diameter x 10.0 m long carries a water flow rate of 0.6522 m 3/s. The
temperature of the water is 10°C (50°F). Determine the following: (a) cross sectional area of pipe, (b) flow
velocity, (c) relative roughness, (d) Reynolds number and the flow regime, and (e) frictional head loss. Take
ε = 0.000046 m for round steel pipe and kinematic viscosity, ѵ = 0.000001307 m2/s, with the friction factor
is 0.014.

15. A rectangular steel duct 0.85 m wide x 0.54 m high x 12 m long carries a water flow rate of 0.632 m 3/s. The
temperature of the water is 10 °C (50 °F). Determine the following: (a) hydraulic diameter, (b) duct cross
sectional area, (c) flow velocity, (d) relative roughness, (e) Reynolds number and the flow regime, and (f)
frictional head loss. Take ε = 0.000046 m for rectangular steel duck and kinematic viscosity,
ѵ = 0.000001307 m2/s, and the friction factor is 0.014.

16. An elliptical duct made from aluminium has internal dimensions of 1.2 m at its widest point and 0.66 m at
its highest point. The duct is 22 m long and carries a water flow rate of 0.521 m 3/s. The temperature of the
water is 10 °C (50 °F). Determine the following: (a) values of a and b, (b) duct cross sectional area, (c) duct
circumference, (d) the hydraulic diameter, (e) the flow velocity, (f) the relative roughness, (g) Reynolds
number and flow regime, and (h) frictional head loss. Use, ε = 0.0000015 m (for aluminum), kinematic
viscosity, ѵ = 0.000001307 m2/s, and the friction factor is 0.0123.

17. An annulus section is formed by placing a stainless steel pipe with an outer diameter of 400 mm inside a
stainless steel pipe with an inner diameter of 670 mm. The annulus section is 14 m long and carries a water
 flow 0.65 m3/s. The water temperature is 20°C (68°F). Use, ε = 0.000045 m (for stainless steel), kinematic
viscosity, ѵ = 0.000001004 m2/s with frictional factor 0.0146. Determine the following: (a) inner cross
sectional area of the larger pipe; (b) outer cross sectional area of the smaller pipe; (c) cross sectional area
of the annulus; (d) inner circumference of the larger pipe; (e) outer circumference of the smaller pipe;
(f) wetted perimeter of the pipe; (g) hydraulic diameter; (h) flow velocity; (i) relative roughness;
(j) Reynolds number and flow regime; and (k) frictional head loss.

18. A 10 cm diameter horizontal water pipe expands gradually to a 13 cm diameter pipe (see Figure). The walls
of the expansion section are angled 30° from the horizontal. The average velocity and pressure of water
before the expansion section are 9.2 m/s and 158 kPa, respectively. Take the following assumption: The
flow is steady and incompressible. The flow at sections 1 and 2 is fully developed and turbulent with
α1 = α2 = 1.06. The density of water to be 1,000 kg/m3. The loss coefficient for gradual expansion of θ = 60°
total included angle is KL = 0.07. Calculate (a) the exit velocity, (b) the head loss, and (c) the exit pressure.